65

CHAPTER.3
DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION AND ITS IMPLICATION
ON AGED POPULATION IN KERALA

3.1. Introduction
In the previous chapter, we reviewed the available theories of
demographic transition and ageing. In this chapter we discuss demographic
transition specific to Kerala state. Kerala occupies 1.2 percent of the total area of
Indian union and accounts for 3.4 percent of the India‟s population. Like its
development experience, the spectacular performance in demographic indicators
has received the global attention to the state. Kerala‟s demographic structure is
characterised by Total Fertility Rate (1.8 children per women) below the
replacement level, an Infant Mortality Rate of 13 per 1000 live births, population
growth rate less than one percent etc, thus portraying the features of the final stage
of demographic transition. The model is against the expectation of positive
association between fertility and economic development (Notestein, 1945). The
dramatic decline in fertility indicates that even at low levels of economic
development, fertility transition can take place with the progress made in the
social sector. With rising life expectancy and below replacement fertility, Kerala is
likely to achieve zero population growth years ahead. One of the direct
consequences of this trend is the problem of population ageing, which is also the
focus of the thesis. However the problems of the aged cannot be discussed without
glimpsing through demographic transition in Kerala. Hence the present chapter
makes an attempt to analyse the trends and pattern of demographic transition in
Kerala and its implications on aged population.

3.2. Demographic Trends in Kerala

Table (3.1) shows the gender-wise population trends in Kerala from
1901-2026.
 66

Table 3.1
Trends of Population Growth in Kerala-1901-2026
Year Population in millions
Persons Males Females
1901 6396262(100) 3191466(49.89) 3204796(50.11)
1911 7147673(100) 3559425(49.80) 3588248(50.20)
1921 7802127(100) 3879458(49.72) 3922669(50.28)
1931 9507050(100) 4702951(49.47) 4804099(50.53)
1941 11031541(100) 5443296(49.34) 5588245(50.66)
1951 13549118(100) 6681901(49.32) 6867217(50.68)
1961 16903715(100) 8361927(49.47) 8541788(50.53)
1971 21347375(100) 10587851(49.59) 10759524(50.41)
1981 25403217(100) 12487961(49.16) 12915256(50.84)
1991 29098518(100) 14288995(49.11) 14809523(50.89)
2001 31838619(100) 15468664(48.59) 16369955(51.41)
2011* 34563000(100) 16859000(48.72) 17704000(51.22)
2026* 37254000(100) 18297000(49.12) 18956000(50.88)
Figures in the brackets show percentages
Source: Census of India, various years, Office of the Registrar General and
Census Commissioner India.
* Population Projections for India and States 2001-2026, Office of Registrar
General.

It is not appropriate to discuss the trends in population of the “state”

from 1901 since the state was formed only in 1956. However, neglecting this issue
of state reorganisation the population of the state in 1901 was 63.9 lakhs of which
31.9 lakhs were males and 32.1 lakhs were females. The population of the state
more than doubled between 1901 -1951 adding a population of 715 lakhs. But in
the next 50 years i.e. from 1951-2001, the population growth in Kerala has slowed
down adding only 182 lakhs to total population. Census data show that over the
last 100 years it took more than 40 years for the state‟s population to double. But it
doubled in the next 30 years from 110.3 lakhs in 1941 to 213.5 lakhs in 1971. As
per 2001 census the population of the state was 318.4 lakhs with male population
15.5 lakhs and 16.3 lakhs females. Kerala‟s demography is also skewed positively
 67

towards women. Throughout the census period, the proportion of females to total
population in the state is higher than males. The proportion of females to total
population has increased from 50.1 percent in 1901 to 50.53 percent in 1961 and
further to 51.4 percent in 2001. This trend is a very important indicator from
sociological point also. Almost all states experience a declining female population
because of the couple preference of male child.
3.3. Growth Rate and Decadal Change in Population
Table (3.2) shows the growth rate of Kerala‟s population and decadal
variation in population from 1901-2001.
Table 3.2
Growth Rate and Decadal Change in Population for 1901-2026
Year Growth rate Decadal change (in percent)

1901-1911 1.11 11.75

1911-1921 0.88 9.16
1921-1931 1.98 21.85
1931-1941 1.49 16.04
1941-1951 2.06 22.82
1951-1961 2.21 24.76
1961-1971 2.33 26.29
1971-1981 1.76 19.24
1981-1991 1.34 14.32
1991-2001 0.91 9.42
2001-2011 0.82 8.55
2011-2021 0.57 5.80
2021-2026 0.37 -
Source: Census of India, various years, Office of the Registrar General and
Census Commissioner India
* Population projections for India and states 2001-2026, Office of Registrar
General.

The census figures show that in 1901-1911, population in the state

has grown at a rate of 1.1 percent only. Still this rate was higher compared to
national average (0.56 percent). Comparing to India‟s population growth rate
Kerala exhibits an increasing trend from 1901-1971 reaching a growth rate of 2.33
percent except for two decades (1911-21 and 1931-1941), while population
 68

growth rate of India was 2.2 percent. The decadal variation in population growth
was also high during 1941-1971. The major factor contributing to this increase of
population was very high martial fertility and very low mortality rate (Zachiarah et
al, 1994). Realising the dangers of population expectations, the government of
India started to give added thrust on family planning from late 1960‟s. As a result
of this, from 1971 onwards, the state witnessed a declining trend in population
growth. The growth rates of population for the last two decades were 1.34 percent
and 0.91 percent respectively, lowest in the country. The decadal changes in
population during 1991-2001 were 9.42 percent. As mentioned, Kerala is one of
the states where family planning made notable progress. Large scale migration of
people to gulf countries and subsequent improvement in the standard of living of
the people has reduced the fertility rate.

3.4. Rural-Urban Distribution of Population in Kerala

Table (3.4) gives details of rural-urban distribution of population in

Kerala.
Table 3.4
Rural-Urban Distribution of Population in Kerala
Area wise Population of Kerala (in lakhs)
Year Rural Urban Total
1901 59.4 (92.96) 4.5 (7.04) 63.9 (100)
1911 66.2 (92.59) 5.3 (7.41) 71.5 (100)
1921 71.2 (91.28) 6.8 ( 8.72) 78 (100)
1931 85.9 (90.33) 9.2 ( 9.67) 95.1 (100)
1941 98.3 (89.12) 12 (10.88) 110.3 (100)
1951 117.2 (86.49) 18.3(13.51) 135.5 (100)
1961 143.5 (84.91) 25.5 (15.09) 169 (100)
1971 178.8 (83.75) 34.7 (16.25) 213.5 (100)
1981 206.8 (81.26) 47.7 (18.75) 254.5 (100)
1991 214.1 (73.59) 76.8 (26.40) 290.9 (100)
2001 235.7 (74.03) 82.7(25.97) 318.4 (100)
Figures in the brackets show percentages
Source: Census of India, various years, Office of the Registrar General and
Census Commissioner India
 69

Kerala is one among the states having urban population less than the

national average. In 1901 the proportion of urban population to total population

was 4.5 percent, while it was 11 percent at all India. As per 2001 census 25.9

percent of total population in the state resides in urban areas while it is 27.8

percent in India. But the Kerala society is largely termed as urbanized. Unlike

other states in India urbanization is not limited to cities and towns. The entire state

depicts a picture of rural-urban continuum except few panchayats in hilly regions.

The proportion of rural population in the state has declined from 86.5 percent in

1951 to 74 percent in 2001. Decline in rural population is considered as a positive

indication in the development process. However, there are different and

conflicting arguments on this. There are scholars who believe that rural-urban

agglomeration is more important. In 1901 the rural and urban population in Kerala

was 59.4 lakhs and 45 lakhs respectively. From 1901- 1951, the rural population in

the state increased 2 times and recorded a population of 117.2 lakhs, while urban

population in the state has recorded an increase of more than 3 times during the

same period. Again, from 1951-2001, state‟s population in rural areas has recorded

an increase of 118 lakhs people. During the same period urban population has

accounted an increase of 4.5 times, reaching a population figure of 82.7 lakhs.

This increase in urban population is not due to over concentration of population in

cities but due to increase in urban areas in the state and also urbanization of

peripheral areas in existing centres.

3.5. District Level Status
Table (3.4) shows district wise population in the state from
1961-2001.
 70

Table 3.4
District Wise Population in Kerala
Districts 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001

Kannur 1780294 2365164 2803467 2251727 2412365

(10.53) (11.08) (11.01)
(8.34) (8.20)
Wayanad * * 554026 672128 (2.50) 786627
(2.18) (2.67)
Kozhikode 1588468 2106249 2245265 2619941 2878498
(9.39)
(9.87) (8.82) (9.76) (9.78)
Malappuram 1387378 1856362 2402701 3096330 3629640
(8.21) (8.69) (9.44) (11.53) (12.34)
Palakkad 1369500 1685342 2044399 2382235 2617072
(8.10) (7.89) (8.03) (8.87) (8.90)
Thrissur 1688271 2128797 2439543 2737311 2975440
(9.98) (9.97) (9.58) (10.19) (10.11)
Ernakulam 1681959 2163674 2535294 2817236 3098378
(9.95) (10.14) (9.96) (10.49) (10.53)
Idukki 590328 765608 (3.58) 971636 1078066 1128605
(3.49) (3.81) (4.01) (3.84)
Kottayam 1320506 1539030 1697442 1828271 1952901
(7.81) (7.20) (6.66) (6.81) (6.64)
Alappuzha 1805517 2125722(9.95) 2350145 2001217(7.46) 2105349
(10.68) (9.23) (7.16)
Kollam 1946963 2412821 2813650 2407566 2584118
(11.51) (11.30) (11.05) (8.97) (8.79)
Thiruvanthapuram 1744531 2198606 2596112 2946650 3234707
(10.32) (10.29) (10.19) (10.98) (11)
Figures in the brackets show percentages
Source: Census reports of various years, Office of the Registrar General and
Census Commissioner India
Note: Kasargod and pathanamthitta are relatively new districts and thus excluded
want of comparable data.
* District not formed

Among the districts, Malappuram is having 11.40 percent of state‟s

total population followed by Thiruvanthapuram (10.16 percent) and Ernakulam
(9.73 percent). Wayanad is having the lowest proportion of state‟s population
(2.40 percent) followed by Idukki (3.54 percent). Only three districts in the state
experienced an increase of more than 10 percent in population during 1991-2001.
 71

This is natural since the state is experiencing a decline in the growth rate of
population. Noteable increase in total population is in Malappuram district (an
increase of 17.22 percent) in 1991-2001 followed by Wayanad (17.04 percent) and
Kasaragod (12.30 percent). Lowest variation in population is in Pathanamthitta
district (3.64 percent). This indicates that Malappuram is behind other districts in
demographic transition. The population trends in the state show a disparity in
northern and southern regions. During the 40 years period the share of northern
districts to state‟s population has increased from 36.24 percent to about 42 percent.
Mohanachandran (1997) noticed that the two regions differ in respect to certain
characteristics like birth rates and average household size. Zachariah et al (1994)
pointed out socio-economic characteristics of population and historical lag of
northern districts in development process affecting demographic measures. The
picture will be clearer only when we examine district wise density of population.
3.6. Sex Ratio of Population in Kerala
Figure.3.1

Sex ratio of population in Kerala

1070
1058
1060
1050
Number of females per 1000 males

1050

1040 1036 1036

1032
1030 1027 1028
1022 1022
1020 1016
1011
1008 sex
1010 1004
ratio
1000

990

980

970
*

*
01

11

21

31

41

51

61

71

81

91

01

11

26
19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

20

20

20

Years

Source: Census of India, various years, Office of the Registrar General and Census
Commissioner, India
*Population Projections for India and states 2001-2026, Office of Registrar General.
 72

Kerala is the only state in India where females out number males. Over
the last 100 years, the state showed sex ratio above the equality. This situation in
the state is quite impressive as compared to the national average. The sex ratio of
Kerala exhibits an increasing trend from 1004 females per 1000 males in 1901 to
1022 females per 1000 males in 1961. In 2001 the sex ratio of the state was 1058
females per 1000 males. This impressive picture of sex composition in Kerala is
not reflected in the sex ratio of children (0-6 years). The sex ratio of this age group
is in favour of boy child with 962 girls per 1000 boys. The condition is marginally
changing in recent years. Now, there is large number of families with three
children. Also, sex related Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP) has
considerably reduced. Sociologists believe that a U turn has started in the state‟s
demographic transition. Preferences for more children, preference for boy etc have
some association to the practices of inheritance. Projections show that sex-ratio of
general population shows a decline after 2001.
Table 3.5
District Wise Sex Ratio of Population
Districts 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001

Kannur 1041 1022 1034 1049 1090

Wayanad * 922 949 966 995
Kozhikode 1007 1004 1020 1027 1057
Malappuram 1041 1052 1053 1066
Palakkad 1077 1056 1056 1061 1068
Thrissur 1093 1081 1100 1085 1092
Ernakulam 999 988 998 1000 1019
Idukki * 937 963 975 993
Kottayam 988 991 1001 1003 1025
Alappuzha 1027 1028 1050 1051 1079
Kollam 996 1001 1026 1035 1069
Thiruvanthapuram 1005 1008 1030 1036 1060
Source:Census Reports for various years, Office of Registrar General and Census
Commissioner, India
* Districts not formed
 73

District wise sex ratio shows that four districts in the state are having sex
ratio lower than the state average. Of this Wayanad and Idukki are having sex ratio
below the equality ratio indicating fewer females for 1000 males. Among the
districts, Pathanamthitta is having highest sex ratio with 1094 females for 1000
males followed by Thrissur (1092 females per 1000 males). Idukki is having
lowest sex-ratio in the state (993 females per 1000 males).

Figure 3.2
Density of Population in Kerala for 1901-2001

Density of population

1200

1000 959
889
No: of persons per sq km

819
800 749
655

600 549
Density
435
400 349
284
245
201
200 165 184

0
01

11

21

31

41

51

61

71

81

91

01

*
11

26
19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

20

20

20

Years

Source: Census of India, various years, Office of the registrar general and
census commissioner India
*Population projections for India and states 2001-2026, Office of registrar
general.
Kerala is one of the most densely populated states in India. As per
2001 census the state is having third position in respect of density. The density of
population for India as a whole is 324 persons per sq km while Kerala is having a
density more than three times. From early days onwards, Kerala had more people
per sq km than India. In 1901 Kerala‟s population density was 165 people per sq
km, while India‟s was 77 persons per sq km. It is seen that the density of the state
 74

has increased about 5 times from 1901 to 2001. As per 1961 census the density of
population for Kerala is 435 persons per sq km and it went up to 749 persons per
sq km in 1991 and further to 819 persons per sq km in 2001. This is one of the
contradictions in the demographic characteristics of Kerala in spite of having
lowest rate of growth of population; the state emerged as most crowded state in
India. One of the explanations is the lowest share of the state in the geographical
area. Kerala constitutes only 1.2 percent of the country‟s land area. High land man
ratio is the root cause of state‟s many problems. This has far reaching
consequence in the spheres of environment health, public health infrastructure
needs, employment and housing (Nair, 2010). Table (3.6) shows the district wise
density of population in Kerala.
Table 3.6
Density of Population from 1951-2001

Districts 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001

Kasaragod * * * * 538 604

Kannur 265 341 451 565 759 813
Wayanad 79 129 194 260 315 369
Kozhikode 476 598 777 957 1118 1228
Malappuram 324 391 523 677 872 1022
Palakkad 271 306 376 456 532 584
Thrissur 463 557 702 805 903 981
Ernakulam 579 705 899 1053 963 1050
Idukki 66 115 151 192 236 252
Kottayam 514 596 698 770 828 884
Alappuzha 806 959 1129 1248 1415 1489
Pathanamthitta * * * * 450 467
Kollam 320 421 522 609 967 1037
Thiruvanthapuram 606 796 1003 1184 1344 1476
Source: Census reports for various years, Office of the Registrar General and Census
Commissioner India
* District not formed
 75

As per 2001 census, Alappuzha is the most density populated

district in the state (1489 persons per sq. km) followed by Thiruvanthapuram
(1476 persons sq.km). Idukki and Wayanad are the least densely populated
districts in the state. From the period 1951-2001, the density of districts
experienced an increase of two to four times. Wayanad, Kannur and Thrissur
witnessed greater increase in population density.

Table 3.7
Gender wise Literacy Rate of Kerala
Literacy rate (1951-2001)
Year Persons Male Female
1951 47.18 58.35 36.43
1961 55.08 64.89 45.56

1971 69.75 77.13 62.53

1981 78.85 84.56 73.36

1991 89.81 93.62 86.17

2001 90.92 94.2 87.86

Source: Census of India, various years, Office of the Registrar General and
Census Commissioner India
The level of literacy is one of the indicators of the quality of
population in the state. Among the Indian states, Kerala is known for its higher
literacy rate. The proportion of literates to total population in the state was 47.18
percent in 1951. The corresponding figure for India is only 18.3 percent. The
initiative taken by successive governments in providing free educational facilities
has further raised the literacy level of the state. In 2001 literates constitutes 90.9
percent of the total population in Kerala. This rate is one of the highest not only in
India but compared to some developed countries also. Regarding the gender
differences in the literacy rate, it is found that the gap has declined from 21.9
percent in 1951 to 6.3 percent in 2001. The percentage of male and female literates
in 1951 was 58.35 and 36.43 respectively. Their proportion has increased to 94.2
percent and 87.86 percent respectively. High female literacy rate in the state has
strong influence in lowering fertility rate and Infant Mortality Rate.
 76

3.7. Demographic Transition in Kerala

Demographic transition is a change from high fertility and mortality to low
fertility and mortality. The evidences of this transition are reflected in the current
demographic trends of the state. There are several studies analyzing the
demographic situation of Kerala. In the succeeding paragraphs, an attempt is made
to examine the pattern of demographic transition in the state. An assessment of
demographic transition is made on the basis of transition in mortality, fertility, age
structure and family.

3.7.1. Vital Rates in Kerala

Table 3.8
Birth Rate and Death Rate in Kerala from 1931-2025
Natural Growth
Year Birth Rate Death Rate
Rate
1931-1941 40.0 29.1 10.9
1941-1951 39.8 22.3 17.5
1951-1961 38.9 16.9 22
1961-1971 31.9 9.3 22.6
1971-1981 25.4 8.1 17.3
1991 18.3 6.0 12.3
2001 17.3 6.6 10.7
2002 16.9 6.4 10.5
2004 15.2 6.1 9.1
2005 15 6.4 8.6
2006 14.9 6.7 8.2
2007 14.7 6.8 7.9
2011- 2015* 14.2 7.1 7.1
2021-2025* 12.3 7.8 4.5
Source: Sample Registration System, Office of Registrar General
*Population projections for India and states 2001-2026, office of registrar general.
From the table, it is evident that mortality transition happened in the
state. The death rate in Kerala has declined from a higher rate of 29.1 deaths per
1000 population in 1931-1941 to 9.3 deaths per 1000 population in 1961-1971.
 77

During this period, the natural growth rate of population reached its highest rate
(22.6) in the state. Until 1960, because of high mortality rate the natural growth of
population in India was lower than Kerala, 12.5 in 1941-1951 and 20.9 in 1951-
61. This accelerated increase in population in the first half of 20th century in Kerala
is not due to increase in birth rate but because of fall in death rate. Improvement
and spread of health facilities also contributed to decline in the mortality rate
(Bhat and Rajan, 1997). The crude birth rate of population was 40 births per 1000
population during 1931-1941. Fertility transition has occurred in the 1970‟s with
25.4 births per 1000 population. Thereafter, the state continued to experience a
rapid decline in the birth rate reaching 14.7 births in 2007. A drop in IMR during
1960‟s may be the reason for this decline. Davis (1963) in his study also presented
a similar view. A drop in IMR made people aware of the consequences of large
number of children. Death rate in the state has reached a low level of 6 deaths per
1000 in 1991 and further decline is almost ruled out biologically also. From 2004
onwards, CDR in Kerala shows an increasing trend. This increase in CDR is a
reflection of the faster increase in elderly population rather than deterioration in
medical services (Kumar, 2010). Demographic projections show that the crude
birth rate and death rate in the state by 2021-2025 will be 12.3 and 7.8
respectively. Various studies (Pillai.1983, Zachariah and Kurup 1984)conducted
indicate that female literacy, socio-economic changes, increased preference and
performance of family planning programme, declining IMR etc as the factors
contributing to this decline.

3.7.2. Total Fertility Rate

Figure (3.3) shows the trends in Total Fertility Rate (TFR) in the state.
TFR shows the total number of live births a woman will eventually end up with if
she bears children under current fertility rates.
 78

Figure.3.3

Total Fertility Rate of Kerala

6
5.6

5 5

3.4
TFR

3 3.1
Total
2.6
Fertility
2 2.1 Rate
1.7 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8

0
1

5*

5*

5*
96

97

97

98

98

99

99

00

00

01

02
-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

-2

-2

-2

-2
51

61

71

76

81

86

91

96

01

11

21
19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

20

20

20
Years

Source: Compiled from SRS data, Office of Registrar General

*Population projections for India and states 2001-2026, office of registrar general.

In 1951-61 the TFR for Kerala was 5.6 children per woman of
reproductive age. High IMR in the early decades was found to be the reason for
high TFR. It dropped to 3.4 in 1971- 75 and to 3 children per woman in 1976-80.
Zachiarh et al (1994) shows that about 70 percent of fertility decline in 1970‟s
were due to the implementation of family planning measures. During 1980‟s when
TFR was close to replacement level demographers believed that further decline
was unlikely, but TFR continued to decline. The state has achieved the
replacement rate of fertility (2.1children per woman) in the second half of 1980
much ahead the all India target of 2011. Maternal and Child Health programme
(MCH) have contributed to largest decline in fertility during 1980‟s (Zachiarh,
1997). As per the SRS data the fertility rate has reached 1.8 in 1996-2000 and is
expecting to experience stable fertility till 2025. If this situation continues in the
coming decades, the state will be having negative growth rate of population and
 79

total population will start declining. The experience of state shows that high
female labour participation which is a proxy for the opportunity cost of child care
has not been necessary for fertility decline (Kabeer, Nila, 1996). Several studies
have pointed out fall in IMR, female literacy, rise in age at marriage as the factors
contributing for this declining trend of fertility rate in Kerala (Murthi et al 1995).
But as mentioned earlier, there are signs of an increase in the number of children
in families since 2005. But this requires detailed studies which are not in the
agenda of this thesis. District wise details show that, all the districts in Kerala have
achieved the replacement level of fertility rate except Malappuram with TFR of
2.4 births per women. The lowest total fertility rate of 1.5 is reported for many
districts, including Alappuzha, Pathanamthitta and Ernakulam.
3.7.3. Infant Mortality Rate in Kerala
Caldwell (1993) point out that fertility decline would be more likely, if
child mortality could be reduced.
Table 3.9
Infant Mortality rate in Kerala
Year IMR
1911-21 242
1921-31 210
1931-41 173
1941-51 153
1951-61 120
1961-1971 66
1971-1981 54
1991 16
2001 11
2002 10
2004 12
2005 14
2006 15
2007 13
2011-2015* 10
2021-2025* 8.4

Source: SRS, Office of Registrar General

 80

IMR was quite high in the first half of 20th century. It is observed that
over the years this rate has come down to 120 per 1000 live births in 1951-61 and
66 per 1000 live births in 1961-71. In 1991 IMR in Kerala further declined and
reached 16 per 1000 live births which is the lowest in the country. Large
investments made by the government in health services particularly to improve the
condition of children and women in the state have contributed for this sharp
decline in IMR. Recent Sample Registration System (SRS) estimates show that
though this decline continued up to 2002, from 2004 onwards IMR in the state has
marginally increased to 12 per 1000 live births and later to 15 per 1000 live births.
Table 3.10
Gender wise Life Expectancy in Kerala
Life Expectancy (in years)
Year Male-female
Males Females difference
1961 46.2 50 3.8
1971 60.5 61.1 0.6
1981 60.6 62.1 1.5
1991 66.9 72.8 5.9
2001 68 74 6
2001-06 75.20 81.20 6
2006-11 75.78 81.78 6
2011-2016 76.29 82.29 6
2021-2026 77.15 83.15 6
2031-2036 77.89 83.89 6
2041-2046 78.55 84.55 6
2046-2051 78.85 84.85 6

Source: SRS, Office of Registrar General, India

For 2006-2051 data projected for Kerala Development Report
Life expectancy at birth is an important indicator of the overall
health of the population. It is evident from table (3.10) that there has been
significant improvement in the life expectancy of both males and females in
Kerala. Life expectancy at birth of males was 46.2 years in 1961 which increased
 81

to 60.6 years in 1981 and to 68 years in 2001. Over the same period the female life
expectancy has risen from 50 years to 62.1 years and further to 74 years. This may
be due to improvement in medical and health facilities. According to the
projections made for the period (2001-2051), life expectancy at birth for males in
Kerala is expected to rise about 78.9 years. Expectation of life at birth for females
is predicted to increase from 81.8 years in 2006-2011 to 84.9 years from 2046-51.
By contrast to all India pattern, throughout the period females in the state are
having high life expectancy than males. The gender gap in the extension of life at
birth in the state was 3.8 years in 1961. It has widened by 32 percent in 2001 with
a gap of 6 years. High life expectancy among females in the state contrary to all
India pattern made them increasingly living alone at old age. Women‟s increasing
life expectancy is attributed to behavioural and social factors. Negative health
behaviour like smoking, alcohol consumption, violence and accidents account for
men‟s excess mortality (Markides, 1992)

3.7.5. Family Size

The average household size in the state during 1961 was 5.79 persons per
household slightly higher than the national average (5.16). At present the average
household size in Kerala is 4.8 persons per household. According to the 2001
census, 3 per cent of households are single member households and another 7 per
cent are with just two members and only 27 per cent of households have more than
six members in the house holds. Increase in the cost of rearing children may be the
reason for lower family size. Sushama (1996) observed that parent‟s desire for few
children is with the assumption that children will care them at old age if they
provide children better life now. This indicates that there is a shift in parents‟
preference from number to quality of children by increasing spending on
education, similar to the view presented by Becker in 1960 (Currais, 2000). But
trends since 2000 indicate that there is large number of families with 3 children
(Status report, 2006). In such cases, the gender composition of the children were
also examined and found that the elder two will either be both males and females.
Thus the couple desire to have both gender led to this phenomenon.
 82

3.7.6. Age Composition of Population in Kerala

The notable achievements made by the state in the demographic
variables have raised concerns also. The change in fertility and mortality rate has
brought significant changes in the age composition of the population which has
definite implications on development.
Table 3.11
Age Composition of Population in Kerala, 1961-2001

Age group 0-14 15-59 60+ Total

1951 52.15 (38.48) 79.08 (58.35) 4.29 (3.17) 135.52 (100)

1961 72.05 (42.60) 87.12 (51.54) 9.86 (5.8) 169.03 (100)

1971 85.95 (40.26) 114.25(53.52) 13.28 (6.2) 213.48 (100)

1981 89.01 (34.97) 146.43 (57.53) 19.10 (7.5) 254.54 (100)

1991 86.74 (29.78) 178.74 (61.42) 25.61 (8.8) 290.99 (100)

2001
82.96 (26.10) 201.82 (63.38) 33.35 (10.5) 318.41 (100)

2026* 69.88 (18.76) 234.62 (62.98) 68.04 (18.26) 372.54 (100)

Source: Compiled from various census reports.
*Population projections for India and states 2001-2026, office of Registrar
General.

Higher proportion of working age group (15-59 years) is considered as a

demographic bonus contributing to the development of a state. The proportion of
working age group has increased from 51.54 percent in 1961 to 63.4 percent in
2001. Rajan and K.S. James (not dated) argue that the working age boom has a
positive impact on the growth of state‟s per capita income. From table (3.11) it is
evident that a decline in the birth rate has reduced the proportion of children to
total population. The proportion of children to total population has declined from
42.6 percent in 1961 to 26.1 in 2001. Even in absolute terms there was a decline
after 1981. This indicates that in the coming years the state will face a shrink in
school age population, thereby revealing larger changes in the age composition of
 83

population. Another consequence of fertility decline, if combined with increases in

life expectancy is increasing proportion of aged population in the state. The aged
population in the state has experienced an increase of four times during the period.
Their number increased from 9.86 lakhs in 1961 to 33.3 lakhs in 2001. High life
expectancy and low fertility rate in the state as a result of improvement in health
infrastructure may be one of the reasons for this trend. Projections show that by
2026, Kerala will reach the level of demographic status experienced by Japan,
Germany and Italy today.

The demographic trends show that Kerala is currently passing through

the most critical stage of demographic transition as a result of fertility and
mortality changes and the consequent age structural transition. A direct
consequence of fertility transition and mortality decline is population ageing. It is
evident that changes in fertility and mortality have brought positive changes in the
number of older persons. The shift in the age composition in favour of old age has
profound implications on the state‟s socio-economic situation. The situation is
more complex in Kerala since the state is facing a negative population growth rate
leading to a reduction in family size. In Kerala, the growth rate of aged (60 and
above) was 30.22 per cent during 1991-2001, while the child growth rate (0-14
years) declined by 4.24 percent. Population projections for the period 2001-2025
show that the child population in the state faces a decline of 6.75 percent in 2011-
2021 while the growth rate of working age population (15-59 years) and aged
population were 4.27 percent and 37.05 percent respectively. Growing proportion
of elderly in Kerala along with decline in availability of children may likely to
create pressure on social support system and thereby increases the role of state in
care-giving. Thus in the next section we analyse magnitude and speed of ageing
and measures of the ageing process in the state.
3.7.7. Magnitude and Speed of Ageing in Kerala

The magnitude and speed of ageing can be analysed with variables

like absolute number of elderly population in Kerala, growth rate of older
population and their proportion to total population.
 84

Table 3.12
Demographic Profile of Aged in Kerala

Years Aged population (in thousands)

60+ 70+ 80+
1961 986 363 85
1971 1328 496 125
1981 1910 712 186
1991 2574 1001 290
2001 3335 1401 389
2011 4884 2260 708
2021 7205 3223 1039
2031 10001 4906 1538
2041 11584 6758 2401
2051 11861 7439 3256

Source: Census Reports from 1961-2001, Office of Registrar General and Census
Commissioner, India
S.Irudaya Rajan and Zachariah, 1998 for 2011-2051

The elderly population aged 60 and above in Kerala as per 1961

Census was nearly 1million. Of this 85000 were elderly belongs to the category of
oldest old (age group 80 and above). The population trends in the state show that
the older population in the state has increased and reached 1.9 millions since 1961.
For the period 1981-2001, the state had an increase of 75 percent in 60+
population and 80+ populations in the state faced an increase of 109 percent.
Population aged 70 and above (old old population) has increased from 0.71
million in 1981 to 1.4 million in 2001. Population projections reveal that
compared to 2001, the population aged 60 and above is likely to be tripled by
2051. The fastest growing segment of elderly population is those aged 80 and
above. The oldest old is projected to expand by more than eight times reaching 3.2
million in 2051.
 85

Figure 3.4

Age wise distribution of elderly of Kerala

100%
percentage of aged population

80%

80+
60%
75-79
70-74
65-69
40%
60-64

20%

0%
1 2 3 4 5
Years

Source: Census report from various years, Office of Registrar General and
Census Commissioner, India

Figure (3.4) shows age- wise distribution of elderly in Kerala

during the period 1961 to 2001. Among the different age groups, majority of the
state‟s elderly population belongs to the age group 60-64 years. Over the 40 year
period, elderly from all other age groups except age group 60-64 years has
recorded an increase. It is seen that the proportion of elderly in the age group 60-
69 in the state has declined from 63.2 percent to 58 percent in 2001. The
proportion of elderly aged 80 and above has increased from 8.5 percent to 11.7
percent indicating ageing of older population in the state.

3.7.8. Age Wise Distribution of Elderly in the Districts

Age–wise elderly population in 14 districts of the state in 2001 is
given in table (3.13).
 86

Table 3.13
Age Wise Distribution of Elderly in the Districts in 2001

Districts Number of aged population Proportion of

aged to total
population
60-69 70-79 80+ 60+
Kasaragod 60,388 28,460 9,990 8.21
Kannur 143,361 75,300 28,091 10.23
Wayanad 35,140 16,450 6,507 7.39
Kozhikode 134,805 81,925 35,105 8.75
Malappuram 166,673 70,466 26,412 7.26
Palakkad 160,197 77,894 27,667 10.15
Thrissur 198,473 108,608 39,862 11.66
Ernakulam 197,645 110,683 44,415 11.38
Idukki 59,123 30,720 12,717 9.09
Kottayam 134,805 81,925 35,105 12.90
Alappuzha 153,147 86,763 32,000 12.92
Pathanamthitta 95,722 58,757 25,539 14.62
Kollam 163,907 84,999 32,710 10.90
Thiruvanthapuram 201,960 98,180 37,044 10.42
Source: Census report 2001 Office of Registrar General and Census
Commissioner, India

District wise census data indicate that highest number of elderly was
in Ernakulam district (352743) followed by Thrissur (346943). Lowest number of
elderly aged 60 and above is in Wayanad (58097) followed by Kasaragod (98838).
The picture would be different if we examine the elderly‟s proportion to total
population in the districts. According to 2001 census data, the proportion of
elderly to total population is highest in Pathanamthitta district (14.62 percent).
Age- wise distribution of elderly shows that the highest proportion of elderly aged
80+ is reported in Pathanamthitta district (14.19 percent of total aged population)
and lowest in Malappuram district (10 percent). Census data 2001 show that one-
 87

tenth of population in nine districts was aged 60 and above. This is likely to go up
to 20 percent in near future.

3.7.9. Growth Rate and Composition of Elderly Population

Table (3.14) shows the share of elderly to total

population and its growth rate.
Table 3.14
Share of Elderly Population and Their Growth Rate
Year Proportion in aged Growth rate Proportion to total
population population
60-74 75 and 60-74 75 and 60-74 75 and
years older years older years older
1961 80.40 19.56 - - 5.83 1.4
1971 79.87 20.13 2.90 3.25 6.22 1.25
1981 79.52 20.48 3.59 3.81 7.50 1.54
1991 77.92 22.08 2.78 3.74 8.85 1.95
2001 74.69 25.31 2.48 4.27 10.83 2.74
2011 72.27 27.73 2.66 3.90 13.57 3.76
2021 73.81 26.19 3.77 2.98 18.59 4.87
2031 72.02 27.98 3.01 3.61 25.49 7.13
2041 66.69 33.31 1.15 3.36 31.45 10.48
2051 59.08 40.92 -0.66 2.60 35.07 14.36
Source: Projections made by S.Irudaya Rajan, K.C.Zachariah and Sabu Aliyar
exclusively for the State Development Report.

An important issue of population ageing in Kerala is the ageing of

older population itself. It is found that during 1961, the proportion of old-old (aged
75 or above) among total elderly was 19.56 percent. Their proportion increased to
25.31 percent in 2001. Projections show that by 2051 the proportion of old-old
population will increase to 40.92 percent leading to a change in the composition of
elderly population in the state. The growth rate of old-old is increasing faster than
the young old of older population. In 2001 the growth rate of old-old is almost 2
times that of young old. Though the growth rate of both age groups is expected to
decline in the coming years, drastic fall is seen in the case of young old (figure
 88

3.5) the proportion of young old to total population is expected to reach more than
one-third of total population in 2051.
Figure 3.5

Growth rate of young old and old-old population in Kerala

3
Growth rate

young
2
old

old-
1 old

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
-1
Years

Source: Projections made by S.Irudaya Rajan, K.C.Zachariah and Sabu Aliyar

exclusively for the State Development Report.

3.7.10. Sex Ratio of Elderly in the State

Sex ratio of elderly is measured as the number of males per 1000
females in a population. Table (3.15) shows the sex ratio of elderly from 1961-
2001.
Table 3.15
Age Wise Sex Ratio of the Aged Population of Kerala

Age group (in 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001

years)
60-64 934 948 947 918 871
65-69 943 901 870 867 796
70-74 895 896 852 859 804
75-79 910 871 823 787 770
80+ 840 844 834 796 679
Total 918 908 884 865 802
Source: Census report from various years, Office of Registrar General and Census
Commissioner, India
 89

Age-wise sex ratio shows a trend favourable to older women with their
proportion in total population increases with age. In 1961 the sex ratio of
population aged 60-64 years were 934 males per 1000 females. For older persons
aged 80 and above the sex ratio were only 840 males per 1000 females during the
same year. This may be because female mortality rate is less than males at all
ages. It is seen that in 2001, the sex ratio of elderly in the state has declined further
to 802 males per 1000 females. In 2001, there are fewer men for women at all age
groups. Larger gender-gap in life expectancy favourable to women may be the
reason for this declining trend.

3.7.11. Age Specific Death Rate

Age specific death rate among elderly shows a decline in death
rate of elderly during the 30 year period.
Table 3.16
Age Specific Death Rate by Age and Sex for Rural and Urban Areas
60-64 65-69 70+

Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female

1971 23 23.5 22.4 43.5 40.3 46.4 102.4 102.9 101.9
Rural

1981 18.1 23.8 12.6 31.8 36.5 27.2 88.5 93.4 84.2
1991 17.8 23.6 12.5 25.8 30.7 21.7 89.6 99.2 81.6

1971 26.9 29.6 24.6 43.6 53.5 34.3 112.7 132.8 96.7
Urban

1981 21.6 25.8 17.8 39.1 54.4 27.2 76.3 93.2 63.8

1991 19.3 21.9 17 28.1 28 28.1 70.8 81.8 63.1

Source: Ageing population of India, An Analysis of the 1991 census data,

Registrar General, India. For 2001 data SRS; Office of registrar general India

Age specific death rate among elderly shows a decline in death rate of
elderly during the 30 year period. Among elderly aged 70+ the death rate in 1971
was 102 per 1000 elderly. It declined to around 90 per 1000 elderly in 1991. In
urban areas, the death rate of elderly aged 70 and above in Kerala was about 113
per 1000 persons. It declined to 71 percent in 1991. The death rate of elderly has
declined faster in urban areas i.e. a decline of about 60 percent compared to 13
percent in rural area. This may be because of the better health care facilities
 90

available in the urban Kerala. Gender-wise differences are evident from the data
with low death rate among older women compared to older men. It is also noticed
that as age advances the gap in the death rate has widened. This may lead to more
chance for feminization of ageing.
3.7.12. Measures of Ageing Process
The conventional tools for studying the ageing process are median
age, index of ageing and dependency ratio.

Table 3.17
Median Age of Population

Median age 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001

(in years)
Male 18.9 19.2 21.3 24.3 26.7
Kerala

Female 19.8 19.7 21.8 24.8 28.1

Total 19.3 19.5 21.6 24.6 27.5

Male 20.5 19.6 20.2 21.6 21.9

India

Female 20.4 19.6 20.6 21.8 22.7

Total 20.5 19.6 20.4 21.7 22.3

Source: Census reports, Office of Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India

The changes in the median age indicate the extent of population ageing
of a country. The median age of a population is the age that divides the population
into two groups of the same size, such that half of the total population is younger
than this age and the other half older. The median age of Kerala was lower than
India in 1961. It increased gradually up to 1981. Since 1981, the median age of
Kerala increased faster than India. The median age of Kerala has recorded an
increase of more than 8 years during the period 1961-2001, while median age of
India has shown an increase of only about 2 years. As with Kerala most of the
increase in median age happened after 1980‟s. This may be because in the second
half of 1980‟s Kerala has reached the third stage of demographic transition with a
reduction in fertility rate. As per 2001 census, the median age of the state is 27.5
years. Projections drawn on the basis of 2001 census, show that half of the
population in Kerala will age 37 or above by 2026. This shows that by 2026
 91

Kerala will reach the status of many Eurpoean countries. Median age of females is
higher than males both at state and national level even though the difference is
only marginal. Thus the computation of median age by various scholars cautions
the near danger of ageing population and the consequences.
3.7.13. Index of Ageing
The ageing index is calculated as the number of persons 60 years old
or over per 100 persons under age 15. Table (3.18) shows the index value for the
period 1961- 2001.

Table 3.18
Index of Ageing from 1961-2001

1961 1971 1981 1991 2001

Male 12.9 14.5 19.9 27.1 35.1
Female 14.5 16.4 23 32.3 45.5
Kerala

Total 13.7 15.4 21.5 29.7 40.2

Male 13.3 14.2 16 18.2 19.9

Female 14.1 14.1 16.6 18.1 22.3

India

Total 13.7 14.2 16.4 18.1 21.1

Source: Census reports for various years, Office of Registrar General and Census
Commissioner, India

In 1961 the ratio of persons aged 60 and above to children younger than
15 years was 13.7 in Kerala and India. For the country as a whole, during the
period 1961- 2001, the index value of ageing increased to 21 elderly persons per
100 children, while in Kerala index value during the same period increased more
than 3 times. The ratio of elderly to children was about 14 elderly persons to 100
children. As per 2001, for every hundred young children we have 40 older persons
in Kerala. Projections based on 2001 census show that there will be 97 older
persons for every 100 children in Kerala by 2026. This age composition has social
implications also.
 92

3.7.14. Dependency Burden of Population in Kerala

Conventionally, dependency ratio of population is used to present
the economic consequences of population ageing. It is the ratio of population
below 14 years of age and above 60 years of age to the population in working age,
15-59 years. Overall dependency ratio of the state declined from 94.03 percent in
1961 to 54.19 percent in 2001. This decline in dependency ratio is due to the
reduction in the number of dependent children as a consequence of fertility
decline. However, a tendency to increase dependency burden of working age
population is projected to reach a ratio of 71.17 percent by 2031. There may a
change in the composition of overall dependency ratio in the state. To get a more
clear view about the composition of burden, assessment of child dependency ratio
and old age dependency ratio is also made. Figure (3.6) shows the composition of
overall dependency ratio during 1961-2051.
Figure 3.6

Dependency ratio of population in Kerala

90

80

70
dependency ratio

60
child dependency
50
ratio
40 old age
dependency ratio
30

20

10

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Years

Source: Census reports for various years, Office of Registrar General and
Census Commissioner, India
The trends show that child dependency ratio has shown a decline from
82.71 percent to 39.73 percent during 1961-2001 and an increasing trend in the
case of old age dependency ratio from 11.2 percent to 15.06 percent. At present,
child population accounts for larger share in overall dependency ratio.
 93

Demographic projections suggest that by 2030, the age dependency ratio will
surpass the child dependency ratio in the state. It may be inferred that, in the
coming decades the burden of a large group of aged people will have to be borne
by relatively smaller younger population. Table (3.19) shows the gender-wise
distribution of old age dependency in state.

Table 3.19
Gender Wise Old Age Dependency Ratio in India and Kerala
1961 1971 1981 1991 2001
Male 11.13 11.26 12.59 13.72 15.24

Female 11.51 11.97 13.49 15.07 17.73

Kerala

Total 11.33 11.62 13.05 14.41 16.53

Male 10.91 11.39 11.84 12.16 12.45

Female 10.94 11.57 12.24 12.23 13.77
India

Total 10.93 11.47 12.04 12.19 13.08

Source: Census reports for various years, Office of Registrar General and
Census Commissioner, India

Compared to other Indian states, Kerala is having highest old age

dependency ratio. From 1961 onwards Kerala‟s old age dependency ratio is higher
than India. This higher dependency ratio is an indication of increased proportion
of aged in the state. In India and Kerala the female dependency ratio is higher than
males but this gender-gap in dependency ratio is more in Kerala. Higher
proportion of females among old age population as result of greater longevity may
be the reason for this high female dependency ratio in Kerala.
3.7.15. Economic Dependence of Elderly
Dependency ratio has only limited scope in assessing the economic
consequences of population ageing. All the persons above 60 need not be
dependents. There are evidences that elderly continue to participate in economic
activities even at old age. Economic dependence of elderly gives the exact burden
of population ageing.
 94

Table 3.20
Level of Economic Dependence of Elderly

Dependency Status

Not dependent Partially Fully dependent

dependent
Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban
Male 361 468 204 183 432 345
Kerala

Female 102 189 183 155 700 640

Male 513 555 152 134 320 301

India

Female 139 170 124 95 720 721

Source: National Sample Survey Organisation, 60th round, 2006

Table (3.20) shows the level of economic dependence of elderly in the

state. The survey finds that 44.80 percent of urban males and 18.90 percent of
urban females are financially independent as against 36.10 percent of rural males
and 10.20 percent of rural females. The data reveal gender disparity in the
dependence status of elderly. Among the elderly who are fully dependent females
constitute a greater proportion. It is found that 70 percent of older women in rural
area and 64 percent in urban females in Kerala are fully dependent on others for
financial support, while 43.20 percent of older men in rural area and 34.50 percent
of older men in urban area are fully dependent on others for their basic needs. Low
work participation rate and loss of spouse affect the financial security of elderly
women. Further, elderly women are engaged in household activities for which
they are not paid. Economic dependency of elderly, especially among older
women, underlines the need for better social security provision by government.
3.7.16. Morbidity Rate among Elderly in Kerala
Kerala is currently undergoing an epidemiological transition i.e.
transition from infectious and parasitic diseases to chronic and degenerative
diseases as the primary causes of morbidity and mortality.
 95

Table 3.21
Incidence of Morbidity of Aged in Kerala
Male Female All ages

Male Female
Rural 56.2 58.6 24.2 26.6
Kerala

Urban 52.9 57.4 23.5 24.4

Rural 28.5 28.2 8.3 9.3

India

Urban 35.2 38.3 9.1 10.8

Source: Govt of India (2006): Morbidity, Health care and condition of aged,
NSSO 60th round (January- June 2004), NSS Report No.507, NSSO, NewDelhi

The state is known for high levels of morbidity rate for all ages
(Suryanarayana2008). Co-existence of high level of morbidity with low level of
mortality has attracted the attention of scholars. Incidence of morbidity rate is
higher in Kerala with nearly one fourth of the population suffers from diseases
while the rate is less than 10 percent for all India (table 3.21). This is reflected in
the case of aged population. Gender-wise analysis shows that older women suffer
from more morbidity than men. A study (Vijay Kumar et al, 1994) also confirmed
that though the death rates are lower, women suffer from more morbidity than
men. High humidity levels and wet monsoons in the state may be the reason for
high morbidity rate in the state. Negative life style habits of elderly adversely
affect their health and increases the morbidity conditions among the elderly
(Mutharayappa and Bhat, 2008) Further it is added that high literacy and
accessibility of health providers in Kerala lead to reporting high morbidity (Nair,
2010)

3.8. Socio-Economic Characteristics of Aged Population in Kerala

The 60th round of National Sample Survey (NSSO) has provided

information on the pattern of living arrangement of elderly in Kerala. Living
arrangement of elderly shows that majority of the elderly in Kerala stays with
either children (35.6 percent) or with spouse (45.5 percent). Martial status of an
 96

elderly shows that nearly one-tenth of elderly men are widowers, while 58.7
percent of older women are widows. This gender difference is mainly due to high
life expectancy of women than men and due to the practice of women to marry
men older than themselves. Further, there is less chance for widows to remarry
than widowers. These trends lead to the problem of loss of emotional support, and
greater dependency among older women. From the period 1961-2001, an
increasing trend is witnessed in the case of elderly whose current status is married
due to an improvement in life expectancy of both men and women in the state.
This may be due to an improvement in life expectancy of elderly as result of better
health care facilities in the state.

High literacy rate of Kerala is reflected in the case of elderly also. The
literacy rate of elderly in the state is 68.46 percent much higher than all India level
(36.31 percent). The census data show that the proportion of elderly who are
literate increases from 48.44 percent in 1981 to 68.46 percent in 2001. This trend
suggests that the proportions of elderly who are literates are more likely to
increase in the coming decades. Though the gender gap in old age literacy is
narrowing, it is still high compared to general population. The gender gap in the
literacy rate declined from 36.66 percent in 1961 to 23.39 percent in 2001. Male-
female difference in literacy rate is 6.34 percent for general population. This is
because those who are now at the age of 60 and above have born in 1930‟s or
1940. Chances of female education were very limited in those days in Kerala. The
proportion of elderly with educational level up to primary or below has declined
from 65.33 in 1981 to 46.99 in 2001. Nearly one-fourth of elderly are having
educational qualifications above middle school in 2001. It is noted that 16 percent
of elderly in the state has educational qualification matric or above in 2001. Their
proportion may likely to increase in coming decades causing pressure for
government in the form of social security or pension benefits.

3.8.1. Work Participation Rate of Elderly Population

Table (3.22) shows the work participation rate of elderly in
Kerala.
 97

Table 3.22
Work participation rate of Elderly in Kerala (in percentages)

Years Male Female Total

1961 65.64 14.76 39.11

1971 60.13 7.71 32.65

1981 49.10 10.00 28.35

1991 45.65 9.61 26.32

2001 40.5 8.8 22.9

Source: Census reports for various years, Office of Registrar General and Census
Commissioner, India

Compared to other Indian states, the work participation rate of

elderly in Kerala is low. The work participation rate (WPR) of older persons in the
state in 2001 was 22.9 percent. This low WPR in Kerala may be due to the
relatively better social security system and relatively low level of poverty in the
state. Work participation rate of elderly in Kerala has shown a decline during the
period 1961-1991 irrespective of gender and location of residence. Work
participation rate continues to be high in the case of older men compared to older
women. Low physical stamina of females and their higher participation in
household activities may be the reasons for their low participation in employment
at old age (Rajan and Mathews, 2006). Higher work participation rate is shown by
elderly in rural areas (28.43 percent) compared to those in urban areas (20.25
percent). Rural character of elderly population along with employment nature also
has a role in determining in work participation of elderly. A study by Rajan and
Zachariah (1997) point out that older workers in the state is likely to be doubled
by 2021 which pose a challenge for government in finding gainful employment for
aged and providing them means of subsistence through pension and social
security.
 98

3.8.2. Activity Status of Elderly Workers in Kerala

Occupational status of elderly and work participation rate of elderly are
closely associated. Employment status of elderly workers shows workers
concentration in primary sector activities. According to 1981 census reports 32.5
percent of elderly were cultivators. Since there is no compulsory retirement age in
activities related to primary sector, they continue to work at old age. Further
economic necessities also force them to continue their labour force participation.
Elderly engaged in construction and service sector activities were very low in
1981. By 2000, proportion of elderly engaged in service and secondary sector
activities has increased. Several parameters like health status, pattern of living
arrangement, economic position of elderly, educational qualifications, marital
status etc would have influenced on the activity status of elderly which needs to be
further studied.

3.8.3. Activity Status of Non-workers

The proportion of non-workers among elderly was 60.89 percent in 1961
and their proportion increased to 77.1 percent in 2001. Though older women
constitute a major share in non-working population, recently there is a decline in
their share. Gender–wise data show that there are more elderly women in the
category of non-workers than men. It is expected as men were more likely to
engage in economic activity. At higher ages it is found that the proportion of
females among non-workers is declining in Kerala. This may be because loss of
spouse at old age may force women to participate in economic activities. Census
data categorised non-workers in the state as pensioners, elderly engaged in
household duties, dependents etc. Others in this category include beggars and
inmates of mental and charitable institutions.
.
 99

Table 3.23
Activity Status of Non-Workers in Kerala

Activity status 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001

Pensioners (20.6) (17.2) (17) (23.3) (23.3)

Household - (8.89) (12.2) (8.2) (9.4)
duties
Dependents (74.6) (72) (68.4) (65.5) (50.6)

Others (4.8) (1.9) (2.4) (3) (16.7)

Male

Total (100) (100) (100) (100) 100

Pensioners (2.5) (1.88) (2.82) (4.1) (5.7)

Household (46) (43.12) (42.23) (45.1) (42.4)

duties
Dependents (50.1) (54.50) (54.27) (50) (47.5)

Others (1.4) (0.50) (0.68) (0.8) (4.4)

Female

Total (100) (100) (100) (100) (100)

Source: Census reports for various years, Office of Registrar General and Census
Commissioner, India

The activity status of non-workers shows that majority of both older

men and women are dependents. Trends indicated a decrease in the proportion of
dependents from 74.6 percent in 1961 to 50.6 percent in 2001 for older men and
50.1 percent to 47.5 percent for older women. This may be because of marginal
increase in the proportion of pensioners or renters during the same period. There
are more male pensioners (23.3 percent) than female pensioners (5.7 percent) in
the state. This may be due to the low work participation of females in organised
sectors. It is expected that only elderly receiving pension are relatively better off
than others. It is found that 42.4 percent of older women were engaged in
household activities compared to 9.4 percent of older men. In most cases, older
women engaging in household activities are contributing to family by cooking and
child care. High proportion of dependent population especially among older
women is a matter of concern as it put pressure on family and government
regarding the care of elderly.
 100

3.9. Conclusion
The changes in the age structure and gender of elderly population
have posed serious challenge in the demographic and development field. In
coming decades the major challenge before the state is provision of employment
opportunities, social security and pension for the aged. A large share of old age
population will increase the welfare expenditure of the government in the form of
social security. Further, high life expectancy raises the cost of promoting benefits
as the government has to provide benefits over a longer period. Though the policy
holders raised the problem of state‟s affordability in providing social security
benefits to the growing elderly population, how far these schemes are efficient in
providing support to the elderly is also a matter of concern. Hence in the forth
coming chapters trends and issues related to the care and social security
arrangements of elderly in both formal and informal setting is analysed.

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