GROUP TWO WRITE UP

COURSE TITLE: ELECTRICAL MATERIAL SCIENCE

COURSE CODE: EEC 315

GROUP MEMBER’S NAME:

OMOYAJOWO PETER

ATAYINE MERCY

CHIDOBI EMMANUEL

KUYE OLUWAFEMI

EGBUNE JEREMIAH

OLOWU KAYODE

ODEGA DANIEL

IFEACHO WALE

HUNYINGAN JOHN
 TABLE OF CONTENT

2.1 State an Explain Einstein’s Relation

2.2 Compare Einstein’s relation with Planck’s equation
2.3 Explain photo-electric effect in terms of 2.1 and 2.2
2.4 Deduce threshold voltage and work function from 2.4
2.1 STATE AND EXPLAIN EINSTEIN RELATION
The Einstein relation states that the Energy of a photon, E, known as photoenergy is
proportional to its frequency, v.
In 1909, Einstein proposed an explanation of the photoelectric effect using a concept first put
forward by Max Planck that light-waves consists of tiny bundles or packets of energy known
as photons or quanta. Each photon of light (or electromagnetic wave) has an energy, hf, where
h is Planck’s constant (= 6.63 × 10-10 Js) and f is the frequency of the light.
Einstein’s idea can be expressed in an equation
1
hf = W + 2mv2 2.11

The term hf represent the total energy content of a single photon of incident light. Part of this
energy, W, is used to get the electron free from the atom and away from the metal surface. This
energy W is known as the Work function.

1
The reminder of energy is used to give the liberated electron a kinetic energy, 2mv2 where v is
the velocity of the photoelectron of mass, m, W, is different for different metals. The work
function W is given by
W = hf0 2.12
Where f0 is the threshold frequency.
Equation 1.1 and 1.2 can be combined to obtain
1
hf = hf0 + 2 mv2 2.13

or hf = hf0 + E 2.14
1
Where E = 2 mv2 is the kinetic energy of the photoelectrons.

From (2.4) we have that

E = hf – hf0 2.15
This is Einstein’s photoelectric equation
The energy of the ejected electron may be found by determining that potential difference V,
must be applied to stop the motion, Then
 1
E = 2 mv2 = eV 2.16

The product eV is the electron-Volt.

1eV = 1.6 × 10 -19 Joules
Hence, we can also write equation 2.5 as
E = eV = hf – hf0 2.17
For any surface the incident light must be of short enough wavelength (or high enough
frequency) so that the photon has enough energy (hf) to eject the electron.
Application of photocells are in (i) Photometers, (ii) Burglar alarms, (iii) Automatic doors, (iv)
Television cameras (v) Sound production from film tracks.

2.2 COMPARE EINSTEINS RELATION WITH PLANCKS EQUATION

The comparison of Einstein’s relation with Planck’s equation is known as the Planck-Einstein
Relation (E = hν). This is the equation relating energy to frequency. It was the earliest equation
of quantum mechanics, implying that energy comes in multiples (“quanta”) of a fundamental
constant h. It is written as either
E = hν
or E = ħω
where ħ = h/2π. ν is linear frequency and ω is angular frequency. The fundamental constant h
is called Planck’s constant and is equal to 6.62608 × 10 -34 Js (ħ = 1.05457 × 10 -34 Js, or
1.05457×10 -27 erg s)
This relation was first proposed by Planck in 1900 to explain the properties of black body
radiation. The interpretation was that matter energy levels are quantized. At the time this
appeared compatible with the notion that matter is composed of particles that oscillate. The
discovery that the energy of electrons in atoms is given by discrete levels also fitted well with
the Planck relation.
In 1905 Einstein proposed that the same equation should hold also for photons, in his
explanation of the photoelectric effect. The light incident on a metal plate gives rise to a current
of electrons only when the frequency of the light is greater than a certain value. This value is
associated with the energy required to remove an electron from the metal (the “work function”).
The electron is ejected only when the light energy matches the discrete electron binding energy.
Einstein’s proposal that the light energy is quantized just like the electron energy was more
radical at the time: light quantization was harder for people to accept than quantization of
energy levels of matter particles. (The word “photon” for these quantized packets of light
energy came later, given by G. N. Lewis, of Lewis Hall).
2.3 EXPLAIN PHOTO-ELECTRIC EFFECT IN TERMS OF 2.1 AND 2.2
Let us recall the Photoelectric effect.

• Firstly, above a specific value of the frequency (threshold frequency), the strength of the
photoelectric current depends on the intensity of the light radiation.

• The reverse potential at which the photo-current stops (stopping potential) is independent
of the intensity of light. Therefore, no matter how intense your source of light is, it can’t
defeat the stopping voltage.

• Any values of frequency below the threshold value are unable to produce a photoelectric
current. Therefore, even if you take a metallic strip to the surface of your nearest star (Sun),
you will never get a photocurrent if the frequency of the radiation is smaller than the
threshold frequency.

• The photoelectric effect was almost instantaneous. This meant that as soon as you turn your
source of light on, pop goes the electron!

Einstein and his equation of the Photoelectric Effect

Einstein’s view of light was magnificent as well as revolutionary. He proposed a weird but
effective model of radiation. Light consisted of very small particles. These particles were not
matter but pure energy. He called each of these a quantum of radiation. Therefore, light must be
made up of these quantas or packets of energy or quantum energy. We call them photons and they
carry the momentum and energy from our source of light.

According to the Einstein-Plank relation, we have E = hν 2.31

Where ‘h’ is the Plank’s constant and ‘ν’ is the frequency of the radiation emitted.
Also, from the experiment on Photoelectric effect, we see that there is a threshold frequency below
which the electrons won’t come out of the metallic surface. In equation (2.31) we see that Energy
is a function of frequency. Hence this observation is explained by equation (2.31). This also
explains the instantaneous nature of the photoelectric emission.

Once a photo-electron is outside the metallic surface, what will be its energy? Since there is no
electric field outside the metal surface, the energy of an electron will be purely Kinetic in nature.
The quantum energy absorbed from the photon will be partly used to overcome the attraction of
the metallic surface.

So, we have K.E. of the photo-electrons = (Energy obtained from the Photon) – (The energy used
to escape the metallic surface)

This energy is a constant for a given surface. We denote it by Φ. We call it the work function and
it is constant for a given substance. Thus, we can write:

K.E. = hν – Φ 2.32

This is the Einstein’s Photoelectric equation.

The Planck Hypothesis

In order to explain the frequency distribution of radiation from a hot cavity (blackbody
radiation) Planck proposed the ad hoc assumption that the radiant energy could exist only in
discrete quanta which were proportional to the frequency. This would imply that higher modes
would be less populated and avoid the ultraviolet catastrophe of the Rayleigh-Jeans Law.
The quantum idea was soon seized to explain the photoelectric effect, became part of the Bohr
theory of discrete atomic spectra, and quickly became part of the foundation of modern
quantum theory.
Quantum properties dominate the fields of atomic and molecular physics. Radiation is
quantized such that for a given frequency of radiation, there can be only one value of quantum
energy for the photons of that radiation. The energy levels of atoms and molecules can have
only certain quantized values. Transitions between these quantized states occur by the photon
processes absorption, emission, and stimulated emission. All of these processes require that the
photon energy given by the Planck relationship is equal to the energy separation of the
participating pair of quantum energy states.

2.4 DEDUCE THRESHOLD VOLTAGE AND WORK FUNCTION

FROM 2.4
Threshold voltage is the minimum applied voltage required for photoelectric emission to start,
while Work function is the amount of energy required to emit a photoelectron just out from a
photosensitive surface with the frequency. Its is denoted by W.

The photoelectric effect occurs when light above a certain frequency (the threshold frequency)
is shone on metals like zinc, this causes electrons to escape from the zinc. The escaping
electrons are called photoelectrons.

It was shown in experiments that;

▪ the frequency of the light needed to reach a particular minimum value (depending on the
metal) for photoelectrons to start escaping the metal
▪ the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons depended on the frequency of the light
not the intensity of the light

The above two observation can only be explained if the electromagnetic waves are emitted in
packets of energy (quanta) called photons, the photoelectric effect can only be explained by the
particle behaviour of light.

The photoelectric equation involves;

▪ h = the Plank constant 6.63 x 10-34 J s

▪ f = the frequency of the incident light in hertz (Hz)
▪ &phi = the work function in joules (J)
▪ Ek = the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electrons in joules (J)

The energy of a photon of light = hf and the work function (f)is the minimum energy required
to remove an electron from the surface of the material. So, we can see from the equation above
that if the light does not have a big enough frequency (f) so that the photon has enough energy
to overcome the work function (f) then no photoelectrons will be emitted.
The above equation can be rearranged into the from y = mx + c

So, plotting a graph of frequency (f) on the x-axis and maximum kinetic energy (Ek) on the
y-axis will give a straight-line graph. Where the gradient is the Plank constant (h) and the y
intercept is the work function(f), the intercept on the x-axis is the threshold frequency f0.
More about work function
Imagine a football trapped inside a tub. Let us say that you have to get this football out of the tub
by hitting it with smaller balls. The balls you throw in the tub must have a minimum energy in
order to be able to extract the football from the tub. This energy is the work function of the tub
and the football.
Similarly, an electron needs some minimum energy to be extracted from a metallic surface. In
equation (2.32), if ν = threshold frequency (ν0) then the electrons will have just enough quantum
energy to come out of the metal. The Kinetic Energy of such an electron will be supposedly zero.
Since it only gets energy enough to liberate itself from the metal surface. using these values of ν
and K.E. in equation (2.32), we have:

hν0 – Φ = 0 or hν0 = Φ 2.41

using in (2.31), we have K.E. = hν – hν0

or K.E. = h(ν – ν0)

Also, if V0 is the Stopping Potential, then

K.E. (max) = eV0; using this in equation (2.41), we have:

eV0 = h(ν – ν0) 2.42

The values of ‘h’ are got from the photoelectric experiment by the above equation. The values so
obtained were in agreement with the actual values and thus confirmed Einstein’s explanation of
the Photoelectric effect

Example: If a photocell is illuminated with a radiation of 1240Ao, then stopping potential is found
to be 8 V. Find the work function of the emitter and the threshold wavelength
Solution: We know that ν = c/λ. Thus, Einstein’s equation for Photoelectric effect can be written
as K.E. (max) = hc/λ – Φ

K.E. (max) = eV0 = e (8V); using this in hc/λ – Φ

8e = hc/1240×10-10 – Φ

Substituting h = 6.62×10-34 J.s and c = 3×10-8 m/s, we get

Φ = 3.2×10-19 J or 2 eV (1eV = 1.6×10-19 J)

Also, we have hν0 = Φ or hc/λ0 = Φ and λ0 = 6200 A0