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1. I. Linguistics
1. Scope of Linguistic Studies
1. Phonology – studies the combination of sounds into organized units of
speech, the combination of syllables and larger units.
2. Phoneme is a distinctive, contrasted sound unit, e.g. /b/, /æ/, /g/. It is the
smallest unit of sound of any language that causes a difference in meaning.
3. Allophones are variants or other ways of producing a phoneme.
1. Phonetics – studies language at the level of sounds: how sounds are
articulated by the human speech mechanism.
2. Morphology – studies the patterns of forming words by combining
sounds into minimal distinctive units of meanings called morphemes.
3. Morpheme is a short segment of language which (1) is a word or
word part that has meaning, (2) cannot be divided into smaller meaningful parts
without violating its meaning, (3) recurs in different words with a relatively stable
meaning.
4. Allomorphs – are morphs which belong to the same morpheme
e.g., /s/, /z/, and /ez/ of the plural morpheme /s/ or /es/.
5. Free morphemes can stand on their own as independent words,
e.g., beauty in beautifully, like in unlikely. Thus, they can occur in isolation.
6. Bound morphemes cannot stand on their own as independent
words. These morphemes are also called as affixes.
7. Inflectional morphemes never change the form class of the words
or morphemes to which they are attached. They show person, tense, number, case, and
degree.
8. Derivational morphemes are added to root morphemes or stems to
derive new words.
1. Syntax – deals with how words combine to form phrases,
clauses, and sentences, and studies the way phrases, clauses, and sentences are
constructed.
2. Structure of predication –refers to the two components :
subject and predicate
3. Structure of complementation – has two basic elements :
verbal and complement
4. Structure of modification – includes two components : head
word and modifier
5. Structure of coordination – covers two components :
equivalent grammatical units
1. Semantics – attempts to analyze the structure of
meaning in language and deals with the level of meaning in language.
1. Lexical ambiguity – refers to the characteristic
of a word that has more than one meaning.
2. Syntactic ambiguity – refers to the characteristic
of a phrase that has more than one meaning e.g. Filipino teacher.
4. Pragmatics – deals with the contextual aspects of meaning in particular
situations ; studies how language is used in real communication.
1. Speech act theory – advances that every utterance consists of
three separate acts (1) locutionary force – an act of saying something and describes
what a speaker says, (2) illocutionary force – the act of doing something and what the
speaker intends to do by uttering a sentence, and (3) perlocutionary act – an act of
affecting someone; the effect on the hearer of what a speaker says.
2. Categories of illocutionary acts – refers to categories proposed by
John Searle to group together closely related intentions for saying something:
1. Discourse – studies chunks of language which are bigger than a single sentence.
2. Language Views / Theories of Language
1. The Structuralists support the idea that language can be described in terms of
observable and verifiable data as it is being used.
1. Language is a means of communication.
2. Language is primarily vocal
3. Language is a system of systems.
4. Language is arbitrary.
5. The Transformationalists believe that language is a system of knowledge
made manifest in linguistic forms but innate and, in its most abstract form universal.
1. Language is a mental phenomenon. It is not mechanical.
2. Language is innate. Children acquire their first language because
they have a language acquisition device (LAD) in their brain.
3. Language is universal: all normal children learn a mother tongue, all
languages share must share key features like sounds and rules.
4. Language is creative and enables speakers to produce and
understand sentences they have not heard nor used before.
6. The Functionalists advocates that language is a dynamic system through
which members of a community exchange information. It is a vehicle for the
expression of functional meaning such as expressing one’s emotions, persuading
people, asking and giving information, etc.
They emphasize the meaning and functions rather than the grammatical
characteristics of language.
According to Littlewood (1984), the process of habit formation includes the following :
1. Children imitate the sounds and patterns which they hear around them.
2. People recognize the child’s attempts as being similar to the adult models and
reinforce (reward) the sounds by approval or some other desirable reaction.
3. In order to obtain more of these rewards, the child repeats the sounds and patterns so
that these become habits.
4. In this way t he child’s verbal behavior is conditioned (‘shaped’) until the habits
coincide with adult models.
Behavioralists see three crucial elements of learning: (1) a stimulus, which serves to
elicit behavior, (2) a response triggered by the stimulus, and (3) reinforcement which
serves to mark the response as being appropriate and encourages the repetition of the
response.
1. Cognitive learning theory. Noam Chomsky believes that all normal human beings have
an inborn biological internal mechanism that makes language learning possible.
Acquisition – the subconscious process that results from informal, natural communication
between people where language is a means, not a focus nor an end in itself.
Learning – the conscious process of knowing about language and being able to talk about it,
that occurs in a more formal situation where the properties of a language are taught
1. The cognitive learning theory results to the cognitive approach that puts language
analysis before language use and instruction by the teacher, before the students
practice forms.
1. Cognitive – affective has given rise to a holistic approach to language learning or whole
person learning. It also includes the humanistic approach, allowing learners vocabulary
for expressing, sharing and understanding one’s feelings, values, and needs.
1. II. Literature
2. Goals of Teaching Literature
1. Develop and/or extend literary competence. Jonathan Culler defines literary
competence as the ability to internalize the ‘grammar’ of literature which would
permit a reader to convert linguistic sequences into literary structures and meaning.
2. Develop and/or enhance learners’ imagination and creativity.
3. Develop students’ character and emotional maturity.
4. Develop creative thinking.
5. Develop literary appreciation and refine one’s reading taste.
a. A literary work is a reflection of its author’s life and times or the life and times of the
characters in the work.
b. It emphasizes that literature functions to teach morality and to probe philosophical issues.
1. New Criticism – believes that literature is an organic unity. To use this theory, one
proceeds by looking into the following : the persona, the addressee, the situation
(where and when), what the persona says, the central metaphor (tenor and vehicle),
the central irony, the multiple meaning of words.
2. Psychoanalytical Theory – applies Freudian psychoanalytic ideas to literature.
b. It believes that creative writing is like dreaming – it disguises what cannot be confronted
directly – the critic must decode what is disguised.
a. Repeated or dominant images or patterns of human experience are identified in the text.
b. It also uses Northrop Frye’s assertion that literature consists of variations on a great
mythic theme that contains the following : (1) the garden : the creation of life in paradise, (2)
alienation : displacement or banishment from paradise, (3) journey : a time of trial and
tribulation, (4) epiphany : a self-discovery as a result of struggle, (4) rebirth / resurrection : a
return to paradise.
1. Deconstruction – interrogates our common practices in reading and exposes the gaps,
incoherences, the contradictions in a discourse and how the text undermine itself or
how a text contradicts itself. Deconstruction draws much from the works of Jacques
Derrida. The process involves
b. determining which member is favored/privileged and looking for evidence that contradicts
it
It studies the male-dominated canon to understand how men have used culture to further
their domination of women.
a. attempt to resurrect their national culture and to combat the misconceptions about their
culture
c. escape from the implicit body of assumptions to which the language of the colonizing
power, English, was attached.
d. study diasporic texts outside the usual Western genres, especially works by aboriginal
authors, marginalized ethnicities, immigrants, and refugees.
e. analyze nationality, ethnicity, and politics with poststructuralist ideas of identity and
indeterminacy, and hybrid constructions (Homi K. Bhaba)
a. fragmentation g.
intertextuality
b. discontinuity h.
decentering
c. indeterminacy i.
dislocation
d. plurality
j. ludism
e. metafictionality k.
parody
f. heterogeneity l.
pastiche
1. Reading as culture – focuses on the relation between dialect differences and the
written message as well as on one’s cultural heritage. It makes instruction relevant to
the pupil’s cultural background.
2. Reading as a learned process – emphasizes on controlled development of skills in a
structured sequence progressing from simple to complex
(d) discussion
(f) skill instruction in word recognition, comprehension skill with the use of workbooks
(3) based on test results, instruction to adjust to pupils’ interest, abilities, and needs
(6) an adequate and challenging enrichment activities for the bright pupils.
a. Solo interpretation
Reading concert – also known as Readers Theatre- oral reading activity with speakers
presenting literature in a dramatic form
Chamber Theater – theatrical approach to performing narrative literature
Speech Choir – also choral reading, choric interpretation, vocal orchestration –
ensemble reading technique where a group of readers recite as one in coordinated
voices and related interpretation : (1) reading in unison – several voices sound like one
instrument, (2) solo and chorus – soloists recite lines and chorus recites refrains, (3)
responsive reading – lines are recited alternately by solo or chorus
1. V. Structure of English
2. Sentences. Every sentence must have both a subject and a verb.
1. Three kinds of sentences
A simple sentence makes one self-standing assertion, i.e., has one main clause, e.g.,
“Connie loves Rommel.”
A compound sentence makes two or more self-standing assertions, i.e., has two main
clauses, e.g., “Connie loves Rommel and Rommel enjoys it.”
A complex sentence makes one self-standing assertion and one or more dependent
assertions, subordinate clauses, dependent on the main clause, e.g., “Connie who has
been desiring Rommel these twelve years, loves him, and Rommel, what’s more, still
enjoys it.”