For a fair comparison the location of them should be tailored to what is optimal for each individual model. ‘The results for wind displacement may not be correct since the wind load is designed according to Eurocode and the Eurocode is not appropriate to use for buildings higher than 200 m and the buildings in these models are 271.5 m high. However, this should not affect how the models relate to each other in terms of wind displacement. ‘As can be seen in the elevation view in Figure A.1 and Figure A.2 in Appendix A, the Core model and the Perimeter frame model bends in different ways. The core model bends like a cantilever beam while the Perimeter frame bends back at the top due to sliding in shear. When the two systems are combined the sideway deformation is S-shaped as a result of both bending of the core and shear of the perimeter frame. 456 Comparison of Tubed Mega Frame systems against conventional structural system for tall buildings 6.1 Introduction ‘The main study will contain an evaluation of nine different types of models of tall buildings made in the finite element software ETABS. Each type will also be built in several different heights. As the pre-study in Chapter 5 implied, the Core, outrigger and perimeter frame model had the lowest deformations due to wind load compared to the other conventional systems, and is therefore the structural system that will be compared against Tubed Mega Frame systems in this study. The buildings will be based on the quadratic 432 Park Avenue building in New York, USA, described in Section 2.3, which has a system consisting of a core, outriggers and a perimeter frame. One of the model types will be a simplified version of the 432 Park Avenue building according to its original structural system, while the other eight model types will be based on Tubed Mega Frame systems. 6.1.1 Deformations and periods ‘The models will be compared against each other to see how well they can resist the lateral loads, in this case wind load and seismic load. A comparison of the deformation in the ultimate limit state at the top story due to design wind load and design seismic action, individually, will be made. The periods of the three first eigenmodes will also be noted, which are movement in the two diagonal directions and torsional movement. All of the nine structural systems will be built with four different heights; 264 m, 396 m, 529 m and 661 m, since they are increased with two outrigger levels or equivalent, i. e. 28 stories. The deformations and periods of the systems that has not reached tension according to Section 6.1.2 below will also be registered. 6.1.2 Forces at the base Tension at the base will be checked for, when the building is subjected to load combinations of dead load and wind load added together, and also dead load and seismic load. For every model, the reaction forces of the columns on the side of the a7perimeter that the wind and seismic loads hit will be added together, i. e. one out, of four sides since the buildings will be quadratic. The models that have not reached tension at the base when the building is 661 m high will be increased with outrigger levels or equivalent - 28 stories or 132 m — iteratively until tension is attained at the base, 6.1.3. Convergence test ‘The Tubed Mega Frame model that performed best considering reaching tension with a top story height as high as possible will be increased in height until the P- delta diverges and the structure collapses. For comparison, the Core, outrigger and perimeter frame model will also be increased in height until divergence is obtained. ‘The models will be increased in height in such a way that the outrigger level or equivalent for the Tubed Mega Frame model always will be located at the top story. Whether a model has converged or not can be checked for in the analysis log in ETABS. Even if the program states convergence it has to be further controlled for numerical calculation failure, for instance if the lateral deformation is larger than the building height. 6.1.4 Model verification To be able to verify the results, model verifications will be made. The values of the Gead loads and overturning moments due to wind and seismic loading according to the results in ETABS of the various models will be compared. If the values are close cnough to cach other, it shows that the loads and structural elements probably are applied equivalent on all models. A hand calculation will be carried out on one of the model types, namely the TMF: Perimeter frame two story cross walls. The weight of the dead loads for all the different heights will be calculated and compared to the dead loads generated in ETABS 6.2 Description of models There will be one model with the original structural system inspired by the 432 Park Avenue and two types of the Tubed Mega Frame system with four subtypes respectively, thus a total of nine types of building models, and cach type will be built with a number of different heights. All of the models will have the same cross- sectional area of concrete for obtaining validity in the comparison, i.e. the amount of concrete from the core in the model with the original system will be added to the load bearing systems in the other models that do not have a core. The space in the center will be left empty for all of the models for obtaining the same dead weight 48of the floors. ‘The reason for the empty space is that the original structural system has a core in the center which leaves an empty space inside it. ‘The story height is 4.72 m in all models. The floors are 250 mm thick and have the concrete strength class C30/37, with the compressive strength 30 MPa and the modulus of elasticity 27 GPa. The models will be run both ineluding and excluding P-delta effects. The buildings will be subjected to di \d load and design seismic load in the ultimate limit state according to the American code ASCE/SEL 7-10 (American Society of Civil Engineers, 2013). A more complete collection of 3D pictures of the models described for all heights can be found in Appendix B. 6.2.1 Core, outrigger and perimeter frame The Core, outrigger and perimeter frame model will be based on the 432 Park Avenue building described in Scction 2.3. The structural system will be composed of a concrete perimeter frame, a concrete central core and concrete outriggers. ‘The core will have the dimensions 9.5 x 9.5 m with a wall thickness of 750 mm and concrete strength class of C100 with a compressive strength of 100 MPa. The modulus of elasticity in C100 will be 50 GPa. ‘The columns in the perimeter frame will be 1120 mm wide and 1630 mm deep and have a concrete strength elass of C100. The corner columns will however differ in ‘the dimensions. It will instead be formed as a square with each side being 1350 mm. wide. ‘The beams in the perimeter frame will be 1120 mm in width and depth and have the same concrete strength as the columns. The beams and columns will be continuous and the columns will be rigidly restrained to the ground. ‘The outrigger walls will go from the core and connect to the perimeter frame. It will be made of the same concrete strength as the core wall. The outriggers will be two story high and placed at every 14* floor. Thus there will be twelve floors between each outrigger level. A plan view and a 3D picture of the Core, outrigger and perimeter frame can be found in Figure 6.1. 49=. = = = 8 a ' f al ' ' t a a f - =_—— 2 2 (a) (b) Figure 6.1: Core, outrigger and perimeter frame system. (a) Plan view. (b) 3D picture. 6.2.2. TMF: Perimeter frame ‘The Tubed Mega Frame with a perimeter frame will be made of a moment frame of concrete. There will be seven columns per each side of the building. The columns in the moment frame will have a width of 1421 mm and 2068 mm in depth. The corner columns will however have the dimensions 1713x1713 mm, The beams will have the dimensions 1120x1120 mm. The beams and columns will be continuous and the columns will be rigidly connected to the ground. ‘The beams and columns will both have the concrete strength class C100 with a compressive strength of 100 MPa, and the modulus of elasticity will be 50 GPa, At certain levels there will be belt or cross walls installed for increased stability of the building. There will be two different distances between the walls for testing how the column length affects the stiffness. The walls will be 750 mm thick and have the concrete strength class of C100 and 50 GPa as the modulus of elasticity. ‘The different wall designs will be described further below. ‘The core will be replaced with VKR 400x400x16 steel columns to support the dead load of the floors. The steel! columns will be pinned. There will however not be steel columns at the same stories as the belt or cross walls and the floor below since their only purpose is to transfer the dead load of the floors down to a steel truss or cross wall level. Otherwise the VKR steel columns would contribute to the lateral stability, which is unwanted in these models. The yield strength of the steel columns is 355 MPa and the modulus of elasticity is 199.9 GPa. 50Plan views of the TMF Perimeter frame systems with belt walls and cross walls can be seen in Figure 6.2. (a) (6) Figure 6.2: (a) Plan view of the TMF: perimeter frame system with belt walls. (b) Plan view of the TMF: perimeter frame system with cross walls. TMF: Perimeter frame two story belt walls In this model, the walls will encircle the building at regularly spaced levels. The walls in this model will be two story high and placed at every 14" floor. There will also be an interior steel truss installed at the same stories as the belt walls are placed, connecting to the belt walls. The steel truss will be made of W14x500 steel columns with pinned end conditions. This is to transfer all the loads to the belt walls at the perimeter without increasing the weight of the building significantly. ‘The steel truss will have a yield strength of 355 MPa and a modulus of elasticity of 199.9 GPa. The steel truss will also be two story high. A 3D picture of the TMF: Perimeter frame two story belt walls can be found in Figure 6. 51Figure 6.3: 8D picture of the TMF: Perimeter frame two story belt walls ‘TMF: Perimeter frame single story belt walls In this model, the walls will again eneirele the building and there will be an interior steel truss connecting to it at the same floor, but in this model the belt. wall and steel truss will only be one story high. Thus the belt wall levels will be installed at every 7 floor. The steel truss, shown in Figure 6.5 will have the same dimensions and material properties as in the TMF: Perimeter frame two story belt walls model. A.D pieture of the TMF: Perimeter frame single story belt walls ean be found in Figure 6.4 52Figure 6.4: 3D picture of the TMF: Perimeter frame single story belt walls Figure 6.5: 3D view of the one story high steel truss. TMP: Perimeter frame two story cross walls In this model, the walls will be installed as interior cross walls, connecting from one side of the building to the opposite side. The crossing walls will be placed at every 14" floor and will be two floors high. A 3D picture of the TMF: Perimeter frame two story cross walls can be found in Figure 6.6. 53F: Perimeter frame two story cross walls Figure 6.6: 3D picture of the T3 TMP: Perimeter frame single story cross walls ‘The walls will here be installed in the same way as in TMF: Perimeter frame two story cross walls, but the walls will here only be one story high. Therefore the walls will instead be placed at every 7* floor. A 3D picture of the TMF: Perimeter frame single story cross walls can be found in Figure 6.7. Figure 6.7: 3D picture of the TMF: Perimeter frame single story cross walls6.2.3. TMF: Mega columns ‘The lateral load bearing system of the mega columns systems consists of eight concrete mega hollow columns standing in the periphery of the building. There are two mega columns per side and each one is placed at the center of one respective half of the side. The mega columns are squared with the outer dimensions 3.73.7 m and the wall thickness 0,93 m and built up of concrete walls. The concrete will have the strength class C100 with a compressive strength of 100 MPa, and the modulus of elasticity will be 50 GPa. ‘There are four different. versions of the TMF Mega columns which are deseribed below. The difference between the models is the arrangement of belt or cross walls, but the mega columns remains the same. These belt or cross walls made of concrete will be located at regularly spaced stories and have the same material properties as the mega columns, and will be 0.75 m thick. As for the TMF Perimeter frame models, there will be two different distances between the walls for testing how the column length affects the stiffness. In the same place as the core was standing there will be VKR 400x400%16 steel columns instead to support the dead load of the floors. The yield strength of the columns is 355 MPa and the modulus of elasticity is 199.9 GPa. These columns will 8 that are connected to the belt walls, or on the cross walls depending on which model it is. The same stories that contain the belt walls or the cross walls and the one story below will not have any VKR steel columns. Plan views of the TMF: Mega columns system with belt walls and cross walls can be seen in Figure 6.8. c (a) (6) Figure 6.8: (a) Plan view of the TMF: mega colurnns system with belt walls. (b) Plan view of the TMF: mega columns system with cross walls 55.TMP: Mega columns two story belt walls ‘The belt walls are connected to the corners of the mega columns and extend around the building. In addition to the belt walls, this system also has steel trusses at the same levels, with the purpose of transferring all of the loads to the outer limits of the building. The steel truss is built up of W14x500 steel columns with pinned end conditions. The steel strength is 355 MPa and the modulus of elasticity is 19.9 GPa. In this model the height of the belt walls are two stories high, or 9.44 m high. The belt walls are placed at every 14* floor. Thus there are twelve stories, 56.6 m, between the belt wall levels, A 3D picture of the TMF: Mega columns two story belt walls can be found in Figure 6.9. Figure 6.9: 3D picture of the TMF: Mega colurnns two story belt walls TMF: Mega columns single story belt walls ‘The height of the belt walls in this model is one story, or 4.72 m. The belt walls are placed at every 7" floor. ‘Thus there are six stories, 28.3 m, between the belt wall levels. A 3D picture of the TMF: Mega columns single story belt walls can be found in Figure 6.10. 56Figure 6.10: 3D picture of the TMF: Mega columns single story belt walls TMP: Mega columns two story cross walls The cross walls connect the mega columns on the opposite sides to each other. ‘There are four cross walls per plan view that extend from one side, along the line where one side of the core would stand in the Core, outrigger and perimeter frame model, and to the other side. In this model the height of the cross walls are two stories, or 9.44 m. The cross walls are placed at every 14" floor. Thus there are twelve stories, 56.6 m, between the cross wall levels. A 3D picture of the TMF: Mega columns two story cross walls can be found in Figure 6.11. 57Figure 6.11: 3D picture of the TMF: Mega columns two story cross walls TMF: Mega columns single story cross walls ‘The height of the cross walls in this model is one story high, or 4.72 m high. The cross wall are placed at every 7" floor. Thus there are six stories, 28.3 m, between the cross wall levels. A 3D picture of the TMF: Mega columns single story cross walls can be found in Figure 6.12. Figure 6.12: 3D picture of the TMF: Mega columns single story cross walls 586.3 Mesh ‘The floors slabs in all of the models are chosen to be automatically meshed with maximum element size of 1 m. The element type will be four-node quadrilateral thin-shell elements. The walls are meshed by using an auto rectangular mesh option with the maximum element size of 1.25 m. The wall mesh also uses thin-shell elements. 6.4 Assumptions and limitations The amount of concrete per cross section area will remain the same along the height, except for the different arrangement of belt walls or cross walls in the models which is described in Section 6.2, even though the dimensions of the columns in the 432 Park Avenue varies with the height. The only loads considered are wind and seismic loads. The floors arc modeled as rigid diaphragms. Cracking of conerete is not consider 6.5 Loads ‘The wind and seismic loads are defined according to the American code ASCE 7- 10 (American Society of Civil Engineers, 2013) and based on input values from a previous study of the Tubed Mega Frame system. 596.5.1 Wind load ‘The input values for wind load are shown in Figure 6.13, FA Wind Load Petters - ASCE 7-10 We Deen and xm With foc com ascerorezn — (Ls] en tay cia psce 70g 2749 8 an 2Fa OSCE THOS 7890 ‘Bpotue and Peer Costcora ind Cotoore © Bcue fon eters Dagtagme ed Spd oh) “a osantainhanra a Seoue Ine a) rete rn Tpogepicd Fader aT ce Wind Pressure Confers Gest Fostor © User Spected (© Program Determined ae ba Wiad Coie. Cow 0 GuehesRto | [ Leon aero os Yin cae Porro ecco —— (tes) (ent) Figure 6.13: Input values for wind load (Zhang, 2014) 606.5.2 Seismic action ‘The input values for seismic loading can be seen in Figure 6.14. Decne Exel Seimei xo Biyor (© Sead Stn USGS Dey ale ee Bi X0r- tommy E1Y0rstmetay (© Sead thom USGS Daan ty Ze Cae Xorcom 1 or sce @ SsmdSi- Lee Dsred creme | ao Cremietcmticie Stele Hear “ie Foto 4225 Cole 60001 © Pomme aee 250 pci Ped Se os aes: RG 1 See octal ee $1 7 © Une Ded = ~ loroPared Toston fom se ‘Slory Range Sie Case iC) “on Say frSeame ate (Sones) Seo Fa 7 lon Str Sion (=) Saeco Fe 7 a ctetses oats ‘Response Modtication, A 4 onan ee se Sytem Overstrongih. Omege 25 cian Be Detect ton, Cs z (Seewnany mpotaoe. 125 OK] (Gos) Figure 6.14: Input values for seismic loading (Zhang, 2014) 6.6 Results 6.6.1 Deformations and periods Including P-delta effects ‘The displacements at the top story are shown in Figure 6.15 and Figure 6.16 for all the different types of models with the heights: 264 m, 396 m, 529 m, 661 m and for the TMF Perimeter frame models also 793 m. ‘The P-delta effects are included. The Cisplacements and periods of the three first eigenmodes for all the different. types of models can be found in tables in Appendix C. As can be seen in Figure 6.15 the TMF: Perimeter frame single story belt walls model had the lowest deformation due to wind load at all heights. At 264 m and 396 m the TMF: Mega columns two story cross walls had the highest top story displacement, while the Core, outrigger and perimeter frame model had the largest deformation from 529 m and 661 m. As the top story height increased, the 61deformation of the Core, outrigger and perimeter frame model increased faster compared to the other models, while the others behaved rather similar to each other. However, for the TMF: Mega columns two story cross walls and the TMF: ‘Mega columns single story cross walls at 661 m, the P-delta does not. converge which implies that the values might be incorrect. ‘The TMF Perimeter frame models deformed relatively equally to each other through all of the different heights. The models with belt walls performed slightly better than the models with eross walls as the buildings beeame higher. The TMF Mega columns with single story belt or cross walls approximately had the same deflections and it was slightly better than the TMF Mega columns with two story belt or eross walls. Deflection at the top story caused by wind load 900 500 x 700 = coo soo 400 200 200 ° 2 4 6 8 10 2 Py “Top story deflection [mi score, outrigger an perimeter frame “a TwF:pemeter frame two sory bet wall Soir permeter rae singe story bek wal STM perimeter rae two ory cos walls Tttspermater frame singlestoy/crosswale -—oTMFsMegeclumne we sory bait wale Tr Megs calurne sngle tory bet walls roar: ntees column te story oss wats ine: Mega columns single sory rac walle Figure 6.15: Deflection at the top story caused by wind load, P-delta effects are included. Note that the values for the TMF Mega columns models with cross walls at 661 m may be incorrect due to P-delta divergence. 62Figure 6.16 shows the deformation at the top story due to seismic loading. The lowest deformation was obtained in the TMF: Mega columns single story belt walls at all heights. The TMF: Mega columns two story cross walls had the highest deformation at 264 m, and at 396 m and higher the Core, outrigger and perimeter frame model had the highest deformation. The models that acted similarly to each other due to wind load still acted about the same. Deflection at the top story caused by seismic loading xo 0 o m0 Eee g 350 00 0 20 ° 5 » 8 Fa Fa Top sory defection in —+00re,osiget ae perieter ame —S—TWE:perineter fame osory bet vals IMF permeer rane sine story Dek wal TF: penineter tame 40 ry ost Wall TIMF-permeser ane sre stow crsswals TM Nesa cunns wostorybettwals =: ween coumas sneteston bet als 1: meen columns wo story ess was TM: vega columns sngtestory coss was Figure 6.16: Deflection at the top story caused by seismic loading. P-delta effects are included. Note that the values for the TMF Mega columns models with cross at 661m walls may be incorrect due to P-delta divergence. ‘The lowest period of the first eigenmodes was obtained in the TMF: Mega columns single story belt walls, while the highest was obtained in the TMF: Mega columns 63two story cross walls at 264 m and 396 m and in the Core, outrigger and perimeter frame model for 529 m and 661 m. The second mode was the same as the first since the buildings had a quadratic footprint. The periods of the first and second modes are shown in Figure 6.17. Mode 1 and Mode 2 » : | | | | | | | | | Core, TMF: TMF: TM: TMF: TMF: TMF: TMF: TME: ‘outrigger perimeter perimeter perimeter perimeter Mega Mega Mega Mega ‘and frametwo frame frametwo frame columns columns columns columns perimeter story belt single storycross single twostory single twostory single frame walls storybelt walls story cross belt walls story belt cross walls story cross walls walls walls walls Period [5 264.32 m = 396.48m =528.64m m660.80m = 792.96m Figure 6.17: Periods of the first and second mode. P-delta effects are included. Note that the values for the TMF Mega columns models with cross walls at 661 m may be incorrect. due to P-delta divergence ‘The third mode, torsional movement, was highest in the TMF: Mega columns two story cross walls at all heights except for 661 m where the TMF: Mega columns two story belt walls had the highest period. The lowest period regarding the third mode was obtained in the Core, outrigger and perimeter frame model at all heights. ‘The periods of the third mode are shown in Figure 6.18. 64