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the formula above to get a new (σp / fpk) ratio and thus a better estimation of the relaxation value.
Note: The final relaxation value obtained form figure 4.8 is multiplied by 3 in both calculations in
accordance with code requirements.
The ratio of initial stress to characteristic tensile stress (σp / fpk) is then applied to the graph in figure 4.8 of the
EUROCODE2 to find the variation in stress in the tendon at each node point.

Figure T.11.1 - Relaxation

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T.12 Strand Extension

As an on-site check that the stressing operation is progressing correctly the strand extension is measured as it is
jacked. The calculated extensions should correlate to the site measurements. This check is used because

• The duct may have been punctured during the slab pour and concrete may have flowed into the duct
effectively bonding the strand to the concrete. When the strand is stressed the force measured at the jack
would then only be the force in the strand on the jack side of the break in the duct.
• The calibration of the jack may have been disrupted and may not be reading the correct force for a given
extension.
• As a check on the assumed friction losses during the design eg. the duct may be corroded
• One or more of the wires in the strand may be broken
• The staff on site may be misreading the force gauge.

Hand calculations for the strand extension are normally based on considering each span separately and taking an
average prestress force in that span, applying Hooke's law then summing the total extension, δ

δ=
where
Pav = the average force at transfer in that span and strand
L = the span length
Ap = area of the strand
Ep = Youngs modulus of the strand
RAPT calculates extensions by doing a segmental calculation, using the force at each nodal point. Thus RAPT calculates
the force at each nodal point and calculates the average extension over half the length to each node point either side
of the point in consideration. The figures provided by RAPT also include any draw-in effects.

As a guide for normal slab work one would expect about 7 mm extension for every 1000 mm of span length.
It is good practice not to provide the prestressing contractor with the expected extensions prior to the stressing
operation.
It has been common practice to accept variations between the on-site and the calculated measurement of ± 8%
between the on-site and calculated extensions. The various codes give the following limits

• AS3600 The previous prestressed concrete code gave a limit of ± 5% variation and that elongation's were to
be read to ± 3 mm. AS3600 states (clause 19.3.4.5) that the prestressing force is to be measured to ± 3%
and that if the disparity between the on-site and calculated extensions exceeds 10% then appropriate action
be taken.
• BS8110 and CP 65 clauses 8.7.3 and 8.7.5.4 state that the elongation should be measured to within 2% or
2mm whichever is lesser and if the measured extensions differ by more than 6% to the calculated extensions,
corrective action should be taken.
• ACI318 clause 18.18.1 state that corrective action should take place if there is greater than 5% difference in
measured to calculated elongation's for pretensioned elements and 7% for post-tensioned elements.
• Eurocode2 clause 6.3.4.5 only states that elongation measurements need to be recorded.

If the extensions printed from the RAPT prestressing report file are not being used then one may follow the simplified
technique described below to obtain strand extension estimates.

1. Calculate the total angular change of the tendon within each span
simple spans 8h/L
end spans 12h/L
internal spans 16h/L
2. Assuming
1. 12.7 mm strand
2. the strands are being jacked to 85% of breaking stress
3. 2% losses within jack

Giving a force behind the jack (slab side) of Pj = 153.3 kN per strand

3. Using the formula below calculate the loss of prestress at one extreme end of the tendon (assuming being
jacked from one end)

Pa =
where
αtot = total angular change over full length

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µ = 0.20 co-efficient of friction
βp = 0.025 duct wobble factor
Lpa = total length of tendon (metres)
4. Calculate the average force along the full length of the tendon.
If the tendon is stressed from one end only then the average force is taken as simply
Pav1 = (153.3 + Pa) / 2
If stressed from both ends then this is averaged again
Pav2 = (Pa + Pav') / 2
5. Taking the average force as applying along the full length of the tendon calculate the expected extension from
Hookes Law.

δtotal =
where
E = 1.95 x 105 N/mm2
A = 100 mm2
L = the full length of the tendon
6. Subtract the draw-in from the locking off operation
6 mm when stressed from one end
12 mm when stressed from both ends

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T.13 Columns
RAPT allows designers to design column to any chosen code.

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T.13.1 Columns - Stocky

A short column is one where the length effect or deflection response is very small and is considered negligible. The
great majority of braced columns and about half of unbraced columns may be considered as being stocky columns.
The maximum length of a short column depends upon its deflected shape and is defined in more detail in Section
T.13.2.
The axial load capacity of a column decreases when a moment is present. A plot of the column axial load capacity, N u,
against the moment that it can simultaneously carry, M u, is called a column interaction diagram (see Fig T.13.1). Any
loading that plots within the area enclosed by the curve and the axis is a permissible loading; any combination that
falls outside this area is a failure combination.
Since all columns are subject to some moment eg. from out of vertical column construction, the code requires that all
columns be designed for a minimum eccentricity about either axis.

• AS3600 0.05 x the column dimension in that direction. clause 10.1.2

• ACI318 (15.2 + 0.03h) mm clause 10.11.5.4
• BS8110 and CP 65:- 0.05 x the column dimension in that direction but < 20 mm clause 3.8.2.4
• EurocodeII (ea) an equivalent geometrical imperfection eccentricity clause 4.3.5.4
• SABS 0100 0.05 x the column dimension in that direction but < 20 mm clause 4.7.2.3
• CP2004:- 0.05 x the column dimension in that direction but < 20 mm clause 6.2.1.2d
• IS 456:- This code bases the minimum value on the unsupported length of the column which is unknown by
RAPT in clause 25.4 with a minimum of 20mm. Instead RAPT uses 0.05 x the column dimension in that
direction but < 20 mm

Each code has different detailing rules for columns. Designers should check their codes for these rules. RAPT provides
helpful information such as the reinforcement ratio so designers can meet their code requirements easily.
AS3600 requires columns to contain longitudinal reinforcement sufficient to make the reinforcement percentage, p =
As / bD, at least equal to 0.01 (due to creep and shrinkage effects on smaller areas) but normally not greater than
0.04 (ie. 0.08 at splice locations which may cause congestion problems). At least 6 bars must be used in a circular
arrangement and 4 bars in a rectangular arrangement. Ties must be at least 6 mm diameter for Y12 longitudinal bars
and 10 mm for Y24 - Y36 and 10 mm for bundled bars. Every corner bar and every alternate bar must be laterally
braced by a tie and no bar shall be more than 150 mm from such a laterally supported bar.
Plotting the Interaction Diagram.
RAPT applies the general rules as stated below for each code, allowing for each codes different factors of safety and
rules on bending and axial compression.

Point 1 Maximum Axial Capacity

Although in design, axial load without moment is not a practical case, N uo is a convenient theoretical limit and one well
documented experimentally.
Nuo = 0.85 f'c (Aconc - ΣAs) + Σfy As
where
Aconc = total concrete area
As = total steel area
fy = steel yield stress
For this loading condition using the rectangular stress block representation, the neutral axis position, kd, is at an
infinite distance from the extreme compressive fibre. If a curvilinear stress-strain function is used for the concrete
then the extreme compressive fibre strain and kd should be manipulated until the maximum axial capacity is found.

We calculate the plastic centroid position, dp, for this neutral axis location. It is defined as the distance from the
extreme compression fibre to the line of action of the resultant of all internal forces in the cross-section.

Point 2 Pure Bending

We consider the column as if it were acting in purely flexural action ie the sum of the internal forces will be in
equilibrium (C=T ,Nu=0). By trial and error or using a closed form solution for simple steel arrangements we find the
kd such that the above statement is true. We may then take internal moments about any fibre and hence calculate
Mu. For consistency we should do so about the plastic centroid as for all other points on the interaction diagram
internal equilibrium is not satisfied and we will have to take moments about the plastic centroid. For all other points
equilibrium is achieved by the applied axial force acting at the plastic centroid balancing the misclose between C-T.
At this point we calculate the "effective depth" of the section, d. The effective depth is defined in all codes as

"d = the line of action of the resultant tensile force of all steel layers which are tensile for the
pure bending condition."

Point 3 "Balanced" Condition

This point is found by setting the strain in the extreme reinforcement layer to 0.002. We calculate the imbalance in C-
T = Nub and the internal bending moment about the plastic centroid, M ub.
Note that for beams we avoid balanced failure defined as the point where the concrete reaches its crushing strength
simultaneously with the steel yielding, as it is in fact on the limit of a brittle failure condition ie sudden collapse.
However for columns, which are primarily axial load carrying members, brittle or compression failure, at ultimate
loading, frequently cannot be avoided.

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Point 4
Not calculated as a special point any more.

Point 5 Point of Decompression

The extreme fibre which will be in tension for the pure bending case is given a strain of zero as it is on the verge of
passing from compression to tension (decompression) thereby defining kd = D. Calculate N u and Mu as above. The
interaction diagram is essentially linear from this point to N uo.

Point 6 Minimum Eccentricity

For any given axial load, Nu, the minimum moment to be taken as acting simultaneously is given by each code. See
7.13.1 for code minimum eccentricities.
Point 7 Pure Axial Tension
The force in the reinforcement at full tension yield.
Intermediate Points
These may be obtained by either selecting kd values intermediate of previously calculated points or by finding the kd
value that will yield an imbalance in C-T equal to a force that one would like to plot.

Design Strength Curve

To account for bad workmanship and in the case of columns, a further factor of safety due to the brittle collapse mode,
a capacity reduction factor, φ, / factor of safety is introduced as detailed below. The strength in bending curve N u vs Mu
is reduced by multiplying by the appropriate capacity reduction factor / factor of safety for that loading condition. For
code values see

• AS3600 clause Table 2.3

• BS8110 and CP65 clause 2.4.4 and 3.8
• ACI318 clause 8.8 and 9.3.2.2
• Eurocode clause 2.3.3
• SABS 0100 clause 3.3.3.2
• CP2004 clauses 2.44 and 6.2
• IS456 clauses 36.4 and 39

Figure T.13.1

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T.13.2 Columns - Slender

RAPT checks slender columns according to each code type as specified. From the codes, RAPT calculates a magnified
moment which is plotted onto the interaction diagram. To calculate this magnifier, users are required to specify extra
column information as set out in the slenderness option

Slenderness limits
A column is deemed to be slender if

CODE BRACED UNBRACED CLAUSE

(i) AS3600 Le/r > 25 or Le/r > 22 10.3.1

Le/r > 60(1+M*1/M* 2)(1.0-N*/0.6N uo)

(ii) Eurocode 2 25 x ( 2 - eo1 / eo2 ) or lo/i > 25 or 4.3.5.3.5

lo/i > 25 or 15/√νu 15/√νu

(iii) BS8110 and le / h or le / b > 15 le / h or le / b > 10 3.8.1.3

CP65

(iv) ACI318 klu/r > 34-12M1b/M2b klu/r > 22 10.11.4.1

&2

(v) SABS0100 lex / h or ley / b > 17-7(M1 / M2) lex / h or ley / b > 10 4.7.1.4

(vi) CP2004 le / h or le / b > 15 le / h or le / b > 10 6.2.1.1

(vii IS456 le / h or le / b > 12 le / h or le / b > 12 25.1.2

)
Moment Magnifier
There are two basic approaches to calculating the moment magnifier. AS3600 and ACI318 calculate it based on the
critical buckling load where as BS8110, SABS 0100 and Eurocode 2 calculate the magnified moment based on the
applied axial force multiplied by the eccentricity induced into the slender column. Each of these methods and code
approaches are shown below.
Buckling Load Method
AS3600 and ACI318 calculate the moment magnifier based on the critical buckling load. The Buckling load is calculated
as

(i) AS3600 clause 10.4.4

(ii) ACI318 clause 10.11.5.1

where EI = M / curvature
The resulting moment magnifier is calculated from

(i) AS3600

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AS3600 clause 10.4.2 for a braced column.

AS3600 clause 10.4.3 for an unbraced

column.

where but shall not be taken as not less than

0.4.
M*1 / M*2 is the ratio of the smaller to the larger of the design bending moments
at the ends of the column. The ratio is taken as negative when the column is bent
in single curvature and positive when the column is bent in double curvature.
If users input a value into the User Defined Nu/Nc option in the slenderness menu,
RAPT will calculate δs based on the input value rather than calculate Pc based on
the sway effective length factor.

(ii) ACI318
Mc = δb M2b + δs M2s Magnified factored Moment Clause 10.11.5.1
M2b = value of larger factored end moment on compression member due to loads
that result in no appreciable sidesway.
M2s = value of larger factored end moment on compression member due to loads
that result in appreciable sidesway.

ACI318 clause 10.11.5.1 for a braced column.

where but not less than 0.4

M1b = value of smaller factored end moment on a compression member due to the
loads that result in no appreciable sidesway, calculated by conventional elastic
frame analysis, positive if member is bent in single curvature, negative if bent in
double curvature.
M2b = value of larger factored end moment on a compression member due to the
loads that result in no appreciable sidesway, calculated by conventional elastic
frame analysis.
where Pc calculated using the braced effective length factor

ACI318 clause 10.11.5.1 for an unbraced

column.
where Pc is calculated based on the sway effective length factor.
If users input a value into the User Defined Nu/Nc option in the slenderness menu,
RAPT will calculate δs based on the input value rather than calculate Pc based on
the sway effective length factor.

After the calculation of the moment magnifier, this is applied to the larger moment and plotted on
the interaction diagram at the applied axial load.
T.13.2 Theory: Columns - Slender 2
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Eccentricity Method
BS8110, SABS 0100, CP65, CP2004 and Eurocode 2 use this approach. In general the magnified moment is Applied
Axial load multiplied by the eccentricity specified by the code.
(i) BS8110 Braced Column
Design Moment = the largest of
M2
Mi + Madd
M1 + Madd
emin x N
where Mi = 0.4M1 + 0.6M2 >= 0.4M 2

Madd = N x au

where clause 3.8.3.1

1/r = curvature of the column = M/EI

BS8110 Unbraced Column

For sway effects users can input an average au for the group of columns in the storey. If no value is
input then RAPT assumes the isolated column is an average column for the building.
For sway cases the design moment is calculated from

M2 + Madd
(ii) SABS 0100 Braced Column
Design Moment = largest of (Slenderness Moment)
M2
Mi + Madd
emin x N
where Mi = 0.4 M1 + 0.6 M2
Madd = N x au

where clause 3.8.3.1

and 1/r = curvature of the column = M/EI
SABS 0100 Unbraced Column
For sway effects users can input an average au for the group of columns in the storey or RAPT will
calculate the sway case based on:
Design Moment = larger of

where M2 = MV + MH
M1 and M2 are the smaller and larger column end moments respectively
MV and MH are the initial column end moment due to vertical load and horizontal
load respectively.
Madd,unbr = Madd based on the unbraced (sway) effective length.
Madd,braced = Madd based on the braced effective length.

(iii) Eurocode 2 Braced Column

Mmag = NSD x etot
etot = ee + ea + e2
where ee is taken as the larger of
ee = 0.6 x eo2 + 0.4 x eo1 or
ee = 0.4 x eo2 Clause 4.3.5.6.2
where eo1 and eo2 denote the first order eccentricities at the two ends and e o2 >=
eo1
ie eo1 = M1 / NSD and eo2 = M2 / NSD

ea = (ν x lo) / 2 eccentricity due to imperfections. Clause 4.3.5.4

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where lo denotes the effective length of the isolated element

ν denotes the inclination from the vertical = in radians. Users are

required to calculate this value and enter it into the slenderness menu as the
Accidental Inclination.

eccentricity due to second order effects. Clause 4.3.5.6.3

1/r = curvature of the column = M/EI

Eurocode 2 Unbraced Column

For sway effects users can input an average au for the group of columns in the storey. If no value is
input then RAPT assumes the isolated column is an average column for the building.
Creep
All slenderness column calculations are required to include effects for creep. See section 7.7.3.4 for theory on creep
calculations. The modified Youngs modulus due to creep is then used in the E values during the curvature calculations.

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T.14 Composite Steel Beams

RAPT designs simply supported, single span composite steel beams to AS2327, Part 1-1980. All clause references
below refer to this code. It is recommended that the designer adopt the plastic design method to achieve the optimum
beam design. However the elastic section properties must still be calculated in order to calculate deflections, vibration
response and stresses under service loads.
The most common profiled sheeting used is BONDEK which has the following profile

hr = height of rib
= 53 mm

w = width between ribs at top of rib

= 200 - 32 = 168 mm

The following theory has been limited to symmetrical universal beams however RAPT can be used to design composite
beams of user-defined cross-section plus a concrete haunch above the top steel flange and below the slab may also be
incorporated. If a haunch is present the program assumes that it extends the full width of the top steel flange and that
it has a slope of 45 degrees up to the slab soffit. Use of haunches is not common practice as, especially when profiled
sheeting is used, it reduces the floor to floor construction cycle. They are used for bridge girders where cross-falls are
required and are obtained by varying the depth of the haunch on each girder across the width of the deck. Previous
design office practice has been to neglect the capacity of the haunch in strength and section property calculations as
its contribution is minor in comparison to the contribution of the other elements.

If user-defined sections are nominated RAPT assumes that the section is fully effective ie the steel flange outstand and
web unsupported depth rules are complied with.

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T.14.1 Effective Flange Width

For flexural action the flange widths for L-beams (ie beams where the slab extends on one side of the beam only) and
for T-beams (where there is slab on either side of the beam) are given in

• AS3600 clause 8.8.2.

• Eurocode 2 clause 5.3.2.1
• ACI318 Clause 8.10
• BS8110, CP65 clause 3.4.1.5
• SABS0100 clause 4.4.1.5
• CP2004 clause 5.2.1.2
• IS456 and IS1343 clause 23.1

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T.14.2 Elastic Section Properties

Assuming that under the action of service loads the steel and concrete remain within their respective linear stress /
strain regions we may calculate the elastic section properties using the transformed section (or linear elastic) method.
We transform the composite section ie after the concrete has bonded to the concrete to an equivalent steel area.
Consider a concrete element A. The force acting on this element must remain equal regardless of what material we
transform it into. Therefore it has a force acting on it of P then the stress will be given by P/A. Converting it to an
equivalent steel area we multiply by the ratio of the Youngs modulus of the steel, E s, divided by the Youngs modulus of
the concrete, Ec. This ratio is termed the modular ratio n.

n = Es / Ec
where
Es = 2E5
Ec = 5056 √f'c

Therefore the area of the element A will be increased to A' = A n.

The strain diagram may be used directly to get the strain in the element, considering it to be composed of steel, acting
as part of a fully homogeneous section composed solely of steel. In a similar manner section properties may be
calculated using the transformed section.
However when we wish to find the true stress in the concrete we must convert back to concrete by dividing by the
modular ratio.
Considering the transformed section we find the centre of area of the concrete and steel elements from the top fibre,
kd, by taking first moments of area about the top fibre of each element and dividing by the total area.
Note that concrete in tension is ignored.

kd =
The code requires that where BONDEK is present and

(i) orientated parallel to the beam axis

consider only the thickness of the slab above the top of the ribs.

(ii) orientated perpendicular to the beam axis

calculate section properties assume a solid slab equal to the total slab depth but modify the
properties as follows

Ice =

Zce = at the top concrete fibre

Zbce = Zbc at the bottom steel fibre
Ztce = Zts at top steel fibre use unmodified composite properties
As no criteria is given in the code for the composite elastic modulus for the compressive fibre of the steel beam one
may assume that the stress at this location it is not a design parameter. If it is checked then the elastic section
modulus used should be based on the as calculated modulus of the composite section for this location, Z tce.

To obtain kd by initially assuming that it lies within the flange depth, case (i) below (normal case). If this proves to be
false then use case (ii) below.

(i) neutral axis within effective slab thickness [see (i) and (ii) above]
defining

r=

kd =

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check that kd is within effective slab depth. If not use equation theory below.

Ic =
(ii) neutral axis below effective slab depth

kd =

Ic =

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T.14.3 Design based on Elastic Methods

It is not common to design beams elastically. Beams designed using a limit state (plastic) approach will generally be
more economical. A check list of the elastic design criteria follow.

1. Under construction loads, ie prior to the composite action taking effect, (beam self-weight + construction
load) the flexural stresses (compressive and tensile) in the steel beam, f1, must be less than or equal to 0.66
times the flange yield stress. This assumes that the critical buckling flange, the top steel flange, is restrained
by the sheeting or formwork during the construction phase. The bending moment is determined taking due
account of the propping making the beam continuous.
σ1 <= 0.66 fy based on Zs
2. If the beam is UNpropped during construction then a limit is placed on the tensile and compressive steel
stresses under maximum working loads of 0.9 times the flange yield stress.
σ1 + σ2 <= 0.9 fy
where
σ2 = stress due to superimposed loads based on Z ce
= superimposed DL + LL
3. Under maximum working loads the tensile and compressive steel stresses are less than 0.66 times the flange
yield stress.
4. That the shear stress in the web is less than or equal to 0.37 times the yield stress of the web. For this
calculation we assume that all of the vertical shear force is taken solely by the web of the steel beam.

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T.14.4 Design based on Plastic (Strength Limit State) Methods

A check list of the design criteria follow.

If BONDEK is used then, irrespective of its orientation with respect to the beam axis, the concrete below the top of the
rib shall be ignored. RAPT includes the concrete haunch if present.

1. Under construction loads, ie. prior to the composite action taking effect, (beam self-weight + construction
load) the stress in the steel beam, f1, must be less than or equal to 0.66 times the flange yield stress. This
assumes that the top steel flange is restrained by the sheeting or formwork during the construction phase.
f1 <= 0.66 fy based on Zs
2. If the beam is UNpropped during construction then a limit is placed on the tensile and compressive steel
stresses under maximum working loads of 0.9 times the flange yield stress.
f1 + f2 <= 0.9 fy
where
f2 = stress due to superimposed loads based on Z ce
= DL + LL
3. Under maximum ultimate loading the design strength in bending, M r' (also known as moment of resistance),
is greater than or equal to the applied ultimate bending moment, M*. The ultimate load factor is taken as
1.67 on live and dead loads.
For this calculation the stress in the concrete may be assumed to be modelled using a simplified compressive
stress distribution with the concrete stress set at 0.85 times the compressive strength of the concrete, f' c, and
a depth equal to the neutral axis depth, kd. Note that this divergs from the simplified rectangular stress block
for normal reinforced concrete design which limits the depth of the stress block to gamma times kd, where
gamma is dependant upon the compressive strength of the concrete and varies between 0.85 and 0.65.
The concrete strength in tension is ignored.
The stress in the steel beam is taken as being at yield.
The capacity reduction factor, phi, is taken as
0.95 when kd lies within the concrete slab (normal case) and
0.90 when it lies below the concrete slab. Again this varies from AS 3600 which takes phi as 0.80 for bending.

The moment of resistance is dependant upon the kd location. The location of kd is found by the following procedure.

1. kd lies within the concrete flange.

This is the initial assumption which must be checked. Assume that internal equilibrium is satisfied (C=T) with
kd within the flange.

kd = Note: consider separate fy values for flanges and web

<= te if not then try 2 below
where
te = the effective depth of concrete .ie. modified for the presence of BONDEK if
required.
φ = 0.95
Mr' = 0.95 As fy[ D/2 + t - kd/2 ]
2. kd within top steel flange
Check whether the compressive force that can be mobilised with kd set at the bottom face of the top steel
flange is sufficient to equilibrate the corresponding tensile force.
C = 0.85 f'c teb + B tf fy
T = fy B tf + [ D - 2 tf ] tw fy
If C >= T then kd will lie within the top steel flange otherwise go to 3 below
φ = 0.90
Find the depth of the compressive region of the top steel flange, x.

x=
Cc = 0.85 f'c te b
Cs = x fyB
Tw = tw fy ( D - 2 tf)
Tfb = B tf fy
Tft = B ( tf - x ) fy
Mr' = 0.90 [ -Cs (DC + x/2 ) - Cc DC/2 + Tft( DC + tf - (tf - x)/2) + Tfb(DC + D - tf/2) + Tw(DC + D - tf/2) ]
3. kd within beam web

x=
φ = 0.90
Cc = 0.85 b f'c te
Cft = B fy tf

T.14.4 Theory: Design based on Plastic (Strength Limit State) Methods 1