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Geopolymer chemistry and sustainable development

Conference Paper · July 2005

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Joseph Davidovits
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 Geopolymer chem istry and sustain able Dev elopment.
The Poly(s ialate) term inolog y : a v ery useful and simp le model
for th e p rom otion and understanding of green-chemistr y.
La chimie du géopolymmère et le développement durable.
La terminologie Poly(sialate): un modèle très simple et utile à la promotion et la compréhension de la chimie verte.

Joseph Davidovits
Geopolymer Institute, 02100 Saint-Quentin, France

Abstract:
Geopolymer Resins and Geopolymer Cements are new advanced mineral binders. In both cases, resins/binders and cements, the same
green chemistry is used: geopolymerization. In industrialized countries, for geopolymer applications, emphasis was put on fire and heat
resistance, and also in radioactive and toxic-waste management, yielding sophisticated geopolymer resins and binders: K-poly(sialate-
siloxo), K-poly(sialate-disiloxo) systems, as well as K-nano-polysialate matrices. In emerging countries, the driving elements for
sustainable development are Green-House and Global Warming concerns. The geopolymer green-chemistry generates new types of
low-CO2 cements for building and infrastructure applications, based on geological as well as industrial waste-materials (coal fly-ashes,
coal-mining waste, etc.). As a consequence, Geopolymer Concrete possesses physico-chemical properties entirely different from those
of regular Portland-Cement-based concrete.

Les résines et ciments géopolymères sont des nouveaux liants minéraux à haute performance. Dans les deux cas, résines et ciments, on
utilise la même chimie verte: la géopolymérisation. Dans les pays industrialisés elle fut utilisée pour obtenir des résistances au feu et à
la chaleur et aussi pour traiter les déchets toxiques et radioactifs, utilisant des résines et des liants très spéciaux de type: K-
poly(sialate-siloxo), K-poly(sialate-disiloxo), ainsi que des matrices K-nano-polysialate. Dans les pays émergents, le développement
durable résulte des effets du réchauffement climatique, effet de serre. La chimie verte géopolymèrique permet d'obtenir des nouveaux
ciments à basse émission de CO2 réalisés à partir de déchets industriels (cendres volantes, stériles de charbon, etc.) et de matériaux
géologiques. Les bétons géopolymères possèdent des propriétés physico-chimiques totalement différentes de celles du béton normal fait
de ciment Portland.

To define the importance of this chemistry, in 1976 I

Introduction
Thirty three years ago, I showed how naturally occurring
alumino-silicates, such as kaolinite, were transformed at
low-temperature, in an astonishingly short time, into
tridimensional tecto-aluminosilicates. The geosynthesis is
based on the ability of the aluminum ion (6-fold or 4-fold
coordination) to induce crystallographical and chemical
changes in a silica backbone.
The thermosetting method invented in the manufacture of
various items, was very similar to that used for the
polycondensation of organic resins. The process yields
nanocomposites that are actually man-made rocks. This
geosynthesis is also manifest in nature itself in great
abundance. At least 55% of the volume of the Earth's
crust is composed of siloxo-sialates and sialates, with pure
silica or quartz at only 12%.
One basic innovation, the low-temperature transformation
from kaolinite into hydrosodalite, demonstrated the
tremendous latent potential of this new mineral reaction.
This potential was neglected by the mainstream ceramic
and cement industries, by virtue of the infamous NIH
principle (not invented here). It also failed to have any
impact on other branches of industry because it was
classified as an inexpensive clay product and listed under
the heading of cheap construction materials. As such, it
did not have the «cachet» of developments in the
«advanced» or so-called high-tech industries.
established a new terminology that served to properly
classify mineral polymers.
Terminology
In 1979, I went further by creating and applying the term
«geopolymer». I also put it in the public domain for
general usage. In the mean time, it has been adopted as a
generic term for advanced inorganic polymer compounds
by numerous scientific institutions around the world. Since
2002, several national and international scientific and
technological institutions are organizing “geopolymer
sessions” ,“geopolymer seminars”, "geopolymer
conferences".
Yet, especially for cement and concrete applications, we
are witnessing an increase in various names. This
abundance of names and acronyms describing the very
same system is misleading, and creates a lot of confusion
in people's mind.
The ambiguous and preju dicial
terminology based on al kali-activation
Below are some examples of ambiguous terminology:
applications dealing with high-tech:
- ABC, alkali-bounded-ceramic. This is a reminder of the
defunct Chemically Bounded Ceramic, CBC of the 1980's
in USA.
- hydroceramic, also a reminder of 1980' US research on
radioactive waste containment.

9
Applications on geopolymer cement and geopolymer
concrete:
- AAC: alkali-activated-cement
- AAFA, alkali-activated-fly ash, for application
involving fly- ashes.
These can be confused with
- AAR: alkali-aggregate-reaction, a harmful property
well-known in concrete, or
- AAC (Autoclaved Aerated Concrete) a well known
foamed Portland cement like Hebel and Ytong.
In all cases, resins/binders and cements, the same green
chemistry is used: geopolymerization. Yet, especially for
these cement and concrete applications, these various
names involve essentially alkali-activation. Yet, for every
concrete civil-engineer alkali means danger like the
harmful alkali-aggregate-reaction. This creates a lot of
confusion in people's mind, generating false granted ideas,
about the properties of Geopolymer-Concrete, for
example:
a) the pH of the geopolymer cement will induce steel bar
corrosion! As a consequence of the above mentioned
misinterpretation between alkali-activation and
geopolymer cement, concrete engineers believe that the
pH of geopolymer cement is very high, between 12 and
14. This is wrong. The pH is in the range of 11.5 to 12.5,
depending on the formulations. Concrete engineers should
not forget that the pH of regular concrete with Portland
cement ranges between 12-13. It is this high pH which
protects the steel bars against corrosion. As for
geopolymer concrete, if the pH is higher than 12,5, this
means that something is wrong with the
geopolymerization and the formulation must be adapted in
order to get values ranging between 11.5 and 12.5
maximum. Why would this pH be deleterious for
geopolymer concrete, and safe for Portland concrete?
b) Carbonation activities in the vicinity of steel will
deteriorate the reinforcement! The matrices of Portland
cement contains free hydroxyl ions that could be involved
in carbonation of Ca(OH)2 into CaCO3. Carbonation of
Portland cement reacts with these hydroxyl ions and
lowers the pH, opening the route for corrosion. Yet, the
carbonation of geopolymer concrete is different. It does
not significantly affect the pH. In the case of Portland
cement, the carbonation yields calcium carbonate, with a
pH of 7-8. On the opposite, carbonation of geopolymer
concrete yields to potassium carbonate or sodium
carbonate, with a minimum pH of 10-10.5, involving
steady chemical protection against corrosion.
c) The alkali will cause the deleterious Alkali-Aggregate-
Reaction! Portland cement customers commonly require
from the cement manufacturers the supply of low-alkali
cements. Figure 1 displays the results of the tests carried
out in 1990 according to ASTM C227 bar expansion on
Poly(sialate-siloxo) geopolymeric cement and Portland
cement. Geopolymer cements, even with alkali contents
as high as 9.2%, do not generate any dangerous alkali-
aggregate reaction.
10
Figure 1: Alkali-aggregate reaction; ASTM C227 bar expansion for (K-
Ca)-poly(sialate-siloxo) cement and ordinary Portland cement.
d) There is danger for high corrosion with chloride ions!
This is a field where we have little experience. However,
we know that chloride ions have no deleterious activity on
the geopolymer matrix itself. We can use salted sea water
to make a geopolymer concrete. Several studies have
shown that the chloride anions are becoming trapped
within the geopolymeric network and therefore cannot
move and migrate within the matrix.
Like for the well known AAR Alkali-Aggregate-Reaction,
dangerous for Portland cement, but totally harmless for
geopolymer concrete, all pre-granted false ideas must be
settled with an appropriate teaching and terminology.
This is why the geopolymer terminology is important in
showing that the chemistry is different.
The geop olymer t erminolog y
Alumino-silicate binders are called inorganic
geopolymeric compounds, since the geopolymeric cement
obtained is the result of an inorganic polycondensation
reaction, a so-called geopolymerisation. Such reactions
yield three-dimensional tecto-aluminosilicate frameworks
with the general empirical formula
Mn[-(SiO2)z-AlO2]n.wH2O
wherein M is a cation (K, Na, Ca) and n is the degree of
polycondensation and z is 1, 2, 3 or >>3. Such frameworks
are called polysialates, where sialate stands for the silicon-
oxo-aluminate building unit. The sialate network consists
of SiO4 and AlO4 tetrahedras linked by sharing all oxygen
atoms. Positive ions (Na+, K +, Ca2+, etc) must be present to
balance the negative charge of Al in 4-fold coordination.
Chains and rings may be formed and cross-linked together,
always through a sialate Si-O-Al bridge.
For the chemical designation of geopolymers based on
silico-aluminates, poly(sialate) was suggested. Sialate is an
abbreviation for silicon-oxo-aluminate. Polysialates are
chain and ring polymers with Si4+ and Al3+ in IV-fold
coordination with oxygen and range from amorphous to
semi-crystalline. The amorphous to semi-crystalline three
dimensional silico-aluminate structures were christened
«geopolymers» of the types (Figure 2):
 Geopolymer: green chemistry and sustainable development solutions

Figure 3: silica fume nanopheres

The second polymeric phase is entirely amorphous under
the microscope. It corresponds to a poly(silanol) (Figure
4), a poly(siloxo) (Figure 5) or a poly(sialate) (Figure 6),
Figure 2: the geopolymer terminology. in which the chains of linear poly(silanol) are more or less
The new terminology was the key to the successful cross-linked by a a siloxo bridge (-Si-O-Si-O) or a sialate
development of new materials. For the high-tech user, bridge (-Si-O-Al-O-).
geopolymers are polymers and, therefore, by analogy with
the organic polymers derived from oil, they are
transformed, undergo polycondensation, and set rapidly at
low temperature, within few minutes. But they are, in
addition, GEO-polymers, i.e. inorganic, hard, stable at
temperature up to 1250°C and non-inflammable. This
gave a tremendous boost to creativity and innovation.

Common silicate minerals according to the terminology

used above are strictly spoken polycondensated sialates.
In that sense the majority of the Earth’s crust is composed
of siloxo-sialates and sialates. It can easily be checked
that according to this terminology the common feldspar
series albite-anorthite (NaAlSi3O8 – CaAl2Si2O8) can be
described as poly(sialate-disiloxo) for albite to poly(di-
sialate) for anorthite.

Green-chemistry and sustainable

develo pment
In industrialized countries emphasis was put on fire and
heat resistance, and also in radioactive and toxic-waste
management, yielding sophisticated geopolymer resins
and binders based on K-poly(sialate-siloxo) and K- Figure 4: K-nano-poly(silanol) and 29Si NMR.
poly(silate-disiloxo) systems, as well as K-nano-
polysialate matrices. K-nano-poly(siloxo) matrix for bio-materials
K-poly(silanol) (Figure 4) polycondenses above 200°C
Nano-composite geop olymer m atrices: into K-poly(siloxo) –Si-O-Si- cross-link with the
K-nano-poly(siloxo) for bio-mat erial, K- formation of H2O (Figure 5). The matrix expands owing to
nano-poly(sialate) for fir e-heat the release of this polycondensation water. The degree of
resistance expansion is obviously a function of the cross-linking
density in the polymeric phase, i.e. the presence or not of
Nanocomposite geopolymers are materials containing two sialate bridges (-Si-O-Al-O-) linking together the
components, of which at least one is visible under a poly(silanol) chains and the surfaces of the siliceous
microscope, and has a dimension of the order of tens or nanosphères. Preliminary research involving the addition
hundreds of manometers. Nanocomposite geopolymers of Hydroapatite (HP) has shown the potential as bio-
contain two phases with material for bone replacement and implant (se the
a) a primary nodular silica fume phase composed of corresponding paper by Oudadesse & al. in this book).
nanospheres of diameter less than 1 micron, and
preferably less than 500 nm (Figure 3).
b) a polymeric phase, composed essentially of alkaline
poly(silanol), crosslinked with at least one, or several
sialate bridges (-Si-O-Al-O-), or siloxo bridges (-Si-O-Si-
O).

11

Figure 5: K-nano-poly(siloxo), (Si-O-Si-O) cross-link, and 29Si NMR.
K-nano-poly(sialate) matrix and binders
The addition of Al-networking compounds to the
poly(silicate) reaction mixture provides strong cross-
linked heat stable matrices, with no expansion or
shrinkage. The matrix is of the poly(sialate) type (Figure
6).
Figure 6: K-nano-poly(sialate), (Si-O-Al-O-) cross-link, and 29Si NMR.
The K-nano-poly(sialate) resin has a high potential for
fire-heat resistant coatings as well as corrosion resistant
paint for steel. With tailored ceramic fillers one obtains
heat stable materials with remarkable heat resistance.
Low CO 2 cement
In emerging countries, the driving elements for
sustainable development are Green-House and Global
Warming concerns. Since 1993, I have been strongly
involved in the development of low CO2 cements. My
first paper on the subject was titled: Carbon-Dioxide
Greenhouse-Warming: What Future for Portland Cement.
It was presented at the Emerging Technologies
Symposium on Cements and Concretes in the Global
Environment, organized by the Portland Cement
Association, Chicago, Illinois, March 1993. A more
detailed study was presented at the Cement Division
meeting of the 95th Annual Meeting of the American
Ceramic Society held in Cincinnati, OH, April 18, 1993,
with the title: Geopolymer Cements to minimize Carbon-
Dioxide Greenhouse-Warming. It was published in
12
Ceramic Transactions Volume 37, Cement-Based
Materials: Present, Future, and Environmental Aspects.
The calculated CO2 emission for the production of 1 tonne
of geopolymeric cement is 0.184 tonnes including the
calcination of minerals and the grinding and mixing
energies.
The geopolymer green-chemistry generates new types of
cements for building and infrastructure applications, based
on geological as well as industrial waste-materials (coal
fly-ashes, coal-mining waste, etc.). The chemistry
mechanism no longer involves dissolution of all reactive
ingredients, but the creation of a new matrix that inter-
react with the surface of reactive alumino-silicate fillers.
The chemical make-up of these cementitious matrices is
more complicated that the one of pure geopolymer resins.
However, the composition of these geopolymer cement
matrices can be determined. The Electron-micro-beam
analysis provides the chemical composition and the
average value of these measurements gives the following
atomic ratios (between brackets, the lowest and the highest
values):
Si:Al 2.854 (2.047 to 5.57)
K:Al 0.556 (0.306 to 0.756)
Si:K 6.13 (3.096 to 9.681)
Ca:Al 0.286 (0.107 to 0.401)
Si:Ca 15.02 (4.882 to 41.267)
To simplify, the geopolymer matrix is of the Poly(sialate-
disiloxo) type, Si:Al =3, with the approximate formula K,
Ca)(-Si-O-Al-O-Si-O-Si-O). In fact if we look at
geological analogues we could compare it to materials like
plagioclase, Na[AlSi3O8]-Ca[Al2Si2O8], a solid solution of
albite-anortite. In our present potassium based
geopolymer, albite would be replaced by orthoclase
K[AlSi3O8]. The geopolymer matrix would involve an
amorphous, vitreous solid solution of:
- Ca-poly-di-(sialate) (Ca)(Si-O-Al-O-)2 , Si:Al=1 (anortite
CaSi2Al2O8),
- K-poly(sialate-disiloxo), (K)(Si-O-Al-O-Si-O-Si-O),
Si:Al=3 , orthoclase K[AlSi3O8]
and an additional phase
- K-silicate cross-linked with a sialate link, Si:Al>3, (low
MgO amphibole/pyroxene)
It is interesting to compare the energy needs as well as the
greenhouse gas CO2 emissions of traditional Portland
cements vis a vis this new type of geopolymeric cement:
Energy needs, MJ/tonne
Type calcination crushing total
Portland cement 3200 430 3430
geopolymeric 600 390 990
Greenhouse gas Emission, CO 2 in tonne/tonne
Portland cement 1.00
geopolymeric cement 0.15-0.20
Geopolymer compound of the Poly(sialate-disiloxo) type,
or (K, Ca)-PSDS, requires 3.5 times less energy than that
of Portland cement; in addition, it emits 5 to 6 times less of
the greenhouse gas CO2. Moreover, my optimistic view
states that by applying our new fly ash based geopolymer

technologies described below, that reduces the CO2
emissions for cement production by 80-90%, the future
for coal combustion can as well be secured. Electricity
utilities can then produce energy and low-CO2 cement in
the same plant. I foresee that by the year 2015 the
required 3500 million tonnes of world cement could be
produced in this way.
Fly ash based co ncrete: the GEOASH
project
Since November 2004 the author is involved in a EU
sponsored project ‘Understanding and mastering coal
fired ashes geopolymerization process in order to turn
potential into profit’, known under the acronym
‘GEOASH’. Although it is a bit early to come now with a
scientific sound paper on this activity, I have found it
appropriate to outline the preliminary results of this
GEOASH project performed in our laboratory at Cordi-
Géopolymère (www.cordi-geopolymere.com). A 4,028,454
preliminary paper was also presented by the consortium at
WOCA (World of Coal Ash) 2005 [Geopolymerization of
Fly Ashes, Henk Nugteren, Joseph Davidovits, Diano
Antenucci, Constantino Fernández Pereira and Xavier
Querol].
Normally, the curing of fly ash based geopolymeric
matrices, like those described in other papers in this book,
is done at temperatures between 60 and 90°C. In this
project, since the idea is to use the geopolymers as a
cement, the curing is taking place at room temperature
like for regular Portland cement.
Figure 7: room temperature 28 day compressive strength
Fifteen samples of (co-)combustion European fly ashes
have so far been tested on their suitability for
geopolymeric cements. The ashes, 60-80% by weight of
the mix, were mixed with the various required chemical
components used in (K,Ca)-poly(sialate-siloxo) cement
and cured at room temperature. The results of
compressive strength tests after 28 days are shown in
Figure 7. There is a large variation in behavior of the
different fly ashes, ranging from unworkable situations in
which the paste hardens during mixing (flash-set) to
remarkable and excellent strength of 90 and 95 MPa after
28 days.
The GEOASH project is carried out with a financial grant
from the Research Fund for Coal and Steel of the
Geopolymer: green chemistry and sustainable development solutions
European Community. The GEOASH project is known
under the contract number RFC-CR-04005. It involves :
Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands ;
Cordi-Géopolymère Sarl, Saint-Quentin, France ; ISSeP,
Liège, Belgium ; University of Seville, School of Industrial
Engineering, Sevilla, Spain ; CSIC, Institute of Earth
Sciences ‘Jaume Almera’, Barcelona, Spain
The milestones of geopolym er chem istry
are taken from the li st available at:
www.geopolymer.org/davidovits/milestones_geopolymer.html
1972: first patent on polycondensation of kaolinite with
NaOH 
TI : Sintered composite panels
AU : Davidovits J
AF : Coordination et Developpement de l’lnnovation S. A.
SO : FR72138746 721102 ; US Patent 3,950,470; US

KW : building panel manuf; kaolin building panel; sand
building panel; resin building panel
1975: first patent on hydrosodalite Na-PS shaped
articles 
TI : Agglomerating compressible mineral materials in the
form of powder, particles, or fibers
AU : Davidovits J
AF : Coordination et Developpement de l’lnnovation S.
A.; Cordi SA Fr.
SO : Patent DE2621815- 761209;Ger.Offen.; 10pp.;
FR75/17337-75O603 GB Patent 1,481,479
KW : hydrosodalite shaped article
1976: terminology of the sialate chemistry 
TI : SOLID PHASE SYNTHESIS OF MINERAL
BLOCKPOLYMER BY LOW TEMPERATURE
POLYCONDENSATION OF ALUMINO-SILICATE
POLYMERS.
AU : DAVIDOVITS J
AF : CORDI S.A., SAINT-QUENTIN, FR.
SO : IN: LONG-TERM PROP. POLYM. POLYM.
MATER. INT. UNION PURE APPL. CHEM.
MACROMOL. SYMP.; STOCKHOLM; 1976; S.L.; DA.
S.D.; PP. (3P.)
KW : INORGANIC COPOLYMER; BLOCK
COPOLYMER; CROSSLINKING; PREPARATION
1979: first patent on geopolymeric resin 
TI : Inorganic polymer
AU : Davidovits J
AF : Cordi S. A.; Fr.
SO : Patent FR2454227 – 810306; Fr Demande; 11 pp.;
FR79.22041- 790904; US patent 4,349,386; US patent
4,472,199
KW : zeolite hard nonporous
1979: first papers on archaeology applications: 
TI : La fabrication des vases de pierres au V et IV
Millenaires.
AU : Davidovits J.
SO : 2nd International Congress of Egyptology, 1979,
Grenoble; Abstracts
KW : stone vases; prodynastic period; fabrication without
carving.
13
TI : Les offrandes de natron et le symbole de l’incarnation SO : Concrete International: Des. Constr,
divine dans la pierre. (ClDCD2,01624075); 87; Vol.9(12); pp.23-9
AU : Davidovits J.
SO : 2nd international Congress of Egyptology, 1979, 1988 : first hieroglyphic text deciphered on pyramid
Grenoble; Abstracts construction
KW : natron salt; sodium carbonate; petrification; TI : Pyramid Man-Made Stone, Myths or Facts,( III) : The
ceramics; objects in stone; pyramids construction with Famine Stela provides the hieroglyphic names of
agglomerated stone. chemicals and minerals involved in the construction.
AU : Davidovits J
1980: first patent on low cost building material  AF : Barry Univ.; lnst. AppI. Archaeol. Sci.; Miami
TI : Structural components using ferruginous, lateritic and Shores; FL; USA (uS)
ferrallitic soils SO : Fifth Internationl Congress of Egyptology, Cairo
AU : Davidovits J 1998, Abstracts of papers, pp. 57-58
AF : Coordination et Developpement de l’Innovation S.
A.; Fr. (FR) 1990
SO : Patent FR2490626 A1, 820328; Fr. Demaride; 7 pp.; TI : Geopolymeric concretes for environmental protection
FR80l20388, 800923 AU : Davidovits J; Comrie D C; Paterson J H; Ritcey D J
KW : ferruginous soil building material; lateritic soil AF : Barry Univ.; Inst. Appl. Archaeol. Sci.; Miami
building material; ferrallitic soil building material Shores; FL; USA (US)
SO : Concrete International. (CIDCD2,01624075); 90;
1981: first patent on geopolymeric foam  VOL.12 (7); PP.30-40
TI : Expanded minerals based on potassium poly(sialates)
and/or sodium, potassium poly(sialate-siloxo) types 1991
AU : Davidovits J; Legrand J J TI : Geopolymer: ultrahigh-temperature tooling material
AF : Societe Anon. Coordination et Developpement de for the manufacture of advanced composites
l’lnnovation (CORDI); AU : Davidovits J; Davidovics M
SO : Patent FR2512805A1, 830318; Fr. Demande; 11 pp.; AF : Cordi-Geopolym. S. A.; Geopolym. Inst.; Saint
FR81117543, 810917 Quentin; F-02100; Fr. (FR)
KW : potassium alumnosilicate foam polycondensation SO : INT. SAMPE SYMP. (ISSEEG,08910138); 91;
VOL.36 (2); PP.1939-49
1984: first patent on geopolymeric cement 
TI : Early high-strength mineral polymer TI : Geopolymers: inorganic polymeric new materials
AU : Davidovits J; Sawyer J L AU : Davidovits J
AF : Pyrament, Inc.; USA (US) AF : Cordi-Geopolymere S. A.; Geopolym. Inst.; Saint
SO : Patent US 4,509,985 A 850409; U.S.; 7 pp.; Quentin; 02100; Fr. (FR)
European Patent EP 0 153 097 SO : J. THERM. ANAL. (JTHEA9,03684466); 91;
KW : aluminosilicate polymer slag concrete; sialate VOL.37 (8); PP.1633-56SC : S57-000/1992
polymer slag concrete

1987: first patent on fiber/geopolymer composite  1993 : First paper on Global-Warming CO2 mitigation 
TI : Ceramic-ceramic composite materials and their TI : Geopolymer Cements to minimize Carbon-dioxide
manufacture greenhouse-warming
AU : Davidovits N; Davidovics M; Davidovits J AU : Davidovits, J.
SO : Patent WO 88/02741 A1880421; PCT Int. Appi.; 21 AF : Géopolymère, Saint-Quentin, France
pp.; US patent 4,888,311.  SO : CERAMIC TRANSACTIONS, VOL. 37 (1993),
KW : silicon carbide fiber reinforced aluminosilicate; CEMENT-BASED MATERIALS: PRESENT, FURURE,
sodium sulfite silicon carbide aluminosilicate; alkali metal AND ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS, M. MOUKWA &
silicon carbide; aluminosilicate AL. EDS., PP. 165-182; AMERICAN CERAMIC
SOCIETY.
1987: first patent on geopolymeric waste containment 
TI : Method for stabilizing, solidifying and storing waste 1994
material TI : Recent Progresses in Concretes for Nuclear Waste and
AU : Davidovits J. Uranium Waste ContainmentAU : Davidovits, J
SO : Patent WO 89/02766; International Patent AF : Géopolymère, Saint-Quentin, France
Application published April 08, 1989 Priority US SO : CONCRETE INTERNATIONAL, Vol. 16, N°12, PP.
104,190, filed october 02, 1987; US patent 4,859,367. 53-58 (1994)
KW : waste stabilization, solidification, storage with
geopolymer matrix. long term durability. TI : Geopolymers: Man-Made Rock Geosynthesis and the
Resulting Development of Very Early High Strength
1987: first paper on ancient concretes Cement
TI : Ancient and modern concretes: what is the real AU : Davidovits, J
difference? AF : Géopolymère, Saint-Quentin, France
AU : Davidovits J SO : JOURNAL OF MATERIALS EDUCATION, PP. 91-
AF : Barry Univ.; lnst. AppI. Archaeol. Sci.; Miami 137, Vol. 16, N°2&3 (1994)
Shores; FL; USA 

14
 Geopolymer: green chemistry and sustainable development solutions

TI : High Alkali Cements for 21st Century Concretes 2.490.626 – 2.512.805 – 2.512.806 – 2.512.808 –
AU : Davidovits, J. 2.523.118 – 2.528.818 – 2.528.822 – 2.604.994 –
AF : Géopolymère, Saint-Quentin, France 2.621.260 – 2.657.867 – 2.671.344 – 2.659.320 –
SO : CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY, PAST, PRESENT, 2.659.963 – 2.666.253 – 2.666.328 – 2.669.918 –
AND FUTURE, P.K. MEHTA ED., PP. 383-397, 2.709.258 – 2.712.584 – 2.756.840 – 2.758.323 – ; other
AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE, DETROIT, SP- patents pending.
144 (1994).
Granted and i ssued US pat ents
TI : Global Warming Impact on the Cement and
3,950,470 – 4,028,454 – 4,349,386 – 4,472,199 –
Aggregates Industries
4,509,985 – 4,859,367 – 4,888,311 – 5,288,321 –
AU : Davidovits, J.
5,342,595 – 5,352,427 – 5,349,118 – 5,539,140 –
AF : Géopolymère, Saint-Quentin, France
5,798,307 – 5,925,449 ; other patents pending.
SO : WORLD RESOURCE REVIEW, PP.263-276, Vol.
6, N°2 (1994).
PCT patent publicat ions
1994-1997: European reseach project GEOCISTEM; EP 0 026 687 – WO 82/00816 – WO 88/02741 – WO
first MAS-NMR study of ancient Roman cement. 89/02766 – WO 91/13830 – WO 91/13840 – WO
TI: Archaological analologues and long-term stability of 91/11405 – WO 92/04298 – WO 95/13995 – WO
geopolymeric materials. Results from the European 98/31644 – WO 03/040054 – WO 03/087008 – WO
research project GEOCISTEM. 03/099738; other patents pending.
AU: Davidovits Joseph and Davidovits Frédéric.
AF: Institut Géopolymère, Saint-Quentin, CERLA,
Universié de Caen, France General Litt erature
SO: GEOPOLYMER ‘99 Proceedings 2nd Int. Conf. on
Geopolymers, Saint-Quentin, 1999, pp. 283-295. See on the Internet, www.geopolymer.org, the
Geopolymer Institute Library page for the list of other
1997: First paper on CARBON/GEOPOLYMER publications.
composite and F.A.A. testing  GÉOPOLYMÈRE ‘88 , Proceedings 1rst European
TI : Fire-resistant Aluminosilicate Composites Conference on Soft Mineralurgy, 1988, edited by J.
AU : Lyon, R., Foden, A., Balaguru, P.N., Davidovics, M. Davidovits and J. Orlinski, Université de Technologie,
and Davidovits, J., Compiègne, France (1989).
AF : Federal Aviation Administration Technical Center, GÉOPOLYMÈRE ‘99 , Proceedings of the Second
USA, Rutgers The State University New Jersey, USA, Conference on Geopolymer, 1999, edited by J. Davidovits,
Géopolymère, Saint-Quentin, France R. Davidovits and C. James, Geopolymer Institute and
SO : Journal FIRE AND MATERIALS, Vol. 21, PP. 67- I.N.S.S.E.T., Saint-Quentin, France (1999)
73 (1997)

1998-1999: first prototype experimentation on

radioactive waste containment at WISMUT, Germany.
TI: Solidification of various radioactive residues by
Geopolymere with special emphasis on long-term
stability.
AU: Hermann E., Kunze C., Gatzweiler R., Kiessig G.
and Davidovits J.,
AF: BPS Engineering, Zwickau, Germany, WISMUT
GmbH, Chemnitz, Germany, Cordi-Géopolymère SA,
Saint-Quentin, France. 
SO: GEOPOLYMER ‘99 Proceedings 2nd Int. Conf. on
Geopolymers, Saint-Quentin, 1999, pp. 211-228.

2002: the making of 15 metric tones of agglomerated

limestone (pyramid stone), in Saint-Quentin.
TI: La nouvelle théorie, des blocs en aggloméré?
AU: Davidovits J.,
AF: Institut Géopolymère, Saint-Quentin, France.
SO: Revue Historia, Paris, nr. 674, feb. 2003, pp. 70-77.
See also on the Internet the English and French video See
also the book: La nouvelle histoire des pyramides
d’Égypte, édition Jean-Cyrille Godefroy, Paris, ISBN 2-
86553-175-9.

Granted and issu ed French pat ents

2.204.999 – 2.246.382 – 2.324.427 – 2.346.121 –
2.259.056 – 2.366.233 – 2.314.158 – 2.341.522 –
2.358.371 – 2.464.227 – 2.489.290 – 2.489.291 –
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