PART - 1

QUESTION 1- WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY BUSINESS RESEARCH? WHAT ARE VARIOUS TYPES OF
RESEARCH?

ANSWER- Business research is a process of acquiring detailed information of all the areas of
business and using such information in maximizing the sale and profit of the business. This study
helps companies determine which product or service is most profitable or in a demand. In other
words it can be defined as the acquisition of information or knowledge for professional or
commercial purpose to determine opportunities and goals for a business.

Business research can be done for anything and everything. In general when public speak about
business research it means asking research questions to know where the money can be spent to
increase sales, profits or market share. Such research is critical to make wise and informed
decisions.

For example: A mobile company wants to lunch a new model in the market. But they are not
aware of a mobile that are in most demand. Hence, the company conducts a business research
using various methods to gather information and the same is then evaluated and conclusions are
drawn, as to what dimensions are most in-demand, This will enable the researcher to make wise
decisions to position his phone at the right price in the market and hence acquire a larger
market share.

TYPES OF BUSINESS RESEARCH

 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

1. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH: - Quantitative research relies on the collection and analysis

of numerical data to describe or explain or predict or control variable and phenomenon
of interest.in other words we can say quantitative research deals with numeric data. It is
systematical investigation by using statistical, mathematical or computation techniques.
Following are the types of quantitative research:-
 SURVEY RESEARCH
 CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
 CASUAL COMPARATIVE RESERCH
 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
 ONLINE RESEARCH
 1. SURVEY RESEARCH

To conduct business research, survey research method is the most commonly used methods to
collect data. In this method various question are being asked to a setoff audiences through
various means like online polls, online surveys, questionnaires, etc. Nowadays, most of the
major corporations use this method to gather data and use it to understand the market and
make appropriate business decisions. Various types of surveys like cross-sectional surveys which
are needed to collect data from a set of audience at a given point of time or longitudinal surveys
which are needed to collect data from a set of audience with in time limit, in order understand
changes in the respondents’ behavior are used to conduct survey research. With the
advancement in technology, now surveys can be sent online through email or social media.

For example: A company wants to know the NPS score for their website i.e. how satisfied are
people who are visiting their website. An increase in traffic to their website or the audience
spending more time on a website can result in higher rankings on search engines which will
enable the company to get more leads as well as increase its visibility. Hence, the company can
ask people who visit their website with a few questions through an online survey to understand
their opinions or gain feedback and hence make appropriate changes to the website to increase
satisfaction.

2. CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH

Correlational research is conducted to understand the relationship between two entities and
what impact each one of them has on the other. Using mathematical analysis methods,
correlational research enables the researcher to correlate two or more variables. Such research
can help understand patterns, relationships, trends, etc. Manipulation of one variable is possible
to get the desired results as well. Generally, a conclusion cannot be drawn only on the basis of
correlational research.

For example: A research can be conducted to understand the relationship between colors and
gender-based audiences. Using such research and identifying the target audience, a company
can choose the production of particular color products to be released in the market. This can
enable the company to understand the supply and demand requirements of its products.
 3. CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE RESEARCH

Causal-Comparative research is a method based on the comparison. It is used to deduce the

cause-effect relationship between variables. Sometimes also known as quasi-experimental
research, it involves establishing an independent variable and analyzing the effects on the
dependent variable. In such research, manipulation is not done; however, changes are observed
on the variables or groups under the influence of the same changes. Drawing conclusions
through such research is a little tricky as independent and dependent variables will always exist
in a group, hence all other parameters have to be taken into consideration before drawing any
inferences from the research.

For example: A research can be conducted to analyze the effect of good educational facilities in
rural areas. Such a study can be done to analyze the changes in the group of people from the
rural areas when they are provided with good educational facilities and before that.

4. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

Experimental research is based on trying to prove a theory. Such research may be useful in
business research as it can let the product company know some behavioral traits of its
consumers, which can lead to more revenue. In this method, an experiment is carried out on a
set of audiences to observe and later analyze their behavior when impacted with certain
parameters.

For example: Experimental research was conducted recently to understand if particular colors
have an effect on its consumers’ hunger. A set of the audience was then exposed to those
particular colors while they were eating and the subjects were observed. It was seen that certain
colors like red or yellow increase hunger. Hence, such research was a boon to the hospitality
industry. You can see many food chains like McDonalds, KFC, etc. using such colors in their
interiors, brands, as well as packaging.

5. ONLINE RESEARCH / LITERATURE RESEARCH

Literature research is one of the oldest methods available. It is very economical and a lot of
information can be gathered using such research. Online research or literature research involves
gathering information from existing documents and studies which can be available at Libraries,
annual reports, etc. Nowadays, with the advancement in technology, such research has become
even more simple and accessible to everyone. An individual can directly research online for any
information that is needed, which will give him in-depth information about the topic or the
organization. Such research is used mostly by marketing and salespeople in the business sector
to understand the market or their customers. Such research is carried out using existing
information that is available from various sources, although care has to be taken to validate the
sources from where the information is going to be collected.

For example: A salesperson has heard a particular firm is looking for some solution which their
company provides. Hence, the salesperson will first search for a decision maker from the
company, investigate what department he is from and understand what the target company is
looking for and what are they into. Using this research he can cater his solution to be spot on
when he pitches it to this client. He can also reach out to the customer directly by finding a
mean to communicate with him by researching online.’

2. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

Qualitative research is a method that has a high importance in business research. Qualitative
research involves obtaining data through open-ended conversational means of communication.
Such research enables the researcher to not only understand what the audience thinks but also
why he thinks it. In such research, in-depth information can be gathered from the subjects
depending on their responses. There are various types of qualitative research methods such as
interviews, focus groups, ethnographic research, content analysis, case study research that are
widely used. Such methods are of very high importance in business research as it enables the
researcher to understand the consumer. What motivates the consumer to buy and what does
not is what will lead to higher sales and that is the prime objective for any business.

Following are the types of qualitative research:-

 INTERVIEWS
 FOCUS GROUPS
 ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH
 CASE STUDY RESEARCH
 WEBSITE VISITOR PROFILING/RESEARCH

1. INTERVIEWS
Interviews are somewhat similar to surveys, like sometimes they may have the same questions
used. The difference is that the respondent can answer these open ended questions at a length
and the direction of the conversation or the questions being asked can be changed depending
on the response of the subject. Such a method usually gives the researcher, detailed information
about the perspective or opinions from its subject. Carrying out interviews with subject matter
experts can also give important information critical to some businesses.

For example: An interview was conducted by a telecom manufacturer, with a group of women to
understand why they have less number of female customers. After interviewing them, the
researcher understood that there were less feminine colors in some of the models; hence
females preferred not purchasing them. Such information can be critical to a business such as a
telecom manufacturer and hence it can be used to increase its market share by targeting women
customers by launching some feminine colors in the market.

2. FOCUS GROUPS

Focus groups are a set of individuals selected specifically to understand their opinions and
behaviors. It is usually a small set of a group that is selected keeping in mind, the parameters for
their target market audience to discuss a particular product or service. Such a method enables a
researcher with a larger sample than the interview or a case study while taking advantage of
conversational communication. Nowadays, focus groups can be sent online surveys as well to
collect data and answer why, what and how questions. Such a method is very crucial to test new
concepts or products before they are launched in the market.

For example: A research is conducted with a focus group to understand what dimension of
screen size is preferred most by the current target market. Such a method can enable a
researcher to dig deeper if the target market focused more on screen size, features or colors of
the phone. Using this data, a company can make wise decisions to its product line and secure a
higher market share.

3. ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH

Ethnographic research is one of the most challenging researches but can give extremely precise
results. Such research is used quite rarely, as it is time-consuming and can be expensive as well.
It involves the researcher to adapt to the natural environment and observe its target audience to
collect data. Such a method is generally used to understand cultures, challenges or other things
that can occur in that particular setting.
For example: The worldly renowned show “Undercover boss” would be an apt example of how
ethnographic research can be used in businesses. In this show, the senior management of a large
organization works in his own company as a regular employee to understand what
improvements can be done, what is the culture in the organization and to identify hard-working
employees and to reward them. It can be seen that the researcher had to spend a good amount
of time in the natural setting of the employees and adapt to their ways and processes. While
observing in this setting, the researcher could find out the information he needed first hand
without loss of any information or any bias and to improve certain things that would impact his
business.

4. CASE STUDY RESEARCH

Case study research is one of the most important in business research. It is also used as
marketing collateral by most businesses to land up more clients. Case study research is
conducted to assess customer satisfaction, document the challenges that were faced and the
solutions that the firm gave them. Using these inferences is made to point out the benefits that
the customer enjoyed for choosing their specific firm. Such research is widely used in other fields
like education, social sciences, and similar. Case studies are provided by businesses to new
clients to showcase their capabilities and hence such research plays a crucial role in the business
sector.

For example: A services company has provided a testing solution to one of its clients. A case
study research is conducted to find out what were the challenges faced during the project, what
was the scope of their work, what objective was to be achieved and what solutions were given
to tackle the challenges. The study can end with the benefits that the company provided
through their solutions, like reduced time to test batches, easy implementation or integration of
the system, or even cost reduction. Such a study showcases the capability of the company and
hence it can be stated as empirical evidence to the new prospect.

5. WEBSITE VISITOR PROFILING/RESEARCH

Website intercept surveys or website visitor profiling/research is something new that has come
up and is quite helpful in the business sector. It is an innovative approach to collect direct
feedback from your website visitors using surveys. In recent times a lot of business generation
happens online and hence it is important to understand the visitors of your website as they are
your potential customers. Collecting feedback is critical to any business as without
understanding a customer, no business can be successful. A company has to keep its customers
satisfied and try to make them loyal customers in order to stay on top.

For example: A prospective customer is looking for a particular product that a company is selling.
Once he is directed to the website, an intercept survey will start noting his intent, and path.
Once the transaction has been made a pop-up or an on-page survey is provided to the customer
to rate the website. Such research enables the researcher to put this data to good use and hence
understand the customers’ intent, his path and improve any parts of the website depending on
the responses, which in turn would lead to satisfied customers and hence, higher revenues and
market share.

QUESTION 2:- WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY RESEARCH PROBLEM?

ANSWER-: A research problem is a specific issue, difficulty, contradiction, or gap in knowledge

that you will aim to address in your research. You might look for practical problems aimed at
contributing to change, or theoretical problems aimed at expanding knowledge.

Bear in mind that some research will do both of these things, but usually the research problem
focus on one or the other.  The type of research problem you choose depends on your
broad topic of interest and the type of research you want to do.

The problem can be generated either by an initiating idea, or by a perceived problem area. For
example, investigation of ‘rhythmic patterns in settlement planning’ is the product of an idea
that there are such things as rhythmic patterns in settlement plans, even if no-one had detected
them before. This kind of idea will then need to be formulated more precisely in order to
develop it into a researchable problem. We are surrounded by problems connected with society,
the built environment, education etc., many of which can readily be perceived. Take for example
social problems such as poverty, crime, unsuitable housing and uncomfortable workplaces,
technical problems such as design deficiencies, organizational problems such as business failures
and bureaucratic bungles, and many subjects where there may be a lack of knowledge which
prevents improvements being made, for example, the influence of parents on a child’s progress
at school, the relationship between designers and clients. Obviously, it is not difficult to find
problem areas. The difficulty lies in choosing an area which contains possible specific research
problems suitable for the subject of a research project or degree.

Practical research problems

If you are doing practical research, you can identify a problem by reading reports, following up
on previous research, and talking to people who work in the relevant field or organization. You
might look for:

 Issues with performance or efficiency in an organization

 Processes that could be improved in an institution
 Areas of concern among practitioners in a field
 Difficulties faced by specific groups of people in society

EXAMPLE

 Voter turnout in region X has been decreasing, in contrast to the rest of the country.
 Department of a Company B has a high staff turnover rate, affecting productivity and
team cohesion.
 Non-profit organization Y faces a funding gap that means some of its programs will have
to be cut.

Theoretical Research Problems

Theoretical research focuses on expanding knowledge and understanding rather than directly
contributing to change. You can identify a research problem by reading recent research, theory
and debates on your topic to find a gap in what is currently known about it. You might look for:

 A phenomenon or context that has not been closely studied

 A contradiction between two or more perspectives
 A situation or relationship that is not well understood
 A troubling question that has yet to be resolved

Theoretical problems often have practical consequences, but they are not focused on solving an
immediate issue in a specific.

QUESTION 3:-.     WHAT IS THE PROCESS OF RESEARCH? EXPLAIN VARIOUS STEPS OF THE

RESEARCH PROCESS.
ANSWER - The research process involves identify the problem, review the literature, clarify the
problem, clearly define terms and concepts, define the population, develop the
instrumentation plan, collect data, and analyze the data you need to support your
research problem, and then developing and expressing your ideas. These are the same
skills you need any time you write a report, proposal, or put together a presentation.

Step 1: Identify the Problem

The first step in the process is to identify a problem or develop a research question. The
research problem may be something the agency identifies as a problem, some
knowledge or information that is needed by the agency, or the desire to identify a
recreation trend nationally. For example, the problem that has been identified is
childhood obesity, which is a local problem and concern within the community. This
serves as the focus of the study.

Step 2: Review the Literature

Now that the problem has been identified, the researcher must learn more about the
topic under investigation. To do this, the researcher must review the literature related to
the research problem. This step provides foundational knowledge about the problem
area. The review of literature also educates the researcher about what studies have been
conducted in the past, how these studies were conducted, and the conclusions in the
problem area. In the obesity study, the review of literature enables the programmer to
discover horrifying statistics related to the long-term effects of childhood obesity in
terms of health issues, death rates, and projected medical costs. In addition, the
programmer finds several articles and information from the Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention that describe the benefits of walking 10,000 steps a day. The information
discovered during this step helps the programmer fully understand the magnitude of the
problem, recognize the future consequences of obesity, and identify a strategy to
combat obesity (i.e., walking).

Step 3: Clarify the Problem

Many times the initial problem identified in the first step of the process is too large or
broad in scope. In step 3 of the process, the researcher clarifies the problem and narrows
the scope of the study. This can only be done after the literature has been reviewed. The
knowledge gained through the review of literature guides the researcher in clarifying and
narrowing the research project. In the example, the programmer has identified childhood
obesity as the problem and the purpose of the study. This topic is very broad and could
be studied based on genetics, family environment, diet, exercise, self-confidence, leisure
activities, or health issues. All of these areas cannot be investigated in a single study;
therefore, the problem and purpose of the study must be more clearly defined. The
programmer has decided that the purpose of the study is to determine if walking 10,000
steps a day for three days a week will improve the individual's health. This purpose is
more narrowly focused and researchable than the original problem

Step 4: Clearly Define Terms and Concepts

Terms and concepts are words or phrases used in the purpose statement of the study or
the description of the study. These items need to be specifically defined as they apply to
the study. Terms or concepts often have different definitions depending on who is
reading the study. To minimize confusion about what the terms and phrases mean the
researcher must specifically define them for the study. In the obesity study, the concept
of “individual's health” can be defined in hundreds of ways, such as physical, mental,
emotional, or spiritual health. For this study, the individual's health is defined as physical
health. The concept of physical health may also be defined and measured in many ways.
In this case, the programmer decides to more narrowly define “individual health” to refer
to the areas of weight, percentage of body fat, and cholesterol. By defining the terms or
concepts more narrowly, the scope of the study is more manageable for the
programmer, making it easier to collect the necessary data for the study. This also makes
the concepts more understandable to the reader.

Step 5: Define the Population

Research projects can focus on a specific group of people, facilities, park development,
employee evaluations, programs, financial status, marketing efforts, or the integration of
technology into the operations. For example, if a researcher wants to examine a specific
group of people in the community, the study could examine a specific age group, males
or females, people living in a specific geographic area, or a specific ethnic group. Literally
thousands of options are available to the researcher to specifically identify the group to
study. The research problem and the purpose of the study assist the researcher in
identifying the group to involve in the study. In research terms, the group to involve in
the study is always called the population. Defining the population assists the researcher
in several ways. First, it narrows the scope of the study from a very large population to
one that is manageable. Second, the population identifies the group that the researcher's
efforts will be focused on within the study. This helps ensure that the researcher stays on
the right path during the study. Finally, by defining the population, the researcher
identifies the group that the results will apply to at the conclusion of the study. In the
example in table 2.4, the programmer has identified the population of the study as
children ages 10 to 12 years. This narrower population makes the study more
manageable in terms of time and resources.
Step 6: Develop the Instrumentation Plan

The plan for the study is referred to as the instrumentation plan. The instrumentation
plan serves as the road map for the entire study, specifying who will participate in the
study; how, when, and where data will be collected; and the content of the program. This
plan is composed of numerous decisions and considerations that are addressed in
chapter 8 of this text. In the obesity study, the researcher has decided to have the
children participate in a walking program for six months. The group of participants is
called the sample, which is a smaller group selected from the population specified for the
study. The study cannot possibly include every 10- to 12-year-old child in the community,
so a smaller group is used to represent the population. The researcher develops the plan
for the walking program, indicating what data will be collected, when and how the data
will be collected, who will collect the data, and how the data will be analyzed. The
instrumentation plan specifies all the steps that must be completed for the study. This
ensures that the programmer has carefully thought through all these decisions and that
she provides a step-by-step plan to be followed in the study.

Step 7: Collect Data

Once the instrumentation plan is completed, the actual study begins with the collection
of data. The collection of data is a critical step in providing the information needed to
answer the research question. Every study includes the collection of some type of data—
whether it is from the literature or from subjects—to answer the research question. Data
can be collected in the form of words on a survey, with a questionnaire, through
observations, or from the literature. In the obesity study, the programmers will be
collecting data on the defined variables: weight, percentage of body fat, cholesterol
levels, and the number of days the person walked a total of 10,000 steps during the class.

The researcher collects these data at the first session and at the last session of the
program. These two sets of data are necessary to determine the effect of the walking
program on weight, body fat, and cholesterol level. Once the data are collected on the
variables, the researcher is ready to move to the final step of the process, which is the
data analysis.

Step 8: Analyze the Data

 All the time, effort, and resources dedicated to steps 1 through 7 of the research process
culminate in this final step. The researcher finally has data to analyze so that the research
question can be answered. In the instrumentation plan, the researcher specified how the
data will be analyzed. The researcher now analyzes the data according to the plan. The
results of this analysis are then reviewed and summarized in a manner directly related to
the research questions. In the obesity study, the researcher compares the measurements
of weight, percentage of body fat, and cholesterol that were taken at the first meeting of
the subjects to the measurements of the same variables at the final program session.
These two sets of data will be analyzed to determine if there was a difference between
the first measurement and the second measurement for each individual in the program.
Then, the data will be analyzed to determine if the differences are statistically significant.
If the differences are statistically significant, the study validates the theory that was the
focus of the study. The results of the study also provide valuable information about one
strategy to combat childhood obesity in the community.

As you have probably concluded, conducting studies using the eight steps of the scientific
research process requires you to dedicate time and effort to the planning process. You
cannot conduct a study using the scientific research process when time is limited or the
study is done at the last minute. Researchers who do this conduct studies that result in
either false conclusions or conclusions that are not of any value to the organization.

QUESTION_4. WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY THE LITERATURE REVIEW? HOW ONE SHOULD DO A
LITERATURE REVIEW?
ANSWER -Literature review provides foundational knowledge about the problem/subject. They
are in great demand in most scientific fields. Their need stems from the ever-increasing
output of scientific publications. The review should enumerate, describe, summarize,
objectively evaluate and clarify this previous research.  It should give a theoretical base
for the research and help you (the author) determine the nature of your research.  The
literature review acknowledges the work of previous researchers, and in so doing,
assures the reader that your work has been well conceived.  It is assumed that by
mentioning a previous work in the field of study, that the author has read, evaluated, and
assimilated that work into the work at hand.

In simple terms a literature review can be just a simple summary of the sources, but it
usually has an organizational pattern and combines both summary and synthesis. A
summary is a recap of the important information of the source, but a synthesis is a re-
organization, or a reshuffling, of that information. It might give a new interpretation of
old material or combine new with old interpretations. Or it might trace the intellectual
progression of the field, including major debates. And depending on the situation, the
literature review may evaluate the sources and advise the reader on the most pertinent
or relevant.

Here are some points one have to keep in mind while writing a literature review

1. Find a focus
A literature review, like a term paper, is usually organized around ideas, not the sources
themselves as an annotated bibliography would be organized. This means that you will
not just simply list your sources and go into detail about each one of them, one at a time.
No. As you read widely but selectively in your topic area, consider instead what themes
or issues connect your sources together. Do they present one or different solutions? Is
there an aspect of the field that is missing? How well do they present the material and do
they portray it according to an appropriate theory? Do they reveal a trend in the field?
A raging debate?
Pick one of these themes to focus the organization of your review.

2. Convey it to your reader

A literature review may not have a traditional thesis statement (one that makes an
argument), but you do need to tell readers what to expect. Try writing a simple
statement that lets the reader know what your main organizing principle is. Here are a
couple of examples:
The current trend in treatment for congestive heart failure combines surgery and
medicine.
More and more cultural studies scholars are accepting popular media as a subject worthy
of academic consideration.

3. Consider organization
Develop an organization for your review:
First, cover the basic categories
Just like most academic papers, literature reviews also must contain at least three
basic elements: an introduction or background information section; the body of
the review containing the discussion of sources; and, finally, a conclusion and/or
recommendations section to end the paper. The following provides a brief
description of the content of each:

 Introduction: Gives a quick idea of the topic of the literature review, such as

the central theme or organizational pattern.
 Body: Contains your discussion of sources and is organized chronologically,
thematically, or methodologically (see below for more information on each).
 Conclusions/Recommendations: Discuss what you have drawn from
reviewing literature so far. Where might the discussion proceed?

Organizing the body

Once you have the basic categories in place, then you must consider how you will
present the sources themselves within the body of your paper. Create an
organizational method to focus this section even further.
To help you come up with an overall organizational framework for your review,
consider the following scenario:
You’ve decided to focus your literature review on materials dealing with sperm
whales. This is because you’ve just finished reading Moby Dick, and you wonder if
that whale’s portrayal is really real. You start with some articles about the
physiology of sperm whales in biology journals written in the 1980’s. But these
articles refer to some British biological studies performed on whales in the early
18th century. So you check those out. Then you look up a book written in 1968
with information on how sperm whales have been portrayed in other forms of
art, such as in Alaskan poetry, in French painting, or on whale bone, as the whale
hunters in the late 19th century used to do. This makes you wonder about
American whaling methods during the time portrayed in Moby Dick, so you find
some academic articles published in the last five years on how accurately Herman
Melville portrayed the whaling scene in his novel.
Now consider some typical ways of organizing the sources into a review:
 Chronological: If your review follows the chronological method, you could
write about the materials above according to when they were published. For
instance, first you would talk about the British biological studies of the 18th
century, then about Moby Dick, published in 1851, then the book on sperm
whales in other art (1968), and finally the biology articles (1980s) and the
recent articles on American whaling of the 19th century. But there is relatively
no continuity among subjects here. And notice that even though the sources
on sperm whales in other art and on American whaling are written recently,
they are about other subjects/objects that were created much earlier. Thus,
the review loses its chronological focus.

 By publication: Order your sources by publication chronology, then, only if

the order demonstrates a more important trend. For instance, you could
order a review of literature on biological studies of sperm whales if the
progression revealed a change in dissection practices of the researchers who
wrote and/or conducted the studies.

 By trend: A better way to organize the above sources chronologically is to

examine the sources under another trend, such as the history of whaling.
Then your review would have subsections according to eras within this period.
For instance, the review might examine whaling from pre-1600-1699, 1700-
1799, and 1800-1899. Under this method, you would combine the recent
studies on American whaling in the 19th century with Moby Dick itself in the
1800-1899 categories, even though the authors wrote a century apart.

 Thematic: Thematic reviews of literature are organized around a topic or

issue, rather than the progression of time. However, progression of time may
still be an important factor in a thematic review. For instance, the sperm
whale review could focus on the development of the harpoon for whale
hunting. While the study focuses on one topic, harpoon technology, it will still
be organized chronologically. The only difference here between a
“chronological” and a “thematic” approach is what is emphasized the most:
the development of the harpoon or the harpoon technology. But more
authentic thematic reviews tend to break away from chronological order. For
instance, a thematic review of material on sperm whales might examine how
they are portrayed as “evil” in cultural documents. The subsections might
include how they are personified, how their proportions are exaggerated, and
their behaviors misunderstood. A review organized in this manner would shift
between time periods within each section according to the point made.

 Methodological: A methodological approach differs from the two above in

that the focusing factor usually does not have to do with the content of the
material. Instead, it focuses on the “methods” of the researcher or writer. For
the sperm whale project, one methodological approach would be to look at
 cultural differences between the portrayal of whales in American, British, and
French art work. Or the review might focus on the economic impact of
whaling on a community. A methodological scope will influence either the
types of documents in the review or the way in which these documents are
discussed.
Once you’ve decided on the organizational method for the body of the
review, the sections you need to include in the paper should be easy to figure
out. They should arise out of your organizational strategy. In other words, a
chronological review would have subsections for each vital time period. A
thematic review would have subtopics based upon factors that relate to the
theme or issue.

Sometimes, though, you might need to add additional sections that are
necessary for your study, but do not fit in the organizational strategy of the
body. What other sections you include in the body is up to you. Put in only
what is necessary. Here are a few other sections you might want to consider:

 Current Situation: Information necessary to understand the topic or focus

of the literature review.
 History: The chronological progression of the field, the literature, or an
idea that is necessary to understand the literature review, if the body of
the literature review is not already a chronology.
 Methods and/or Standards: The criteria you used to select the sources in
your literature review or the way in which you present your information.
For instance, you might explain that your review includes only peer-
reviewed articles and journals.

4. Begin composing
Once you’ve settled on a general pattern of organization, you’re ready to write each
section. There are a few guidelines you should follow during the writing stage as well.
Here is a sample paragraph from a literature review about sexism and language to
illuminate the following discussion:

Use evidence
In the example above, the writers refer to several other sources when making their
point. A literature review in this sense is just like any other academic research paper.
Your interpretation of the available sources must be backed up with evidence to
show that what you are saying is valid.
 Be selective
Select only the most important points in each source to highlight in the review. The
type of information you choose to mention should relate directly to the review’s
focus, whether it is thematic, methodological, or chronological.

Summarize and synthesize

Remember to summarize and synthesize your sources within each paragraph as well
as throughout the review. The authors here recapitulate important features of
Hamilton’s study, but then synthesize it by rephrasing the study’s significance and
relating it to their own work.

Keep your own voice

While the literature review presents others’ ideas, your voice should remain front
and center. The sources should support what you are saying.

QUESTION_5.     WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY RESEARCH DESIGN? WHAT ARE THE VARIOUS TYPES
OF RESEARCH DESIGN?

A research design is prepared for collecting and analyzing new data for interpreting the already
available facts in a new way. Preparation for a research design involves making proper
arrangements for systematic research work. The researcher plans the various operations,
keeping the theoretical framework and the availability of the required resources in mind. The
research design is the outline of a plan for collecting and analyzing data. For this purpose
hypothesis are set out, Concepts are refined, operational definitions are formulated, scales are
chosen, reliability and validity are taken into account, once decides which tools are to be used
and which statistical tests are to be applied. Preparing a research design involves deciding the
appropriate means for achieving the targets laid down ahead of time, with minimum
expenditure of time, money and man power. There is no agreement upon the structure of how
to design a qualitative study. A qualitative study generally falls within the process of scientific
research, with common phases whether on is writing qualitatively or quantitatively. A research
seems to start with an issue of problem, examines the literature in some way related to the
problem, pose questions, gather data and then analyze them, and write up their reports.
Qualitative research fits within this structure. The process of designing a qualitative study begins
not with the method-which is actually the easiest part of research, I believe but instead with a
broad assumption central to qualitative inquiry, a world view consistent with it, and in many
cases, a theoretical lens that shapes the study.
Types of research design

1. Exploratory or Formulate design (study)

This type of research designs look for patterns, ideas, or hypotheses, rather than
research that tries to test or confirm hypotheses. In any explorative studies the purpose
is to formulate a problem for further study that is to formulate a hypothesis. An
exploratory study has other functions also. It increases the researcher's familiarity with a
phenomenon that s/he wants to study, or with the situation in which the study is to be
done. It also set up priorities for further research, explains more clearly the concepts,
and gathers information about the practical possibility of carrying out further research or
provides some idea of the problems that are considered most urgent by the people in
that field. The exploratory study may also be considered as the first step in a continuous
research process. It helps the researcher to design a structured investigation. The
purpose of explorative studies is to achieve new insights into a phenomenon. The reason
for aiming new insights or ideas is to formulate a more precise problem or to develop
hypotheses for further research.

2. Descriptive design (study)

Descriptive research deals with the relationship between variables, the testing of
hypotheses, and the development of generalizations, principles, or theories that have
universal validity. The descriptive questions need for a frame of reference is fairly
obvious. In contrast to the experimental design, the researcher does not manipulate the
variables or arrange for events to happen. The process of research goes beyond mere
collection and tabulation of data. It is essentially a fact-finding approach, which is related
mainly to the present and draws generalizations from a cross sectional study of the
current situation. Description is combined with comparison or contrast, which involves
measurement, classification, interpretation and evaluation to show the significance of
what is described. Unlike formulate studies; the descriptive studies presuppose much
prior knowledge of the problem to be studied. The descriptive studies deal with the
relationship between non-manipulated variables in a natural rather artificial setting.
Since the events or conditions have already occurred or exist, the researcher selects the
relevant variables for analysis of their relationships. They involve hypothesis formulation
and testing and they use logical methods of inductive- deductive reasoning to arrive at
generalizations. They often employ methods of randomization.
3. Ex- Post Facto Research Design

The ex post facto theory developed after data have been analyzed to explain the
patterns in the data. Ex-post facto theories are usually consistent with the data but often
are simply plausible rather than compelling since more than one ex post facto
explanation is often consistent with data. Any investigation using existing data rather
than new data gathered specifically for the study is known as ex-post facto research
design. Causes will be studied after (post) they have had their effect. Therefore, any non-
experimental research design that takes place after the conditions to be studied have
occurred or such research in which there is a post-test but not pretest is considered as an
'ex- post facto research design'.

4. Experimental Design

Experimental designs are often touted as the most "rigorous" of all research designs or,
as the "gold standard" against which all other designs are judged. Experimental design is
the blueprint of the procedures that enable the researcher to test hypotheses by
reaching valid conclusions about relationships between independent and dependent
variables. The experimental design occurs when the investigator manipulates the
subjects and conditions (events or situations) to be studied. The key to experimental
design is that the investigator assigns subjects to conditions rather than observing in
natural occurring. Experimental studies are more powerful than non-experimental
studies if one has to study and discover causal relationship among the variables. Through
control and randomization the potential confounding effects can be removed.
Experimenters manipulate certain environmental condition, stimuli, and treatment, and
observe how the condition or the behavior of the subject is affected or changed.
Selection of the design is based on the purposes of the experiment, the type of variables
to be manipulated, and the conditions or the limiting factors under which it is conducted.
The design deals with practical problems such as how subjects are to be selected for
experimental and control groups, the way the variables are to be manipulated and
controlled, the way the extraneous variables are to be controlled, how observations are
to be made, and the type of statistical analysis to be employed in interpreting data
relationships. The adequacy of experimental designs is judged by the degree to which
they eliminate or minimize threats to experimental validity. So also experimental studies
become conclusive only when there is direct manipulation and also when the principles
of control, randomization and comparison are used. There are various types of
experimental designs such as pre-test- post-test control group design, post-test control
group design, single factor multiple group design and so on. A discussion on these is
beyond the scope of this paper.
5. Quasi-Experimental Designs

Most experiments in pastoral care and counseling are really what are called quasi
experimental designs. The quasi quality comes from the inability of the researcher to
control fully the scheduling of treatment or exactly who gets treated. The researcher
attempts to control other possible influences on the experiment as well as possible and
to interpret results in the same manner a true experiment is interpreted. Any
experimental situations in which experimenter does not have full control over the
assignment of experimental units randomly to the treatment conditions or the treatment
cannot be manipulated are called 'quasi-experimental designs. A quasi-experimental
design is one that looks a bit like an experimental design but lacks the key ingredient -
random assignment.

6. Factorial Design

Most experimental designs encountered in practice have several independent variables

and are meant to determine their combined effects on the dependent variable in
question. For this, the independent variables are placed into factorial for structure for
ease of analysis. These structures can be simple or complex, depending upon the nature
and number of variables chosen. Research designs with two or more independent
variables or factors, each studied at two or more levels. The goal of factorial design is to
determine whether the factors combine to produce interaction effects. In factorial
designs the influence of more than one independent variable upon more than one
dependent variable can be observed. In factorial designs, a factor is a major independent
variable. Factorial design has several important features. First, it has great flexibility for
exploring or enhancing the “signal” (treatment) in our studies. Whenever we are
interested in examining treatment variations, factorial designs should be strong
candidates as the designs of choice. Second, factorial designs are efficient. Instead of
conducting a series of independent studies we are effectively able to combine these
studies into one. Finally, factorial designs are the only effective way to examine
interaction effects.

7. The survey Method design

In the social research survey involves collecting information from a large number of
people. The data may be elicited face to face interviewing or at a distance by postal
questionnaires. There are various types of interview such as structured interview and
ethnographic style interviewing (highly unstructured). The questions may be made of
open-ended or closed ended questions.

8. Cross- Sectional or correlation design

The most common design used in survey research is the cross-sectional design. Using
this approach we collect measures from at least two groups of people at once point of
 time and compare the extent to which the two groups differ on the dependent variable
(e.g. Level of smoking).

QUESTION6.     WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY NOMINAL, ORDINAL, INTERVAL AND RATIO SCALE?

WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF SCALING METHODS?

ANSWER- What is the Scale?

A scale is a device or an object used to measure or quantifies any event or another object. In
other words Scaling is the procedure of measuring and assigning the objects to the numbers
according to the specified rules. In other words, the process of locating the measured objects on
the continuum, a continuous sequence of numbers to which the objects are assigned. Scaling is
considered as the extension of measurement, and the measurement is the process of assigning
numbers or symbol to the characteristics of the object as per the specified rules. The researcher
assigns numbers, not to object but to its characteristics such as perceptions, attitudes,
preferences and other relevant traits. In research, usually the numbers are assigned to the
qualitative traits of the object because the quantitative data helps in statistical analysis of the
resulting data and further facilitates the communication of measurement rules and results.

Levels of Measurements
There are four different scales of measurement. The data can be defined as being one of the
four scales. The four types of scales are:

 Nominal Scale
 Ordinal Scale
 Interval Scale
 Ratio Scale
Nominal Scale

A nominal scale is the 1st level of measurement scale in which the numbers serve as “tags” or
“labels” to classify or identify the objects. A nominal scale usually deals with the non-numeric
variables or the numbers that do not have any value. Or we can say A Nominal Scale is a
measurement scale, in which numbers serve as “tags” or “labels” only, to identify or classify an
object. A nominal scale measurement normally deals only with non-
numeric (quantitative) variables or where numbers have no value.

Nominal scale possesses only the description characteristic which means it possesses unique
labels to identify or delegate values to the items. When nominal scale is used for the purpose of
identification, there is a strict one-to-one correlation between an object and the numeric value
assigned to it. For example, numbers are written on cars in a racing track. The numbers are there
merely to identify the driver associated with the car; it has nothing to do with characteristics of
the car.

But when nominal scale is used for the purpose of classification, then the numbers assigned to
the object serve as tags to categorize or arrange objects in class. For example, in the case of a
gender scale, an individual can be categorized either as male or female. In this case, all objects in
the category will have the same number, for example, all males can be no. 1 and all females can
be no. 2. Please note, that nominal is purely used for counting purposes.  

Characteristics of Nominal Scale:

 A nominal scale variable is classified into two or more categories. In this measurement
mechanism, the answer should fall into either of the classes.
 It is qualitative. The numbers are used here to identify the objects.
 The numbers don’t define the object characteristics. The only permissible aspect of
numbers in the nominal scale is “counting.”
Example:
An example of a nominal scale measurement is given below:
What is your gender?
M- Male
F- Female
Here, the variables are used as tags, and the answer to this question should be either M or F.

Ordinal Scale

Ordinal Scale- Ordinal scale is the 2nd level of measurement that reports the ranking and
ordering of the data without actually establishing the degree of variation between them. Ordinal
level of measurement is the second of the four measurement scales.

“Ordinal” indicates “order”. Ordinal data is quantitative data which have naturally occurring
orders and the difference between is unknown. It can be named, grouped and also ranked.

Survey respondents will choose between these options of satisfaction but the answer to “how
much?” will remain unanswered. The understanding of various scales helps statisticians and
researchers so that the use of data analysis techniques can be applied accordingly.
Thus, an ordinal scale is used as a comparison parameter to understand whether the variables
are greater or lesser than one another using sorting. The central tendency of the ordinal scale is
Median.

Likert Scale is an example of why the interval difference between ordinal variables cannot be
concluded. In this scale the answer options usually polar such as, “Totally satisfied” to “Totally
dissatisfied”.

Characteristics of the Ordinal Scale:

 The ordinal scale shows the relative ranking of the variables

 It identifies and describes the magnitude of a variable
 Along with the information provided by the nominal scale, ordinal scales give the
rankings of those variables
 The interval properties are not known
 The surveyors can quickly analyze the degree of agreement concerning the identified
order of variables

Example:

 Ranking of school students – 1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.

 Ratings in restaurants
 Evaluating the frequency of occurrences

 Very often
 Often
 Not often
 Not at all
 Assessing the degree of agreement
 Totally agree
 Agree
 Neutral
 Disagree
 Totally disagree
Interval Scale

The interval scale is defined as a quantitative measurement scale where the difference between
2 variables is meaningful. Interval scale is the 3rd level of measurement. In other words, the
variables are measured in actuals and not as a relative manner, where the presence of zero is
arbitrary. This means that the difference between two variables on a scale is an actual and equal
distance. For example, difference between 68 degrees F and 58 degrees F is the exact same as
101 degrees F and 91 degrees F. In this example, you cannot say that 98 degrees F is double the
temperature in terms of “heat” or “cold” of 49 degrees F. This is because there is no absolute
zero on the Fahrenheit scale – that is at zero temperature doesn’t exist.

It is easy to remember the objective of this scale as “interval” equates to the interval or distance
between 2 variables. Another easy way to remember interval scale is that subtraction is defined
between the two variables. This is unlike the ratio scale where division is defined between two
variables.

Interval data can be discrete – with whole numbers like 8 degrees, 4 years, 2 months etc. or
continuous – with fractional numbers like 12.2 degrees, 3.5 weeks or 4.2 miles.

The interval scale gives the ability to quantify and differentiate between options. This is better
than the nominal scale and the ordinal scale as they do not account for quantitative insights. The
interval scale consists of variables that exist along a common scale at equal intervals. The
scientific measures used to calculate the distance between the variables is highly reliable.

Characteristics of Interval Scale:

 The interval scale is quantitative as it can quantify the difference between the values
 It allows calculating the mean and median of the variables
 To understand the difference between the variables, you can subtract the values
between the variables
 The interval scale is the preferred scale in Statistics as it helps to assign any numerical
values to arbitrary assessment such as feelings, calendar types, etc.
Example:

 Likert Scale
 Net Promoter Score(NPS)
 Bipolar Matrix Table
Ratio Scale

Ratio scale is a type of variable measurement scale which is quantitative in nature. Ratio scale
allows any researcher to compare the intervals or differences. Ratio scale is the 4th level of
measurement and possesses a zero point or character of origin. This is a unique feature of ratio
scale. For example, the temperature outside is 0-degree Celsius. 0 degree doesn’t mean it’s not
hot or cold, it is a value.

Ratio scale has most of the characteristics of the other three variable measurement scale i.e.
nominal, ordinal and interval. Nominal variables are used to “name,” or label a series of values.
Ordinal scales provide a sufficiently good amount of information about the order of choices,
such as one would be able to understand from using a customer satisfaction survey. Interval
scales give us the order of values and also about the ability to quantify the difference between
each one. Ratio scale helps to understand the ultimate-order, interval, values, and the true zero
characteristic is an essential factor in calculating ratios

Characteristics of Ratio Scale:

 Ratio scale has a feature of absolute zero

 It doesn’t have negative numbers, because of its zero-point feature
 It affords unique opportunities for statistical analysis. The variables can be orderly added,
subtracted, multiplied, and divided. Mean, median, and mode can be calculated using the
ratio scale.
 Ratio scale has unique and useful properties. One such feature is that it allows unit
conversions like kilogram – calories, gram – calories, etc.
Example:
An example of a ratio scale is:
What is your weight in Kgs?

 Less than 55 kgs

 55 – 75 kgs
 76 – 85 kgs
 86 – 95 kgs
 More than 95 kgs
 QUESTION_7. WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY SAMPLING? WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT METHODS OF
SAMPLING?

ANSWER Sampling is a process used in statistical analysis in which a predetermined number of

observations are taken from a larger population. The methodology used to sample from a larger
population depends on the type of analysis being performed, but it may include simple random
sampling or systematic sampling.

How Sampling is used

A Certified Public Accountant (CPA) performing a financial audit uses sampling to determine the

accuracy and completeness of account balances in the financial statements. Sampling performed
by an auditor is referred to as "audit sampling." It is necessary to perform audit sampling when
the population, in this case account transaction information, is large. Additionally, managers
within a company may use customer sampling to assess the demand for new products or the
success of marketing efforts.

The chosen sample should be a fair representation of the entire population. When taking a
sample from a larger population, it is important to consider how the sample is chosen. To get
a representative sample, it must be drawn randomly and encompass the whole population. For
example, a lottery system could be used to determine the average age of students in a university
by sampling 10% of the student body.

Types of Sampling: Sampling Methods 

Any market research study requires two essential types of sampling. They are:

1. Probability Sampling: Probability sampling s a sampling method that selects random

members of a population by setting a few selection criteria. These selection parameters allow
every member to have the equal opportunities to be a part of various samples.
2. Non-probability Sampling: Non probability sampling method is reliant on a researcher’s
ability to select members at random. This sampling method is not a fixed or pre-defined
selection process which makes it difficult for all elements of a population to have equal
opportunities to be included in a sample.

Types of Sampling: Probability Sampling Methods

Probability Sampling is a sampling technique in which sample from a larger population are
chosen using a method based on the theory of probability. This sampling method considers
every member of the population and forms samples on the basis of a fixed process. For example,
in a population of 1000 members, each of these members will have 1/1000 chances of being
selected to be a part of a sample. It gets rid of bias in the population and gives a fair chance to all
members to be included in the sample.

There are 4 types of probability sampling technique:

Simple random sampling

In a simple random sample, every member of the population has an equal chance of being
selected. Your sampling frame should include the whole population.

To conduct this type of sampling, you can use tools like random number generators or other
techniques that are based entirely on chance.

Example
You want to select a simple random sample of 100 employees of Company X. You assign a
number to every employee in the company database from 1 to 1000, and use a random number
generator to select 100 numbers.

2. Systematic sampling
Systematic sampling is similar to simple random sampling, but it is usually slightly easier to
conduct. Every member of the population is listed with a number, but instead of randomly
generating numbers, individuals are chosen at regular intervals.

Example
All employees of the company are listed in alphabetical order. From the first 10 numbers, you
randomly select a starting point: number 6. From number 6 onwards, every 10th person on the
list is selected (6, 16, 26, 36, and so on), and you end up with a sample of 100 people.
If you use this technique, it is important to make sure that there is no hidden pattern in the list
that might skew the sample. For example, if the HR database groups employees by team, and
team members are listed in order of seniority, there is a risk that your interval might skip over
people in junior roles, resulting in a sample that is skewed towards senior employees.

3. Stratified sampling
This sampling method is appropriate when the population has mixed characteristics, and you
want to ensure that every characteristic is proportionally represented in the sample.

You divide the population into subgroups (called strata) based on the relevant characteristic (e.g.
gender, age range, income bracket, job role).
From the overall proportions of the population, you calculate how many people should be
sampled from each subgroup. Then you use random or systematic sampling to select a sample
from each subgroup.

Example
The company has 800 female employees and 200 male employees. You want to ensure that the
sample reflects the gender balance of the company, so you sort the population into two strata
based on gender. Then you use random sampling on each group, selecting 80 women and 20
men, which gives you a representative sample of 100 people.

4. Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling also involves dividing the population into subgroups, but each subgroup should
have similar characteristics to the whole sample. Instead of sampling individuals from each
subgroup, you randomly select entire subgroups.

If it is practically possible, you might include every individual from each sampled cluster. If the
clusters themselves are large, you can also sample individuals from within each cluster using one
of the techniques above.

This method is good for dealing with large and dispersed populations, but there is more risk of
error in the sample, as there could be substantial differences between clusters. It’s difficult to
guarantee that the sampled clusters are really representative of the whole population.

Example
The company has offices in 10 cities across the country (all with roughly the same number of
employees in similar roles). You don’t have the capacity to travel to every office to collect your
data, so you use random sampling to select 3 offices – these are your clusters.

Types of Sampling: Non-probability Sampling Methods

The non-probability method is a sampling method that involves a collection of feedback on the

basis of a researcher or statistician’s sample selection capabilities and not on a fixed selection
process. In most situations, output of a survey conducted with a non-probable sample leads to
skewed results, which may not totally represent the desired target population. But, there are
situations such as the preliminary stages of research or where there are cost constraints for
conducting research, where non-probability sampling will be much more effective than the other
type.

There are 4 types of non-probability sampling which will explain the purpose of this sampling
method in a better manner:
 Convenience sampling: This method is dependent on the ease of access to subjects such
as surveying customers at a mall or passers-by on a busy street. It is usually termed
as convenience sampling, as it’s carried out on the basis of how easy is it for a researcher to
get in touch with the subjects. Researchers have nearly no authority over selecting elements
of the sample and it’s purely done on the basis of proximity and not representativeness. This
non-probability sampling method is used when there are time and cost limitations in
collecting feedback. In situations where there are resource limitations such as the initial
stages of research, convenience sampling is used.
For example, startups and NGOs usually conduct convenience sampling at a mall to distribute
leaflets of upcoming events or promotion of a cause – they do that by standing a

t the entrance of the mall and giving out pamphlets randomly.

 Judgmental or Purposive Sampling: In judgmental or purposive sampling, the sample is

formed by the discretion of the judge purely considering the purpose of study along with the
understanding of target audience. Also known as deliberate sampling, the participants are
selected solely on the basis of research requirements and elements who do not suffice the
purpose are kept out of the sample. For instance, when researchers want to understand the
thought process of people who are interested in studying for their master’s degree. The
selection criteria will be: “Are you interested in studying for Masters in …?” and those who
respond with a “No” will be excluded from the sample.
 Snowball sampling: Snowball sampling is a sampling method that is used in studies
which need to be carried out to understand subjects which are difficult to trace. For example,
it will be extremely challenging to survey shelterless people or illegal immigrants. In such
cases, using the snowball theory, researchers can track a few of that particular category to
interview and results will be derived on that basis. This sampling method is implemented in
situations where the topic is highly sensitive and not openly discussed such as conducting
surveys to gather information about HIV Aids. Not many victims will readily respond to the
questions but researchers can contact people they might know or volunteers associated with
the cause to get in touch with the victims and collect information.
 Quota sampling:  In Quota sampling, selection of members in this sampling technique
happens on basis of a pre-set standard. In this case, as a sample is formed on basis of specific
attributes, the created sample will have the same attributes that are found in the total
population. It is an extremely quick method of collecting samples.
QUESTION8:-. WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY HYPOTHESIS? WHAT IS THE NULL HYPOTHESIS AND
ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS? WHAT IS THE PROCESS OF HYPOTHESIS TESTING?

ANSWER: - A research hypothesis is the statement created by researchers when they speculate
upon the outcome of a research or experiment. Every true experimental design must have this
statement at the core of its structure, as the ultimate aim of any experiment. We cannot take a
single step forward in any inquiry unless we begin with a suggested explanation or solution of
the difficulty which originated it. Such tentative explanations are suggested to us by something
in the subject-matter and by our previous knowledge. When they are formulated as
propositions, they are called hypotheses... Hypothesis is a tentative explanation that accounts
for a set of facts and can be tested by further investigation.

The word hypothesis consists of two words: Hypo + thesis = Hypothesis. ‘Hypo’ means tentative
or subject to the verification and ‘Thesis’ means statement about solution of a problem. The
word meaning of the term hypothesis is a tentative statement about the solution of the
problem. It is a proposition about the factual and conceptual elements. Hypothesis is called a
leap into the dark. It is a brilliant guess about the solution of a problem. A hypothesis is a
specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in your study. To be complete
the hypothesis must include three components -
● The Variables.
● The Population.
● The Relationship between the variables.

The following are the main features of a hypothesis –

 Verbal statement in a declarative form.

 Has the empirical referent.
 Indicates the tentative relationship between two or more variables.
 Is a powerful tool of advancement of knowledge, consistent with existing knowledge and
conducive to further enquiry?
 Can be tested, verifiable or falsifiable.
 Conceptual in nature.
 Is not moral or ethical questions.
 Neither too specific nor to general.
 Prediction of consequences.
 Is considered valuable even if proven false
Types of Hypotheses
For the purpose of testing statistical significance, hypotheses are classified into two types:-

1. Null Hypothesis: This is a hypothesis that proposes no relationship or difference between two
variables. This is the conventional approach to making a prediction. It involves a statement that
says there is no relationship between two groups that the researcher compares on a certain
variable. The hypothesis may also state that there is no significant difference when different
groups are compared with respect to a particular variable.

Ho states the opposite of what the experimenter would expect or predict. The final conclusion
of the investigator will either retain a null hypothesis or reject a null hypothesis in favour of an
alternative hypothesis. Not rejecting Ho does not really mean that Ho is true. There might not be
enough evidence against Ho. Once the null hypothesis has been stated, it is easy to construct the
alternative hypothesis. It is essentially the statement that the null hypothesis is false.

States of Nature and Decisions on Null Hypothesis

Decision on Null Hypothesis Null Hypothesis True Null Hypothesis False

Accept Correct Decision Type II error
Probability = 1- α Probability = β

Reject Type I error Probability = α Correct Decision Probability

(α is called significance level) = 1- β
(1- β is called power of a
test)

2. Alternate Hypotheses
this hypothesis proposes a relationship between two or more variables, symbolized as H1.
An alternative hypothesis is a statement that suggests a potential outcome that the researcher
may expect. It is established only when a null hypothesis is rejected. Often an alternative
Hypothesis is the desired conclusion of the investigator. The two hypotheses we propose to test
must be mutually exclusive; i.e., when one is true the other must be false. And we see that they
must be exhaustive; they must include all possible occurrences.

The two types of alternative hypothesis are:

Directional Hypothesis: It is a type of alternative hypothesis that specifies the direction of
expected findings. Sometimes directional hypothesis are created to examine the relationship
among variables rather than to compare groups.

Non-directional Hypothesis: It is a type of alternative hypothesis in which no definite direction

of the expected findings is specified. The researcher may not know what can be predicted from
the past literature.

Approaches of Hypothesis Testing:

There are three approaches of hypothesis testing .Each approach requires different subjective
criteria and objective statistics but ends up with the same conclusion.

Test Statistic approach: The classical test statistic approach computes a test statistic from
empirical data and then compares it with a critical value. If the test statistic is larger than the
critical value or if the test statistic falls into the rejection region, the null hypothesis is rejected.

P - Value Approach: In the p value approach, researchers compute the p value on the basis of a
test statistic and then compare it with the significance level (test size). If the p value is smaller
than the significance level, researches reject the null hypothesis. A p value

Is considered as amount of risk that researchers have to take when rejecting the null
hypothesis.

Confidence Interval Approach: Finally, the confidence interval approach constructs the
confidence interval and examines if a hypothesized value falls into the interval. The null
hypothesis is rejected if the hypothesized value does not exist within the confidence interval.

Steps of Hypothesis Testing: The researcher states a hypothesis to be tested, formulates an

analysis plan, analyzes sample data according to the plan, and accepts or rejects the null
hypothesis, based on results of the analysis. The general logic and procedure followed in testing
hypothesis comprised the following steps –

1. Assumption: If there are any assumption about the normality of the population distribution
equality of variance, independence of samples, etc. they should be stated.

2. State the Hypotheses: Every hypothesis test requires the analyst to state a null hypothesis
(HO) and an alternative hypothesis ( H1 ). A hypothesis which states that there is no difference
between assumed and actual value of the parameter is the null hypothesis and the hypothesis
that is different from the null hypothesis is the alternative hypothesis. The hypotheses are stated
in such a way that they are mutually exclusive. That is, if one is true, the other must be false; and
vice versa.
3. Set up a Statistical Significance Level: Set the significance level (α) if not already given. α
specifies the critical region. Often, researchers choose significance levels equal to 0.01, 0.05, or
0.10; but any value between 0 and 1 can be used.

4. Determination of a Suitable Test Statistic: Test statistic is a formula or function on sample

data.

Test Stats = Relevant statistics – Hypothesised Parameter

Standard Error of the Relevant Statistics

When the null hypothesis involves a mean or proportion, use either of the following equations
to compute the test statistic.
Test statistic = (Statistic - Parameter) / (Standard deviation of statistic)
Test statistic = (Statistic - Parameter) / (Standard error of statistic)
Where, Parameter is the value appearing in the null hypothesis, and Statistic is the point
estimate of Parameter.

5. Determine the Critical Region: It is important to specify the acceptance (confidence interval)
and rejection (critical) region before the sample is taken, which values of the test statistic will
lead to a rejection or acceptance of H 0.

6. Doing Computations: Compute the appropriate test statistic based on sample information.

7. Interpret the Results: Examine whether the calculated test statistic falls in the acceptance or
rejection region. If it falls in the rejection region (critical region), the null hypothesis is rejected. If
it falls in the accepted region, the null hypothesis is accepted.

8. Making Decision: Make the suitable conclusion for the problem under study.
Q9. What do you mean by the research report? What are the qualities of a good research
report?

Answer:- Research is the systematic investigations into study of a natural phenomenon or

materials or sources or existing condition of the society in order to identify facts or to get
additional information and derive new conclusions. A research report is a written document on a
particular research, which conveys information and ideas and may also make recommendations.
Report places the research study in the public domain for consideration and confirmation.
Simply, a research paper/report is a systematic write up on the findings of the study including
methodologies, discussion, conclusions etc. following a definite style.

Research report is a medium to communicate research work with relevant people. It is also a
good source of preservation of research work for the future reference It requires a good deal of
knowledge, imagination, experience, and expertise. It is not a simple task, it requires a good deal
of knowledge, imagination, experience, and expertise. The primary motive of research reports is
to convey integral details about a study for marketers to consider while designing new
strategies. Certain events, facts and other information based on incidents need to be relayed on
to the people in charge and creating research reports is the most effective communication tool.
Ideal research reports are extremely accurate in the offered information with a clear objective
and conclusion.

Types of Reports:-
1. Informational
- Inform or instruct – present information.
- Reader sees the details of events, activities or conditions.
- No analysis of the situation, no conclusion, no recommendations.

2. Analytical
- Written to solve problems.
- Information is analyzed.
- Conclusions are drawn and recommendations are made.

3. Persuasive
- An extension of analytical reports - main focus is to sell an idea, a service, or product.
- Proposals are the most common type.

Reports usually have a more diverse audience, more than one purpose and more detailed
information. Some other types of reports are –
  Incident Report: A report describing how close you are to completing something you
planned.
 Accident Report: A report describing how many goods or services were sold, and the
reasons for any differences from the plan.
 Sales Report: A report on what has happened in a place, and how close your
organization is to finishing construction.
 Progress Report: An academic report on how and why something has changed over time.
 Feasibility Study/ Report: A report describing something that has happened.
 Recommendation Report: A report on how practical a proposal is.
 Site: A report on what your organization should do.
 Case Study: A report describing how someone was hurt or something was damaged.
 Periodic Operating Reports: To monitor and control production, sales, shipping, service,
etc.
 Situational Report: To describe one-time events, such as trips, conferences, and
seminars.
 Investigative/In formational : To examine problems and supply facts – with little analysis
 Compliance: To respond to government agencies and laws.
 Justification/Recommendation: To make recommendations to management and become
tools to solve problems and make decisions.
 Yardstick: To establish criteria and evaluate alternatives by measuring against the
‘yardstick’ criteria.
 Research Studies: To study problems scientifically by analyzing a problem, developing
hypotheses, collecting data, analyzing data, and drawing conclusions.

Components of Research Report

TITLE: - The title is centered at the top of the page and only important words are capitalized. It
includes a very brief statement of the main variables (independent and dependent) in the study.

ABSTRACT: - An abstract or summary is published together with a research article, giving the
reader a ‘preview’ of what’s to come. This is used by potential readers to determine whether or
not the paper is interesting enough to read, so it should be clear, concise and complete.

INTRODUCTION: - A reader of the introduction should be able to answer the following

questions, although not in any depth.

a) What is the research about?

b) Why is it relevant or important?

c) What are the issues or problems?

d) What is the proposed solution or approach?

e) What can one expect in the rest of the research?

METHOD:- Centre the word ‘METHOD’ on the page. This section is written in past tense. The
methods section is generally easy to write - you simply describe what you did, how you did it,
and when you did it.

SUBJECTS:- (a) Who are the subjects? The ‘Subjects’ subsection specifies who participated in the
study. The subjects are described according to age, gender and other relevant social or
demographic considerations.

(b) How many subjects are there? State the total number of participants and the number
assigned to each experimental condition. If any subjects did not complete the study, give the
number and reason.

(c) How the subjects are selected? Report how the subjects were selected for the experiment
and how the chosen subjects were assigned to groups. For example, was some sort of
randomization technique used or was some other method necessary? Report such things as
payments or promises made to subjects.

PROCEDURE: - Procedures such as randomization, counterbalancing and other control

procedures are also detailed. To assist yourself in the clear execution of this section, keep in
mind that one of the purposes of it is to allow another experimenter to replicate exactly what
you have done.

RESULTS:- The results section is also written in the past tense. The result section summarizes the
data and the statistical treatment of them. If the data are relatively simple, they may be
reported entirely in text without the use of TABLES or FIGURES. Summarize the main idea of
your findings and report them whether or not your hypothesis (es) have been confirmed.

TABLES:- Tables placed in the results section of the paper are reserved for the most important
data directly related to the experiment. They are compress data and allow the reader to see
relationships not otherwise discernible at a glance.

FIGURES:- Figures are graphs, charts, and illustrations.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OR LITERATURE CITED: These are the bibliographic reference for each of the
works cited in the End Notes
QUALITIES OF GOOD RESEARCH REPORT

1. Simplicity: The language shall be as simple as possible so that a report is easily

understandable. Jargons and technical words should be avoided. Even in a technical report there
shall be restricted use of technical terms if it has to be presented to laymen.

2. Clarity: The language shall be lucid and straight, clearly expressing what is intended to be
expressed. For that the report has to be written in correct form and following correct steps.

3. Brevity: A report shall not be unnecessarily long so that the patience of the reader is not lost
and there is no confusion of ideas. But, at the same time, a report must be complete. A report is
not an essay.

4. Positivity: As far as possible positive statements should be made instead of negative ones. For
example, it is better to say what should be done and not what should not be done.

5. Punctuation: Punctuations have to be carefully and correctly used otherwise the meaning of
sentences may be misunderstood or misrepresented.

6. Approach: There are two types of approaches: (a) Person ---when a report is written based on
personal enquiry or observations, the approach shall be personal and the sentences shall be in
the first person and in direct speech.
(b) Impersonal ---When a report is prepared as a source of information and when it is merely
factual (e.g. a report on a meeting), the approach shall be impersonal and the sentences shall be
in the third person and in indirect speech.

7. Readability: The keynote of a report is readability. The style of presentation and the diction
(use of words) shall be such that the readers find it attractive and he is compelled to read the
report from the beginning to the end.’ Then only a report serves its purpose. A report on the
same subject matter can be written differently for different classes of readers.

8. Accuracy: A report shall be accurate when facts are stated in it. It shall not be biased with
personal feelings of the writer.

9. Logical Sequence: The points in a report shall be arranged with a logical sequence, step by
step and not in a haphazard manner. A planning is necessary before a report is prepared.

10. Proper Form: A report must be in the proper form. Sometimes there are statutory forms to
follow.

11. Presentation: A report needs an attractive presentation. It depends on the quality of typing
or printing as well as quality of paper used. Big companies make very attractive and colourful
Annual Reports.
QUESTION 10:-. WHY ETHICS ARE IMPORTANT IN RESEARCH? VISIT THE WEBSITE OF ESOMAR
AND WRITE A BRIEF PROFILE OF ESOMAR?

ANSWER. Ethics is important in research because it keeps the researcher from committing the
errors while seeking knowledge and truth. It promotes essential values that help researchers
working on a topic to have a common understanding of how things should go about. Since
research may involve experts coming from different fields of expertise, ethics binds them
together by considering the important values such as accountability, cooperation, mutual
respect, and fairness among others. Ethics are important in research

 To promote the aims of research, such as knowledge, truth, and avoidance of error.
 To promote the values that are essential to collaborate work, such as trust,
accountability, mutual respect and fairness.
 They must be accountable to the public. Make sure that researchers who are funded by
public money can be held accountable to the public.
 To build public support for research. People are more likely to fund a research project if
they can trust the quality and integrity of research.
 Protects the vulnerable group and other study participants.
 Participants are safeguards from exploitation.
 Establishes risk benefit ratio for study projects.
 Build capability of subjects to accept or reject participation in study

ESOMAR stands for european society for opinion and market research. ESOMAR was
founded in 1947. In 1948 the first version of code of practice for members was
published. In 1976 ESOMAR and the ICC determined a single code of practice would be
preferable and the first joint code of practice was published in 1977, with revisions in
1986, 1994, 2007. It is a membership organization for market , social and opinion
researchers that was founded in 1947. The name ESOMAR is an abbreviation of their
original name , the European society for opinion and market research which reflects the
original catchment of the organization. ESOMAR Produces information about market
research. ESOMAR produces the research world magazine bi monthly, with publisher
wiley online library claiming a worldwide circulation of close to 20000 with the majority
of the readers in Europe.

ESOMAR PROFILE

FOUNDER ANNE SOPHIE DAMELINCOURT

FORMATION 1947, 74 YEARS AGO
 HEADQUARTERS AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS
WEBSITE Esomar.org

QUESTION 11:- WHAT IS QUESTIONNAIRE? WHAT ARE THE QUALITIES OF A GOOD

QUESTIONNAIRE?

ANSWER: - A questionnaire is a research instrument that consists of a set of questions or other

types of prompts that aims to collect information from a respondent. A research questionnaire is
typically a mix of close-ended questions and open-ended questions. Open-ended or long-form
questions offer the respondent the ability to elaborate on their thoughts. Research questionnaires
were developed in 1838 by the Statistical Society of London.

The data collected from a data collection questionnaire can be both qualitative as well as
quantitative in nature. A questionnaire may or may not be delivered in the form of a survey, but a
survey always consists of a questionnaire.

Questionnaires are not without limitations. The biggest limit of a data collection questionnaire is
that respondents need to read all of the questions and respond to them. For example, if you send
a questionnaire invitation through email to set of audience and asking respondents to complete
the questions on social media. If a target respondent does not have the right social media profiles,
then they will be unable to answer your questions so far.

TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRES

As we explored before, questionnaires can be either structured or free-flowing. Let us take a

closer look at the detail of structured questionnaire and unstructured questionnaire

STRUCTURED QUESTIONNAIRES: Structured questionnaires collect quantitative data. The

questionnaire is planned and designed to gather precise information. It also initiates a formal
inquiry, supplements data, checks previously accumulated data, and helps validate any prior
hypothesis.

UNSTRUCTURED QUESTIONNAIRES: Unstructured questionnaires collect qualitative data. They

use a basic structure and some branching questions but nothing that limits the responses of a
respondent. The questions are more open-ended to collect specific data from participants.
Some of the widely used types of questions are:

 OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS: Open-ended questions help collect qualitative data in a

questionnaire where the respondent can answer in a free form with little to no restrictions.
 DICHOTOMOUS QUESTIONS: The dichotomous question is generally a “yes/no” close-
ended question. This question is generally used in case of the need of basic validation. It is
the easiest form of a questionnaire.
 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS: Multiple-choice questions are a close-ended question type
in which a respondent has to select one (single select multiple choice question) or many
(multiple choice question) responses from a given list of options. The multiple-choice
question consists of an incomplete stem (question), right answer or answers, incorrect
answers, close alternatives, and distractors. Of course, not all multiple-choice questions
have all of the answer types. For example, you probably won’t have the wrong or right
answers if you’re looking for customer opinion.
 SCALING QUESTIONS: These questions are based on the principles of the four
measurement scales – nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio. A few of the question types
that utilize the fundamental properties of these scales are rank order questions, like scale
questions, semantic differential scale questions, and staple scale questions.
 PICTORIAL QUESTIONS: This question type is easy to use and encourages respondents to
answer. It works similar to a multiple-choice question. Respondents are asked a question,
and the answer choices are images. This helps respondents choose an answer quickly
without over-thinking their answers, giving you more accurate data.

Questionnaires can be administered or distributed in the following forms:

 COMPUTER QUESTIONNAIRE: In this type, respondents are sent the questionnaire via
email or other online mediums. This method is generally cost-effective and time-efficient.
Respondents can also answer at leisure. Without the pressure to answer immediately,
responses may be more accurate. The disadvantage, however, are those respondents can
easily ignore these questionnaires?
 TELEPHONE QUESTIONNAIRE: A researcher makes a phone call to a respondent to collect
responses directly. Responses are quick once you have a respondent on the phone.
However, a lot of times, the respondents are hesitant to give out much information over
the phone. It is also an expensive way of conducting a questionnaire. You’re usually not
able to collect as many responses as other types of questionnaires, so your sample may not
represent the larger population.
  IN-HOUSE QUESTIONNAIRE: This type of questionnaire is conducted by a researcher that
visits the home or workplace of the respondent. The advantage of this method is that the
respondent is in a comfortable and natural environment, and in-depth data can be
collected. The disadvantage though, is that it is expensive and slow to conduct.
 MAIL QUESTIONNAIRE: Mail questionnaires are starting to be obsolete but are still being
used in some market research studies. This method involves a researcher sending a
physical data collection questionnaire request to a respondent that can be filled in and
sent back. The advantage of this method is that respondents can complete this on their
own time to answer truthfully and entirely. The disadvantage is that this method is
expensive and time-consuming. There is also a high risk of not being able to collect enough
responses to make actionable insights from the data.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD QUESTIONNAIRE

Your questionnaire design depends on the type of information you need to collect from
respondents. Qualitative questionnaires are used when there is a need to collect exploratory
information to help prove or disprove a hypothesis. Quantitative questionnaires are used to
validate or test a previously generated hypothesis.

However, most of the questionnaires follow some basic characteristics:

 UNIFORMITY: Questionnaires are very useful to collect demographic information, personal

opinions, facts, or attitudes from respondents. One of the biggest characteristics of
questionnaires is uniform design and standardization. Every respondent sees the same
questions. This helps in data collection and statistical analysis of this data. For example, the
retail store evaluation questionnaire template contains questions for evaluating retail store
experiences. Questions relate to purchase value, range of options for product selections,
and quality of merchandise. These questions are uniform for all customers.
 EXPLORATORY: To collect qualitative data, the questionnaire should be exploratory. There
is no restriction to questions that can be in your questionnaire or the specific objective of
the questions. For example, you use a data collection questionnaire and send it to the
female of the household to understand her spending and saving habits relative to the
household income. Open-ended questions give you more insight and allow the
respondents to explain their habits. A very structured question list could limit the data
collection.
 QUESTION SEQUENCE: A questionnaire typically follows a structured flow of questions to
increase the number of responses. This sequence of questions is screening questions,
warm-up questions, transition questions, skip questions, difficult questions, and
classification questions. For example, our motivation and buying experience questionnaire
 template covers initial demographic questions then asks for time spent in sections of the
store as well as the rationale behind purchases.
 BRIEF AND LIMITED QUESTIONNAIRE:
The number of questions in a schedule should be brief and limited as possible. Only
relevant questions to the problem under investigation should be added.
 SIMPLE AND CLEAR:
The questions should be simple, clear and precise. Its language should be very simple so
that informants may easily understand and be able to respond easily.
 UNAMBIGUOUS QUESTIONS:
All unambiguous questions should be avoided at all, complicated and long-worded
questions irritate the respondents which results in careless and respondent will or answer
the question or else they will mark any answer without reading question.
 NO PERSONAL QUESTIONS:
No personal question should be asked from, respondents. Such questions should be
avoided. This might give negative impact about you.
 USE OF PROPER WORDS:
Questions should be framed with in right words. This ensures the validity of the questions.
 AVOIDANCE OF CALCULATIONS:
Questions should not be based on calculations. Only those questions should be asked
which the respondents may reply immediately. Moreover, questions should avoid
memories as respondent might get difficulty in filling the questionnaire.
 ONLY OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS:
The questions should be objective. It should be based on opinions of the individuals.
 PRE-TESTING:
Before sending the questionnaire to the respondents, it must be properly tested, So as to
avoid unwanted errors in the questionnaire.
 INSTRUCTIONS:
Precise and simple instructions of filling the questionnaire should be added in the foot note
before questions so that respondent will find easier to response to the questions.
 CROSS EXAMINATION:
The questionnaire should be set in such a way that there may be cross examination of the
information supplied by the informants. In fact, it is a check on false or inaccurate answers.
 SECRET INFORMATION:
Every respondent should be ensured that information given by them shall be kept secret.
You must ensure the reliability of the responses.
 ATTRACTIVE QUESTIONNAIRE:
Proper care should be taken to make the questionnaire attractive. A well set questionnaire
will certainly impress the recipient.
QUESTION 12: - WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY PRIMARY DATA AND SECONDARY DATA? WHAT ARE
THE DIFFERENT METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION?

ANSWER:-

PRIMARY DATA: Primary data is data that is collected by a researcher from first-hand sources
using methods like interviews, questionnaires, experiments, or surveys. It is collected with the
research projects in mind, directly from primary sources.

IMPORTANCE OF PRIMARY DATA:

In statistical surveys it is necessary to get information from primary sources and work on primary
data. For example, the statistical records of female population in a country cannot be based on
newspaper, magazine and other printed sources. A research can be conducted without
secondary data but a research based on only secondary data is least reliable and may have
biases because secondary data has already been manipulated by human beings. One of such
sources is old and secondly they contain limited information as well as they can be misleading
and biased.

Sources of Primary Data:

Sources for primary data are limited and at times it becomes difficult to obtain data from
primary source because of either scarcity of population or lack of cooperation. Following are
some of the sources of primary data.

Advantages of Using Primary Data

 The investigator collects data specific to the problem under study.

 There is no doubt about the quality of the data collected (for the investigator).
 If required, it may be possible to obtain additional data during the study period.

Disadvantages of Using Primary Data

1. The investigator has to contend with all the hassles of data collection-

 deciding why, what, how, when to collect;

 getting the data collected (personally or through others);
 getting funding and dealing with funding agencies;
 Ethical considerations (consent, permissions, etc.).
 2. Ensuring the data collected is of a high standard-  all desired data is obtained accurately, and
in the format it is required in;  there is no fake/ cooked up data;  unnecessary/ useless data
has not been included.

3. Cost of obtaining the data is often the major expense in studies.

SECONDARY DATA: The data gathered from books, records, studies, surveys, or experiments
that have been run by other people or for other research or that has already been published in
any form is called Secondary Data.

Secondary data is essential, since it is impossible to conduct a new survey that can adequately
capture past change and/or developments. Sources of Secondary Data:

The following are some ways of collecting secondary data –

 Books
 Records
 Biographies
 Newspapers
 Published censuses or other statistical data
 Data archives
 Internet articles
 Research articles by other researchers (journals)
 Databases, etc.

IMPORTANCE OF SECONDARY DATA:

Secondary data can be less valid but its importance is still there. Sometimes it is difficult to
obtain primary data; in these cases getting information from secondary sources is easier and
possible. Sometimes primary data does not exist in such situation one has to confine the
research on secondary data. Sometimes primary data is present but the respondents are not
willing to reveal it in such case too secondary data can suffice. For example, if the research is on
the psychology of transsexuals first it is difficult to find out transsexuals and second they may
not be willing to give information you want for your research, so you can collect data from books
or other published sources.

A clear benefit of using secondary data is that much of the background work needed has already
been carried out. For example, literature reviews, case studies might have been carried out,
published texts and statistics could have been already used elsewhere, media promotion and
personal contacts have also been utilized.
 This wealth of background work means that secondary data generally have a pre-established
degree of validity and reliability which need not be re-examined by the researcher who is re-
using such data.

Furthermore, secondary data can also be helpful in the research design of subsequent primary
research and can provide a baseline with which the collected primary data results can be
compared to. Therefore, it is always wise to begin any research activity with a review of the
secondary data.

ADVANTAGES OF USING SECONDARY DATA

 No hassles of data collection.

 It is less expensive.
 The investigator is not personally responsible for the quality of data (‘I didn’t do it’).

DISADVANTAGES OF USING SECONDARY DATA

 The data collected by the third party may not be a reliable party so the reliability and
accuracy of data go down
 Data collected in one location may not be suitable for the other one due variable
environmental factor
 With the passage of time the data becomes obsolete and very old
 Secondary data collected can distort the results of the research. For using secondary data
a special care is required to amend or modify for use.
 Secondary data can also raise issues of authenticity and copyright.

METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION:-

The system of data collection is based on the type of study being conducted. Depending on the
researcher’s research plan and design there are several ways data can be collected.

The most commonly used methods are: published sources, surveys (email and mail), interviews
(telephone, face-to-face or focus group), observations, documents and records and experiments.
1. LITERATURE SOURCES
This involves the collection of data from already published text available in the public
domain. Literature sources can include: textbooks, government or private companies
reports, newspapers, magazines, online published papers and articles. This method of
data collection is referred to as secondary data collection. In comparison to primary data
collection it is inexpensive and not time consuming.

2. SURVEYS
Survey is another method of gathering information for researching purposes. Information
is gathered through questionnaires mostly based in individual or group experiences
regarding a particular phenomenon. There are several ways by which this information
can be collected. Most notable ways are: web-based questionnaires and paper-based
questionnaire (printed form). The results of this method of data collection are generally
easy to analyze.

3. INTERVIEWS
Interview is a qualitative method of data collection whose results are based on intensive
engagement with respondents about a particular study. Usually interviews are used in
order to collect in depth response from the professionals being interviewed.
Interviews can be structured (formal), semi-structured or unstructured (informal).
Interview method of data collection can be conducted through face-to-face meeting with
the interview or through telephone.

4. OBSERVATIONS
Observation method of information gathering is used by monitoring participants in a
specific situation or environment at a given time and day. Basically researchers observe
the behavior of the surrounding environments or people that are being studied. This type
of study is controlled natural or participant.
Controlled observation is when the researcher uses a standardized procedure of
observing participants or the environment. Natural observation is when participants are
being observed in their natural conditions. Participant observation is where the
researcher becomes part of the group being studied.

5. DOCUMENTS AND RECORDS

This is the process of examining existing documents and records of an organization for
tracking changes over a period of time. Records can be tracked by examining call logs,
email logs, databases, minutes of meetings, staff reports, information logs, etc.
 6. EXPERIMENTS
Experiments research is a research method where the causal relationship between two
variables is being examined. One of the variables is being examined. One of the variables
can be manipulated and the other is measured. These two variables are classified as
dependent and independent variables. In experimental research data are mostly
collected based on the cause and effect of the two variables being studied. This type of
research is common among medical researches and it uses quantitative research
approach.
7. PUBLISHED/ PRINTED SOURCES: There are varieties of published printed sources. Their
credibility depends on many factors. For example, on the writer, publishing company and
time and date when published. New sources are preferred and old sources should be
avoided as new technology and researches bring new facts into light.
8. BOOKS: Books are available today on any topic that you want to research. The use of
books starts before even you have selected the topic. After selection of topics books
provide insight on how much work has already been done on the same topic and you can
prepare your literature review. Books are secondary source but most authentic one in
secondary sources.
9. JOURNALS/PERIODICALS: Journals and periodicals are becoming more important as far
as data collection is concerned. The reason is that journals provide up-to-date
information which at times books cannot and secondly, journals can give information on
the very specific topic on which you are researching rather talking about more general
topics.
10. Magazines/Newspapers: Magazines are also effective but not very reliable. Newspapers
on the other hand are more reliable and in some cases the information can only be
obtained from newspapers as in the case of some political studies.
11. E - JOURNALS: e-journals are more commonly available than printed journals. Latest
journals are difficult to retrieve without subscription but if your university has an e-
library you can view any journal, print it and those that are not available you can make an
order for them.

QUESTION13 .IDENTIFY TOP 5 INDIAN AND TOP 5 WORLD-RENOWNED COMPANIES

PROVIDING DATA ANALYSIS AND RESEARCH-BASED SERVICES. DISCUSS THE KIND OF SERVICES
PROVIDED BY THEM, THE TYPE OF RESEARCH THEY ARE DOING, AND WHO THEIR CLIENTS ARE

.ANSWER:- India’s top 5 Data Analysis and Research services Company

The Indian Market research industry is witnessing tremendous growth with the escalation in the
density of businesses and start-ups. The emergence of sectors like Telecom, Digital Media,
Insurance and others are helping the industry to scale up high by comprehensively analyzing
market insights.

The major companies contributing towards this huge market in India are:-

1. ALLIED MARKET RESEARCH:- Driven by innovation and value addition approach,

Allied Market Research is instrumental in market research and business
consulting across various industry verticals since its foundation in 2013. An
advisory company of Allied Analytics LLP based in Portland, Oregon, striving to
offer valuable insights to their clients through extensive qualitative and
quantitative research of different markets. Being a market research firm they
strive to provide a comprehensive understanding of the market to clients along
with customizations based on their requirements.
Services: - Allied Market Research provides one stop solution from the beginning
of data collection to investment advice. The analysts at Allied Market Research
dig out factors that help clients to understand the significance and impact of
market dynamics. The company implies client’s insight on the factors, such as
strategies, future estimations, growth or fall forecasting, opportunity analysis,
and consumer surveys among others. As follows, the company offers consistent
business intelligent support to aid the clients to turn into prominent business
firm.
Clients:-Amazon, Basf, PWC, Google, Bank of America, Disney, Microsoft,
Weber, NASA, Autodesk,Nike, Philips, JP Morgan, Bain & Co. Jhonson Controls
etc.
2. Hansa Research Group :- Hansa Research, a global market research agency
headquartered in India. Pioneers in world class technology usage on data
collection and authenticity. Own proprietary modules custom made for
different industry verticals. Doing research in more than 30 countries across the
globe.
Services:-Customer Experience, Customer journey, Brand scan, Adventure, Usage and attitude,
Syndicated studies, polomania, media perception, brand endorser etc.

3. Market Mirror Research Solutions :- Market Mirror Research Solutions (MMRS) is a full
service Market Research firm that acts as a reliable research and consulting partner for clients by
addressing their most critical challenges to help them transform their enterprise for a
sustainable growth in a highly competitive and dynamic research industry.

Services:-Provide end to end custom research solutions which include services such as Data
Collection, Business and Consumer Research, Online panel and community and the entire gamut
of other ancillary services such as Survey Programming, Translations, Data Processing, Report
Writing, Lead generation etc.

Clients:HUL,ClariceTechnologies,Reinnovo,Cvoter,Gallup,Firefly,Flipkart,Ogilvy, Kadence,
Prognosys, Kent,Magnasoft etc.

4. Verace Market Research:- Verace is a market research agency headquartered in Bangalore,

India. Founded in 2007, Verace has established itself as an organization which delivers superior
consumer insights which can be leveraged to garner higher market share while simultaneously
improving the market position.

Services:- Customer Experience Studies, New Product development Studies, Market Entry
Strategy Studies, Brand Health Tracking studies, Customer Satisfaction Studies, Market
Development Studies, and Competition Centric Business Warfare.

Clients:-TVS ,Ashok Leyland ,Toyota ,Escort ,Pearson ,Mahindra Rise ,Vakil , Kaya , AGRANA ,Med
Life , Indigo 91.9FM,Nautica,BPL,Magic Crate, Suvarna ,OM VED, Esbeda , Tantra ,Aditya Birla,
Gowardhan ,Reliance trends, Big Basket , Aeropostale. IFB, JK Tyres, Sony, Kurl-on, CCD etc.

5. RNB Research:- RNB Research is a global market research company, headquartered in New
Delhi, India.RNB Research operates through its own offices in 15 cities across 10 countries -
China, Egypt, GCC, India, Kenya, Philippines ,Hong Kong, Russia, South Africa, Thailand &
Vietnam.

Services:- Our activities include both quantitative & qualitative Market Research :CATI, PAPI,
mail surveys, pre-recruits, in-depth interviews, focus group, mystery shopping, online panels
(Physicians,B2B,Consumers)& secondary research.

Clients:- Govt. Architectural Services Department, Drainage Service Department, University of

Hong Kong, Hong Kong Baptist University,Linganan University, Chinese University of Hong
Kong ,VTC ,Sino Group, Henderson Land Group,Goodwell Property Management Limited,Urban
Group,MTR etc.
World’s Top 5 Companies in Data Analytics and Research services

1. Sigma Data Services: - Sigma understands the criticality of each piece of data in today’s world
and in the next generation. Sigma was born to give its expertise in the world of Big Data! It has
pre-defined workshop patterns to understand the problem based on this it provides unique
solutions to every customer using various tools and frameworks.

Services:- Helped enterprises with Data Extractions, Merging structured and unstructured Data,
Mapping services, Marshaling services, Logging services, Visual Representation, Future
Predictions on data, 24 x 7 BA Consultations for Identifying and Studying Trends and Patterns of
Historical Data, Real Time Data study, Security Analysis, Faster search services, Automated
process, Code Efficiency and Code Optimizations, Product Positioning.

Clients:-Volvo, Aareon, Scania, Scandinavian Airlines, Knorr-Bremse, Oath, Riksteatern, Zapp,

JLoop, Fixt, FUIB, Formpipe, IGT, Collective, Lava Soft, DanAds, Via play etc.

2. Accenture Analytics: - As an analytics division of one of the biggest technology companies in

the world, Accenture Analytics has carved a niche in delivering data-driven solutions through
Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence. Its unique approach involves unearthing trapped
data through sensors, analytics and third-party searches, combining it with Accenture’s
predictive analytics model and delivering cutting-edge intelligence.

Services: - :- The company that provides services in strategy, consulting, digital, technology and
operations.

Clients: - EBay, GrossBill.com, CBS News, Natixis, Kelkoo, Bosch, Accor, INRA, Advance Bank,
Swisscom, Lufthansa, Mercedes, Deutsche Bores etc. Accenture's clients include 89 of the
Fortune Global 100 and more than three-quarters of the Fortune Global 500.

3. Fractal Analytics: - Fractal Sciences lab has achieved over forty different specialized
productized services which help to fit in the solution framework. The recyclable models get them
assembled into any format or any analytical tool. These niche services help them in delivering
creative, smarter, faster and more accurate decisions.

Clients: - Hex aware, Happiest Minds, XL Dynamics, DiaSys, Arcil, Anthea, Agiliad, Aditech, Fractal
ink Design Studio, Too via, OKI etc.

4. Absolut Data: - Absolut Data Analytics Company follows diagnostic methodology with cutting
edge techniques that merge technology, complex data, and advanced analytics. The company
believes in the approach of decision engineering which is a step ahead of the traditional
analytical approach. The company has designed powerful yet easy to use products under the
brand name NAVIK that empowers front line marketing managers, sales people and analytics
teams to harnesses the strength of artificial intelligence (AI).

Services: - AI+ Data Science, Big Data, Marketing Analytics, Customer Analytics, BI+Dashboard,
Data Integration, Market Research.

Clients:- Adidas,Altimeter,Ancestry,AplloMunich,Autodesk,Carnival,Danone,
Dunkin,Emirates,Hershey’s,Hyundai,Kellogg’s, Kia,Levi’s, L’Oreal, LG, Standard Charter, Sun
Pharma, Uber, etc.

5. Gartner: - The world’s leading research and advisory company and a member of the S&P 500.
We equip business leaders with indispensable insights, advice and tools to achieve their mission-
critical priorities today and build the successful organizations of tomorrow. The unmatched
combination of expert-led, practitioner-sourced and data-driven research steers clients toward
the right decisions on the issues that matter most. The most trusted advisor and an objective
resource for more than 15,000 enterprises in more than 100 countries — across all major
functions, in every industry and enterprise size.

Services: - Broader, deeper management and technology, Data-based tools, benchmarks and
guidebooks, Personalized, expert advice, Innovative ideas born from rigorous analyses, coupled
with practical guidance to achieve measurable business results.

Clients:HindustanUniliver,Inditex,Cisco,Intel,Nike,Nestle,Pepsico,H&M,Starbucks,HP,Loreal,Diage
o,Samsung,Jhonsons&Jhonsons,Walmart,Kimberly-Clark,Coca-Cola,Adidas,BMW etc.