2014

Dudario
Estructuras Comparadas

Giselle Barbera
Prof. Mariano Quinterno
24/10/2014
Morphology
Concept
Morphology is the study of word structure, word formation, word derivation and word
inflexion.
Morphemes and Lexemes
The lexeme (lexeme) works at a semantic level and is the principal unit in a word,
while the morpheme (morfema) is the smallest unit of meaning.
Morphemes can be classified as follows:
1. Because of their dependence on other units of meaning:
 Free (libres): They can function independently as words. This is the case
of the prepositions, the conjunctions and the determiners.
 Bound (dependientes): They can only function when attached to a
lexeme or free morpheme.
2. Because of their function:
 Inflectional (flexivos): They do not change the category of the word, but
they change its meaning or class. They can be verbal, adjectival or
nominal.
 Derivational (derivativos): They change the category of the word by
adding suffixes (sufijos) and prefixes (prefijos).
Inflectional morphemes
ENGLISH
Nouns
Plural –s The books Los libros
Possessive –‘s John’s book El libro de John
Verbs
Inflection 3rd person He reads well Lee bien
singular –s
Progressive form –ing He is working Está trabajando
Past form –ed He worked Trabajó
Past participle form –en/- He has eaten/studied Ha comido/estudiado
ed
Adjectives
Comparative –er He’s taller than you Es más alto que vos
Superlative -est He’s the tallest boy of his Es el chico de su edad más
age alto

SPANISH
Nouns
Person Niña/Niño Girl/Boy

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Number Libros Books
Verbs
Person (Tú) corrías (You) were running
Number (Ellos) corrían (They) were running
Tense (Él) trabajaba (He) worked
Adjectives
Person Hermosa Beautiful
Number Hermosos Beautiful
Grade Él es menos inteligente que He is less intelligent than I
yo am

Derivational morphemes
 Suffixes: they are bound and go after the lexeme. They carry the word stress. In
some cases, the suffixes in English and Spanish are very similar. However, in
some other cases, the morphological processes follow the rules of the English
language:
ENGLISH
Suffix Derivation Example
-er verb to noun worker
-ful noun to adjective faithful
-en adjective to verb fallen
-less noun to adjective heartless
-ness adjective to noun happiness
-ing verb to noun shooting
-ing verb to adjective tiring
-ly adjective to adverb quietly

SPANISH
Suffix Derivation Example
-ear noun to verb agujerear
-oso/a noun to adjective maravilloso
-mente adjective to adverb alentadoramente
-on changes the noun person casón

 Prefixes: they go before the lexeme. In Spanish they are soundless, unlike in
English. In English, also, there is a group of prefixes which do not affect the
lexical category of the word; they are called negative prefixes.
Prefix Derivation Example
mis- verb to verb misinterpret
un- adjective to adjective unconscious

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 un- verb to verb untie

 Interfixes and infixes: Interfixes are added between the prefixes and the
suffixes to avoid cacophony between two sounds and homonymy. They are
soundless and they lack meaning. There are two types of interfixes:
o To avoid hiatus: for example, in Spanish, the interfix c is added between
cafe and ito to avoid a hiatus in cafeito (the resultant word is cafecito)
o With differentiating purpose: added to distinguish between two words
with a different meaning. For example: carnicero (person) to
differentiate him from carnero (animal)
Infixes occur inside a lexeme and add grammatical or referential meaning.

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The Verb
Definition
The verb is a lexical word which, along with the noun, constitutes one of the key parts in a
sentence and one of the pillars on which discourse is organized. In accordance with María
Marta García Negroni, the verb is the nucleus of the predicate in a sentence:
María compró/estrenó/lució/se probó un vestido azul.
Peter went to the cinema last night.
Verbs hold different categories of number, person, mood, tense, aspect and voice. Its
morphological structure is made up of:
a) A lexeme or root and
b) A group of morphemes, which flex to form the different categories already mentioned
above.
Differences between English and Spanish verbs
It is necessary to point out that English verbs are made up of a set of independent
morphemes, which have meaning when they are in isolation. However, Spanish
language is known to belong to the category of flectional languages, the morphemes of
which (both, tense/aspect morphemes and person/number morphemes) cannot be
separated from the verbal root (unlike English verbs), thus forming a morphological
unit.
Hablo/Hablará/Hablaremos
I am speaking/He or She will speak/We will speak
Non- conjugated/non-finite forms of the verb
They do not indicate tense, person or number
SPANISH
In Spanish they are called verboides. They are made up of the verbal root followed by
their own ending. There are three non-conjugated (or non- finite) forms:
 Infinitivo/Infinitive: It is the conventional citation form of the verb (i.e. how it
appears in dictionaries and the form by which the whole paradigm is
represented).
In Spanish, the infinitivo is signaled by the suffix –r after the theme vowel (vocal
temática). The variations produced by the theme vowel allow organizing the
different verbs in three distinct terminations:
o First termination: Formed by the thematic vowel /-a/ followed by
morpheme /-r/ (cantar, fumar, bailar)
o Second termination: Formed by the thematic vowel /-e/ and morpheme
/-r/ (tejer, cocer, comer)
o Third termination: formed by the thematic vowel /-i/ followed by
morpheme /-r/. (venir, seguir, reprimir).
These terminations fall under one of the two types of infinitives called infinitivo
simple.

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 The other class of the infinitive is the so called infinitivo compuesto, which is
composed of the verb haber in the infinitive mood followed by a verb in past
participle (Haber viajado en crucero fue una de las mejores cosas)
It may function as a verb or as a noun.
Viajar a Italia es lo que más deseo. (Verb)
El fumar es perjudicial para la salud. (Noun)
In English, there also exist three non-conjugated or non-finite verbal forms:
bare and full Infinitive, gerund and participle.
Bare infinitive is used:
 With pure modal verbs:
- I can speak English fluently.
- My sister should wear a seat belt whenever she drives a car.
 After I’d rather:
- I’d rather not discuss with my parents.
- I’d rather die first.
 After let and make (only in the active voice):
- Paul made me go to the cinema in the morning.
- I let my mother feed the dogs.
 After perception verbs:
- I saw her leave the classroom.
Full infinitive is used:
 As a subject:
- To go for a walk early in the morning is advised by the doctors.
 As a Direct Object to the verb (only after certain verbs1):
- The doctor has come to check you up for blood pressure.
 After too or enough:
- She is too tall to be in fifth grade.
- I think I’m old enough to enter the casino, I’m eighteen!
 To indicate purpose:
- I went to the bank to get a check.
 After WH-words:
- I don’t know who to consult.
 After let and make (only in the passive voice)
- I was made to repeat the exercise.
- Paul was let to see his daughter again after all these years.
 After certain adjectives:
- Unfortunately, I was unable to work for over a week.
- I am really tired. I’m ready to go to bed.
 Gerund: The gerund in English is part of the infinitive in Spanish.
1
After certain verbs such as: ‘let’, ‘need’, ‘make’, ‘see’; we use the bare infinitive (the infinitive without
‘to’)

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 Smoking is prohibited
Difference between Gerund and Present Participle
My passion is playing tennis (Gerund).
My son is playing tennis (Present Participle).
The English gerund is translated in Spanish as an infinitive. Nevertheless, in
Spanish we use the gerundio to translate the present participle.
The gerund is used:
 As subject:
- Cooking is fun.
- Eating fruits and vegetables is good for your health.
 As direct object:
- I suggest going to the cinema.
- Francisco enjoys swimming more than spending time with his girlfriend
Diana.
 With prepositions:
- I admit to having killed my wife.
- I look forward to seeing you soon.
 As adjective:
- A walking stick. (Classifier)
 Participles
Present participle:
Uses:
 With perception verbs:
- I felt the ground shaking for about half a minute.
 As an adjective:
- Sleeping beauty.
- Interesting book.
 As a verb:
- Peter is playing tennis right now.
- My sister is annoying me very much.
Gerundio: It is like the present participle in English. It may be functioning as an
adjective or as an adverb, but it is still a verb.
Ana se recibió con honores estudiando mucho. (Adverb)
En la plaza había niños jugando. (Adjective)
Uses:
 Simultaneity:
- Estudió escuchando música.
 Adverbial function:
- Canta desafinando.
 In supplementary propositions:
- Ana, viendo que no tenía otra salida, optó por decir la verdad.

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  When it refers to the direct object on the main sentence with a predicative
function:
- Vieron a Matías corriendo en el recreo.
 In absolute constructions:
- Leyendo, Juan, no entenderás lo suficiente. (condicional)
- Sabiendo que él estaría, no nos fuimos de vacaciones. (causal)
 As part of verbal phrases:
- Viene trayendo bolsas muy pesadas.
- Pablo anda conociendo gente nueva.
Past participle: The regular verbs are signaled by the suffix –ed. Then there are the
irregular ones. In Spanish, the past participle is the participio which ends with the
suffixes –ado and –ido.
Uses:
 As a verb:
- Peter has bought an umbrella.
- I have figured out what Mary is planning.
 As an adjective:
- He is an interested person.
- We were bored with the movie.
Conjugated verbs
Grammatical categories
Verbs admit different categories:
 Tense: It refers to the time when an action is performed. An action or event
may belong to the present, past or future.
 Mood: Grammatical mood refers to a group of verbal forms used to express
modality. Modality is divided into two types:
- Modality in a sentence level: it applies to the different types of
sentences (declarative, imperative, interrogative, desiderative, exclamation,
etc.)
- Verbal modality: It relates to modal verbs. (see the modality section
below)
Semantically, modality expresses the attitude of the speaker in the presence of
the action performed by verbs.
a) Indicative mood will be used in both, English and Spanish, when the action
is considered real or objective.
b) If the action is regarded as a result of an internal process influenced by fear,
desire, doubt, necessity and possibility, subjunctive mood will be used in
both languages.
c) If the action is considered as an order or plea, Imperative mood will be
used in both languages.
With regards to syntax:

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 a) Indicative mood is regarded as an independent mood.
b) Subjunctive mood, instead, is a dependent mood; not only of verbs or
adverbs denoting desire, fear, possibility or doubt, but also of subordinate
periods, when there is not intervention of the speaker’s subjectivity in the
process:
Las conversaciones se terminaron sin que hubiera acuerdo
In English, Subjunctive mood may be defined as the one that denotes
condition, hypothesis, possibility, etc. and not as a mood that denotes real
facts.
Aspect of verbs
It is related to the progression or concretion of an action. It relates to the development
of an action.
There are two grammatical aspects:
 Perfective: when the action is concluded.
 Imperfective: it is focused on the progression of the action, regardless of its
beginning and ending.
English:
- I ran (perfectivo).
- I was running (imperfectivo).
The aspect may appear in the semantic content of a lexeme (lexical aspect):
There are four types of events:
 States: statics (un estado es un evento que no ocurre, sino que se da): saber,
conocer, querer.
 Activities or processess: Dynamic events, non limited (ocurre y progresa en el
tiempo): correr, caminar, leer, escribir.
 Fullfillment: Dynamic event, limited (progresa hacia un límite interno): Escribir
una carta, correr una maratón.
 Achievements: Dynamic event, limitated (de duración breve, culmina en un
punto): alcanzar la cima, nacer.
Telicity
Verbs may be:
 Telic: they are presented as having an endpoint. They need to be perfective.
 Atelic: they are not presented as having an endpoint. They are imperfective.
Passive voice
It presents an action executed by an agent to a patient, which suffers the action.
Spanish
PASIVA ANALÍTICA: verbo “ser” o “estar” + participio (el delincuente fue detenido por
la policía)
PASIVA REFLEJA O PASIVA CON “SE”:
- It is only possible in third person
- Subject is postponed

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 E.g. Se alquila departamento.
Inglés: The agent is preceded by the preposition “by”.
Subject + finite form of to be + Past Participle (3rd column of irregular verbs)
E.g. they were caught by the police
Verb classification
a) Transitive and intransitive verbs
Transitive verbs: they need the presence of a direct object, which receives the
action, to make sense.
He conseguido dos entradas para el teatro
I baked some cookies
Intransitive verbs: They do not need a direct object to make sense.
Juan delinque
I laughed/cried
In Spanish, intransitivity is shown through the self-reflexive form “se” (se rompió,
se caerá).
Semantically
b) Regular and irregular verbs
English: regular verbs are formed by the suffix /-ed/ to form the past simple and
past participle.
Irregular verbs do not follow any rule. These verbs suffer changes in the root when
they are conjugated into de past simple and past participle.
Spanish: Los verbos irregulares son aquellos que en su conjugación sufren
alteraciones respecto de los modelos representados por cualquiera de las tres
conjugaciones regulares.2 (Caber: Yo quepo, yo cupe, yo cabré). Pueden afectar al
lexema, a los morfemas o a ambos a la vez.
Personal or impersonal verbs
Spanish: Impersonal verbs in their original sense are conjugated into the third person
of the singular (verbos meteorológicos o climáticos: llueve, nieva, etc.)
English: Impersonal verbs are are expressed through the use of it or they (It snowed
yesterday)
Acontecer, suceder, ocurrir, constar, parecer (terciopersonales)
They are conjugated only into the third person
- Me parece bien.
In English, these kinds of verbs are preceded by it (happen, seem, occur)
- It happened suddenly.
Impersonal sentences with verbs such as seem or look are expressed by a process
called “clefting” (the sentence is formed by a main clause and a subordinate clause to
express a meaning that could be expressed through a simple sentence.
“It seems you are tired” (you are tired)
c) Copulative verbs
2
(García Negroni M. M., 2004)

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 Spanish: ser, estar, parecer, resultar (poseen un significado mínimo de forma que
añaden muy poco al sujeto y por ello son casi prescindibles).
- “La casa es azul” (“La casa azul”)
Rigen al predicativo, mutable o sustituible por el pronombre átono lo (“La casa lo es”)
English: A copulative verb is be, which is equivalent to “ser” or “estar” in Spanish
- “The house is far away”

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Modality
Concept
Modality may be defined as a semantic category, which expresses subjectivity into
language. From a semantic point of view, grammatical mood, which indicates modality,
expresses the attitude of the speaker, when they are in the presence of a verbal
action.
Indicative mood: Whether the action is considered as real or objective, this mood will
be used by English as well as Spanish language.
Subjunctive mood: Whether the action is regarded as the result of an internal process
governed by fear, desire, doubt, possibility or necessity, This mood will be used in both
languages.
Imperative mood: Whether the action is regarded as a command or a plea, this mood
will be used in English as well as in Spanish.
Grammatical mood
a) Modality in a sentential level: This kind of modality is related to the different
types of sentences, Such as declarative, imperative, interrogative, desiderative,
exclamation, etc.
b) Verbal modality: It is related to modal verbs.
Classification of modality
The modal verbs have three main functions: epistemic, deontic and alethic
 Epistemic: it has to do with whether something is true or not (true and false
facts)
Epistemic modal verbs indicate:
a) Ability:
- Can/can’t: “I can speak English fluently”/ “Julia, take care of my brother, he
can’t swim very well”
- Could: “I couldn’t finish my math’s exam, I’m sure I didn’t pass” (No pude
terminar mi examen de matemáticas, seguro desaprobé)
Beware of could: Could is translated in Spanish as “podía” or “podría” depending on
the context. Never translate it as “pude”.
- Couldn’t: It CAN be translated as “pude”: “I couldn’t finish the report” (no pude
terminar el informe)
b) Logical conclusions
Certainty: Must “I must do my homework for tomorrow or my teacher will be angry”
(debo hacer mi tarea para mañana o mi profesora se va a enojar)
Probability: May “John may be in his office by this time” (Es probable que John esté en
su oficina ahora)
Possibility: Might “my sister might have forgotten her handkerchief at school” (Es
posible que mi hermana se haya olvidado su pañuelo en el colegio)

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Impossibility: Can’t “I tried, but I can’t stand my schoolmate anymore, he’s such an
annoying guy!” (Lo intenté pero no puedo soportar a mi compañero de clases, ¡es muy
molesto!)
 Deontic: It is related with what is right and what it isn’t.
a) Obligation: Differences with regards to “must” and “have to”
- Must: It is regarded as an internal obligation to the speaker
Yo creo que algo puede ser bueno para vos o para mí.
I must leave.
- Have to: it is used to express an external obligation to the speaker. It is an
obligation imposed by another person or by the law. It has to do with
inevitability
I have to wear a helmet.
b) Prohibition:
- Mustn’t: You mustn’t arrive late.
c) Lack of obligation:
- Don’t have/need to: You don’t have/need to call every time you want to come
home.
d) Advice:
- Should: You should wear a sweater, it’s very cold outside.
- Ought to: to express the view that something is the right thing to do, because
it’s morally correct, polite, or someone’s duty. Implica una cuestión moral. You
ought to admit that you made a mistake
- Had better: warning. You’d better go to the doctor or...
e) Offer: Would you like some water? (Se usa “some” cuando se espera que la
persona diga que sí)
Would you like any water? (Cuando se usa “any”, respuesta puede ser afirmativa o
negativa. No está esperando un sí)
- Shall I give you…? (Informal)
- I’ll give you a hand
f) Suggestion:
- Shall we go to the theatre?
- We could go to the theatre
g) Necessity:
- You don’t need to talk to do it
- You needn’t do it
In the past there are some differences with regards to “didn’t need” and “needn’t”:
1) I didn’t need to buy a car (And I didn’t do it)
2) You needn’t have gone to my aunt’s house (but you did it anyway)
h) Criticism:
- You should have accompanied her to the doctor
i) Request:

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 - Can/could you bring me a glass of water?
- Will/Would you please open the window?
j) Dilemma:
- Should I stay or should I go?
k) Commandments/formal contracts:
- You shall not kill
- The party shall be responsible for…
l) Tener la obligación de…
- Be to : You are to go to the supermarket
- Be supposed to: You are supposed to watch your sister while I’m out
- Be obliged to: Peter is obliged to use a uniform every day.
 Alethic:
It is related to predictability, to the future.
Will: Will you go to Córdoba?
May: She may be in Italy next summer
Might: She might be in Italy next summer
Won’t: You won’t receive any money from me!
Adverbios de enunciado y adverbios de enunciación
De acuerdo con Emile Benveniste, cuando el enunciador se sirve de la lengua para
influir de algún modo sobre el comportamiento del alocutario, dispone para ellos
de un aparato de funciones:
- La interrogación: Enunciación construida para suscitar una respuesta
- La intimación: Enunciación contruida para suscitar una acción del tú.
- La aserción: Enunciación que apunta a comunicar una certeza.
Estos procedimientos que le permiten al locutor situarse con respecto a su
interlocutor se conocen bajo el nombre de “modalidades de enunciación”. A esta
categoría perteneces también ciertos adverbios que se caracterizan por calificar la
enunciación en la que aparecen: Francamente, sinceramente, confidencialmente
- “Sinceramente, el amarillo te queda mal” (hace referencia al acontecimiento
enunciativo)
- “Honestly, she did not come”
Simultáneamente, afirma Benveniste, el locutor dispone de una serie de modalidades
formales como:
- Ciertos adverbios modales: probablemente, sin duda, quizás
Que le permiten expresar sus actitudes respecto de lo que dice o enuncia
(esperanza, deseo, aprensión, etc.). Estas modalidades reciben el nombre de
modalidades de enunciado.
- Sinceramente/francamente su discurso fue espantoso
- “Luckily, she did not come”

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The Subjunctive Mood
The first aspect to take into account about the subjunctive mood (SUBJ) is that it is
used in hypothetical situations; this is the main difference it presents with respect to
the indicative mood (IND), which is used when we talk about facts.
Subjunctive markers in English
There are four markers which trigger the subjunctive mood:
1. Bare Infinitive
2. Were
3. Past Tense Forms
4. Modals
1. Bare Infinitive
She insists that he go (SUBJ) to the club everyday.
Insiste en que vaya (SUBJ) al club todos los días.
On this example, the subjunctive can be easily noticed because the construction used
(3rd person singular + bare infinitive) is incorrect in the indicative mood. Given this,
there is only one correct way to translate this sentence into Spanish.
However, the bare infinitive, when used as a marker of the subjunctive with persons
other than 1st person singular or 3rd person singular, can be ambiguous (A), as in the
following examples:
She insists that they go (SUBJ/IND) to the club everyday. (A)
Ella insiste en que vayan (SUBJ)/van (IND) al club todos los días.
In the aforementioned example, the key which triggers the subjunctive is the
imposition of the speaker’s will, whereas the indicative mood would simply state a
fact.
2. Were
In informal language, it is replaced by was. It is important to point out that it is only
recognizable as a marker of the subjunctive mood when used with 1st and 3rd persons
singular, due to the fact that, as happens with the bare infinitive, it could be
ambiguous when used with persons other than 1st or 3rd singular (its form remains
the same as the one used for the indicative).
She walks as if she was/were (SUBJ) a model. (The verb implies that she is not a
model, but walks as one)
Camina como si fuera/fuese (SUBJ) una modelo.
Cf.
She walks as she is (IND) a model. (The verb implies the fact that she is a model)
Camina como la modelo que es (IND).
3. Past Tense
In this case, we could be faced with ambiguity, as in the example below:
She insisted they went (SUBJ/IND) to the club everyday. (A)
Insistía en que fueran (SUBJ)/iban (IND) al club todos los días.

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Other examples to take into account:
 Wish: I wish I had (SUBJ) a car -> Desearía tener (IND) un auto (In Spanish it is
indicative because the desire is a fact, although having a car is hypothetical)
If only I had (SUBJ) a car -> Ojalá tuviera (SUBJ) un auto
I wish I had been (SUBJ) to the party -> Desearía haber ido (IND) a la
fiesta
 Rather: I’d rather she came (SUBJ) -> Preferiría que viniera (SUBJ)
 It’s (high) time: It’s high time you left (SUBJ) -> Es hora de que te vayas (SUBJ)
4. Modals
In English, modals are used to convey mood (M), Tense (Tn), and Modality proper
(Mp). Nonetheless, in Spanish, mood and tense are morphologically marked, so
modals are only used to indicate modality proper.
ENGLISH SPANISH
1. Mood (M) ‒‒‒‒‒-
2. Tense (Tn) ‒‒‒‒‒-
3. Modality proper Modality proper
(Mp) (Mp)

a) Mood
a. I demand that he should (M) go.
b. Pido que (se) vaya.
b) Tense
a. He would (Tn) go if you asked him.
b. Él (se) iría si se lo pidieras.
c) Modality Proper
a. He should (Mp: Advisability) leave now.
Debería (Mp: Advisability) irse ahora.
Other ways to convey the Subjunctive in English
1. Connectives
a) Compounds with –ever
Whatever she did (IND), it was never enough for him.
Hiciera lo que (ella) hiciera (SUBJ), para él nunca era suficiente.
b) Even if
Even if she went (SUBJ) with us, she should’ve paid the ticket.
Aunque (ella) hubiese ido (SUBJ) con nosotros, tendría que haber pagado el
boleto.
2. Infinitive
This is one of the most ambiguous ways to mark the subjunctive.
Borges went to Switzerland to die there (A).
Borges fue a Suiza para morir allí (A). (If there is no hint to disambiguate, it is
correct to keep the ambiguity in the translation)
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Cf.
Borges went to Switzerland only to die there.
Borges fue a Suiza y murió allí/solo para morir allí. (The insertion of only
breaks the ambiguity, because it expresses a result)
3. Position of clauses
This is typical of adverbial clauses, especially when it is unknown whether the clause
modifies the verb in the main clause or in the subordinate clause, as in the example
below:
They told me they would leave when Susan arrived (IND) (A).
Me dijeron que se irían cuando Susan llegó (IND)/llegara (SUBJ).
Cf.
When Susan arrived (IND), they told me they would leave.
Cuando Susan llegó (IND), me dijeron que se irían.
Noun Clauses
1. Noun Clause as Direct Object
In this type of clauses, the key to trigger the subjunctive is the connotation of the verb
(Vb) in the main clause.

VERB IN THE MAIN CLAUSE

English Spanish
a. Volition (Imposition of will) a. Volition (Imposition of will)
b. ‒‒ b. Uncertainty
c. ‒‒ c. Feelings

a. Volition
She had regained consciousness, but was sleeping. A kind nurse suggested (K:
volition) I go (SUBJ) home and get (SUBJ) some rest.
Ella había recuperado el conocimiento, pero dormía. Una amable enfermera me
sugirió (K: volition) que me fuera (SUBJ) a casa y descansara (SUBJ) un poco.
b. Uncertainty
I doubt (K: uncertainty) this is (IND) what he wants us to do.
Dudo (K: uncertainty) que esto sea (SUBJ) lo que quiere que hagamos.
c. Feelings
I’d really appreciate (K: feelings) if you could stay (IND) for the night.
Realmente te lo agradacería (K: feelings) si pudieras quedarte (SUBJ) por esta
noche.
2. Noun Clause in Apposition
NOUN HEAD
English Spanish
a. Volition (Imposition of will) a. Volition (Imposition of will)

17
b. ‒‒ b. Uncertainty
c. ‒‒ c. Feelings

a. Volition
And in Tommy’s suggestion (K: volition) that Andy ask (SUBJ) for his solicitor’s
help, there was fair indication of what the detectives would do next.
Y la sugerencia (K: volition) de Tommy de que Andy llamara (SUBJ) a su
abogado indicaba que sería lo próximo que harían los detectives.
b. Uncertainty
You are saying that Mrs. Lambert organized a wedding without any assurance
(K: uncertainty) that there was (IND) a bridegroom?
¿Estás diciendo que la Sra. Lambert organizó una boda sin la seguridad (K:
uncertainty) de que hubiera (SUBJ) novio?
c. Feelings
It is my hope (K: feeling) that you are enjoying (IND) the reception.
Es mi deseo (K: feeling) que estén disfrutando (SUBJ) de la reunión.
3. Noun Clause as Adjectival Complement
ADJECTIVE HEAD
English Spanish
a. Volition (Imposition of will) a. Volition (Imposition of will)
b. ‒‒ b. Uncertainty
c. ‒‒ c. Feelings

a. Volition
I was adamant (K: volition) that he’d be appointed (SUBJ).
Me mantuve firme (K: volition) en que fuera elegido (SUBJ).
b. Uncertainty
Monk was not sure (K: uncertainty) if he had spoken (IND) impulsively.
Monk no estaba seguro (K: uncertainty) de que no hubiera hablado (SUBJ)
impulsivamente.
c. Feelings
I am very happy (K: feeling) that my daughter is marrying (IND) Henry.
Estoy muy contento (K: feeling) de que mi hija se case (SUBJ) con Henry.

4. Noun Clause as Subjective Complement

SUBJECT
English Spanish
a. Volition (Imposition of will) a. Volition (Imposition of will)
b. ‒‒ b. Uncertainty
c. ‒‒ c. Feelings

18
a. Volition
The suggestion (K: volition) was that she accompany (SUBJ) several
government officials to the morgue.
La sugerencia (K: volition) fue que acompañara (SUBJ) a varios funcionarios
públicos a la morgue.
b. Uncertainty
My doubt (K: uncertainty) is that this was (IND) what he intended to do.
Mi duda (K: uncertainty) es que esto fuera (SUBJ) lo que él había querido
hacer.
c. Feelings
My hope (K: feeling) is that you are having (IND) a wonderful time in Punta del
Este.
Les deseo (K: feeling) que la estén pasando (SUBJ) de maravilla en Punta del
Este.

When the subject is co-referent in both clauses, we replace the noun clause by an
infinitival phrase in Spanish:
I’m sorry I made you talk about her.
Lamento haberte hecho hablar de ella.
5. Noun Clauses in Extraposition
In this type of clauses, the key is the Complement (C): either the Subjective
Complement (SC), functioning as Real Subject in Extraposition (RSEP); or the Objective
Complement (OC), functioning as Real Direct Object in Extraposition (RDOEP).
SC/OC
English Spanish
a. Point of view: a. Point of view:
1. ‒ 1. present Tm reference
2. future Tm reference 2. future Tm reference
b. Necessity b. Necessity
c. ‒‒ c. Uncertainty

a. Point of view
Your aunt Maud is here. She is a maddening woman and I consider it a just
judgement upon the Liberal Party (K: point of view ‒ future Tm reference) that
she should espouse (SUBJ) its cause. (RDOEP)
Su tía Maud llegó. Es una mujer irritante y considero que es el castigo que se
merece el Partido Liberal (K: point of view – future Tm reference) que ella
abrace (SUBJ) su causa. (RDOEP) (A)
Cf.

19
 Your aunt Maud is here. She is a maddening woman and I consider it a just
judgement upon the Liberal Party (K: point of view ‒ present Tm reference) that
she should [Emphasis] espouse (IND) its cause. (RDOEP)
Su tía Maud llegó. Es una mujer irritante y considero que es realmente el castigo
que se merece el Partido Liberal (K: point of view – presente Tm reference) que
ella abrace (SUBJ) su causa. (RDOEP) (A)
In Spanish, there is no way to express emphasis through mood, since future and
present Tm reference always require subjunctive.
b. Necessity
The landing site must be 100 yards wide by 250 yards deep. It is essential (K:
necessity) that it be (SUBJ) clear of mines and artificial obstacles.
La pista de aterrizaje debe tener 100 yardas de ancho por 250 de largo. Es
fundamental (K: necessity) que esté (SUBJ) libre de minas y de cualquier otro
tipo de obstáculos.
In English it is very common to find an infinitival clause as (RSEP):
Since everybody involved is an experienced police officer, it will not be necessary
(K: necessity) for me to tell (INF) you that the best way to blow this
investigation is to let those scumbags even suspect somebody’s taking a close
look at them.
Como todos los involucrados son policías experimentados, no será necesario (K:
necessity) que les diga (SUBJ) que la mejor manera de hacer fracasar esta
investigación es dejar que esa escoria siquiera sospeche que están bajo la
mira.
The idea of subjunctive conveyed in English by the infinitival clause is rendered in
Spanish by a noun clause. Nevertheless, other possible translation would be:
Como todos los involucrados son policías experimentados, no será necesario (K:
necessity) decirles (INF) que la mejor manera de hacer fracasar esta
investigación es dejar que esa escoria siquiera sospeche que están bajo la
mira.
I. IF
IF introducing noun clauses is the same as THAT; as well as their Spanish versions, SI y
QUE.
(…) my client will sue for custody of his son if and when your Petition for Divorce
reaches the courts. He still earnestly hopes to avoid this eventuality by
persuading you to return to the matrimonial home. In the interim, he suggests
that it will be the fairest, most appropriate, and most beneficial arrangement
(K: point of view – future Tm reference) if Leo is moved (IND) immediately to
Brock’s Preparatory School, where both his parents will be free to visit him on
equal terms. (RSEP)
(…) mi cliente pedirá la tenencia de su hijo siempre y cuando su demanda de
divorcio llegue a los tribunales. Todavía honestamente espera evitar esta

20
 eventualidad persuadiéndola de regresar al hogar conyugal. Mientras tanto,
cree que será el arreglo más justo, apropiado y beneficioso (K: point of view –
future Tm reference) que Leo sea trasladado (SUBJ) de inmediato a Brook’s
Preparatory School donde ambos padres podrán visitarlo en igualdad de
condiciones. (RSEP)
Cf.
(…) mi cliente pedirá la tenencia de su hijo siempre y cuando su demanda de
divorcio llegue a los tribunales. Todavía honestamente espera evitar esta
eventualidad persuadiéndola de regresar al hogar conyugal. Mientras tanto,
cree que el arreglo más justo, apropiado y beneficioso (K: point of view – future
Tm reference) es que Leo sea trasladado (SUBJ) de inmediato a Brook’s
Preparatory School donde ambos padres podrán visitarlo en igualdad de
condiciones. (SC)
… but,
(…) mi cliente pedirá la tenencia de su hijo siempre y cuando su demanda de
divorcio llegue a los tribunals. Todavía honestamente espera evitar esta
eventualidad persuadiéndola de regresar al hogar conyugal. Mientras tanto,
cree que será el más justo, apropiado y beneficioso (K: point of view – future Tm
reference) si Leo es trasladado (SUBJ in meaning but IND in form) de
inmediato a Brook’s Preparatory School donde ambos padres podrán visitarlo
en igualdad de condiciones. (RSEP) In this case, es trasladado is the correct
option because Spanish language does not allow SI to be followed by the
subjunctive form when the verb in the clause is in the present tense.
c. Uncertainty
In English, the subjunctive mood is not required when the subjective complement (SC)
expresses uncertainty.
David knew then what he had to do although it was possible (K: uncertainty)
that he might (Mp: possibility) never get (IND) Emily to forgive her husband.
David supo entonces qué tenía que hacer aunque sabía que era posible (K:
uncertainty) que nunca pudiera (Mp: possibility) lograr (SUBJ) que Emily
perdonara a su esposo.
In this case, the presence of might in the English sentence conveys Modality Proper,
whereas in Spanish, this feature is conveyed in the verb.
However, there are some cases in which the semantic components of the keys are not
easily identified:
It’s crucial (K: point of view?/necessity?) that you do (IND?/SUBJ?) whatever is
necessary to get yourself to a place where you can take the profile I’m
developing.
Es fundamental (K: necessity/point of view – present/future Tm reference) que
hagas (SUBJ) lo que sea necesario (A) para conseguir un lugar al que puedas
llevar la mascarilla que estoy preparando.

21
Please note that this dilemma does not appear in Spanish, given that in this language
both necessity and point of view trigger the subjunctive. As a consequence, the
problem of identifying the keys is shifted to the reader.
Connectives
a. Complementizers
I. That
This is the most typical connective introducing noun clauses.
I believe (that) they have to have long silly names like that because of the
American Kennel Club.
Creo que tienen que tener nombres largos y tontos como ese por el American
Kennel Club.
II. Whether
Why should we care (K: feeling) whether Switzerland returns (IND) what are
often insignificant amounts of money to Jews?
¿Por qué debería importarnos (K: feeling) si Suiza devuelve (IND)/que Suiza
devuelva (SUBJ) lo que a menudo son insignificantes sumas de dinero a los
judíos?
After SI the indicative form must be used. Nonetheless, the mood is semantically
subjunctive.
III. Lest
This connective presents two characteristics:
i. It can only introduce:
 noun clauses as DO of verbs containing a semantic feature of fear;
 noun clauses in appositions of nouns denoting fear, or depending on verbs
of fear;
 noun clauses as adjectival complement of adjectives of fear.
ii. The mood in the clause is always subjunctive.
Lest is always translated into Spanish as Que.
He feared (Vb) lest people should think (SUBJ) him unpractical.
Temía (K: feeling) que la gente lo creyera (SUBJ) poco práctico.
Though subjunctive is required in both languages, in English this is so because the
choice of lest triggers it, while in Spanish the mood is triggered by the feature of the
main verb.
IV. (Such) as (that)
It introduces noun clauses in apposition. It is translated into Spanish as como; tal
como:
You mustn’t let people know shameful things, such as that your hair has fallen
out from chemotherapy.
No debes permitir que la gente se entere de cosas vergonzosas, como que se te
cayó el pelo por la quimioterapia.
V. But what

22
This connector is equivalent to that, but it intruduces noun clauses as DO when the
main clause is negative.
I’m not sure, my boy, but what if you put it off, in Spanish it’ll be too late.
No estoy seguro, muchacho, de que si lo pospone no será demasiado tarde.
Relative Clauses
In Spanish, the antecedent triggers the subjunctive when it is not specific.
ANTECEDENT
Spanish
non specific

I want to know anything which might be (IND) relevant.

Quiero saber cualquier cosa (K: non specific) que pueda (SUBJ) ser relevante.
1. Nominal Relative Clauses
I reminded myself of what my father always says (IND).
Recordé lo (K: specific: aquellas cosas) que mi padre siempre dice (IND).
Cf.
I admire you even while I worry about what this is going to cost (IND) you.
Te admiro aunque estoy preocupada por lo (K: non specific: she doesn’t know
the cost) que te vaya a costar (SUBJ)/Te admiro aunque estoy preocupada por
lo (K: specific: she knows the cost) que te va a costar (IND).
The lack of mood distinction in English may face the translator with a serious problema
of ambiguity.
Adverbial Clauses
These are an automatic choice in English, but a semantic one in Spanish.
ENGLISH: TYPE OF CLAUSE/SPANISH: VERB IN THE ADVERBIAL CLAUSE
English Spanish
a. Purpose a. Hypothetical meaning
b. Conditional (unreal) b. ‒
c. Clauses introduced by as if/as though, lest c. ‒

a. Purpose/Hypothetical meaning
The most common connector introducing this kind of clauses is so that/para que.
He hadn’t hurt her, but she wanted to make him think he had so that he would
feel (SUBJ) guilty.
No la había lastimado, no en realidad, pero quería hacerle creer que sí para que
se sintiera (K: +hypothetical: unknown/still to happen) (SUBJ) culpable.
Nevertheless, the absence of any distinctive subjunctive marker, the context may
provide the information for the reader to conclude that the clause introduced by so
that is result.
She drew the last line so that the sketch was (IND) finished (RESULT).

23
 Dibujó la última línea; así el boceto quedó (K: - hypothetical: a fact) terminado
(RESULT).
The modal verb could, might function as a marker of the subjunctive or as a marker of
modality proper:
Elfrida asked Rory to stay for supper, so that we could finish (SUBJ/IND?) it all.
(PURPOSE/RESULT?) (A)
Elfrida le pidió a Rory que se quedara a cenar, para que termináramos (K: +
hypothetical: still to happen/unknown) todo. (PURPOSE)
But,
Elfrida le pidió a Rory que se quedara a cenar, así podríamos (Mp: possibility)
terminar (K: - hypothetical: known) (IND) todo. (RESULT)
b. Conditional
I. If/Si
The most common connective for this kind of clause is IF/SI. Only unreal situations
require subjunctive:
If I were (SUBJ) you and I were playing (SUBJ) the odds, I’d start looking at
other job options.
Si yo fuera usted y estuviera calculando (K: + hypothetical: impossibility)
(SUBJ) las ventajas, comenzaría a buscar otras opciones de trabajo.
N.B.: In conditional clauses introduced by IF/SI and by UNLESS/A MENOS QUE, modal
verbs (except for should) always express modality proper.
II. If and when/Siempre y cuando
If and when John deigns (IND) to favor us with his presence, we’ll call your case
again.
Siempre y cuando John se digne (K: +hypothetical) (SUBJ) a favorecernos con su
presencia, reabriremos su caso.
III. Unless and until/Mientras… no
Unless and until the witness is located (IND), the evidence she might present
shall not be evaluated.
Mientras esta testigo no sea localizada (K: + hypothetical) (SUBJ), la evidencia
que pueda presentar no será evaluada.
IV. Lest (In case/En caso de, Por si)
Faber walked alert lest the sentries should take (SUBJ) it into their heads to
make a patrol.
Faber se movió alerta, en caso de que los centinelas decidieran (K: +
hypothetical) (SUBJ) salir a patrullar.
V. As if, As though/Como si
You make it sound as if all of this were (SUBJ) were common sense (SUBJ).
Lo haces parecer como si todo esto fuera (K: + hypothetical) fuera sentido
común.
Concession

24
In this type of clauses, the lack of mood distinction may create ambiguity.
She listened to his voice with mild pleasure, though he had little to say (IND)
(A).
Ella escuchaba su voz con cierto placer, aunque él no decía (K: - hypothetical)
(IND)/dijera (K: + hypothetical) (SUBJ) mucho.
The ambiguity can be avoided by the use of certain connectors, such as even if, even
though/aunque; even when, even while/aunque, aún cuando. Of course, the context
may also help disambiguate. Another way to convey the idea of subjunctive in this kind
of clauses is the use of compounds with –ever, and the connective as may also be
used to this purpose.

25
 Pronoun
Concept and Main Notions
From a semantic and functional point of view, the pronoun has been defined as a kind
of word that functions as a substitute of the noun or that defines beings and objects
without naming them.
It is important to take into account that:
a) Pronouns do not always substitute a noun (only personal pronouns include the
participants to the conversation into the discourse).
b) Pronouns per se refer to another element in a textual or situational context.

REFERENCE
Endophoric (textual) Exophoric (situational)
When an element from the text refers to another element Also called deictics, refer to
appearing in the same text. another element from outside
the text.
Anaphoric Cataphoric
It refers to something that It refers to something that
has already appeared in the will further appear in the text.
text.

Only personal pronouns admit case and person morphemes:

SPANISH
Case Function 1st person 2nd person 3rd person
Nominative Subject Yo Tú/vos Él/ella
Acusative Direct Object Me Te Lo/la (se)
Dative Indirect Object Me Te Le (se)
Prepositional DO/IO/other Mí Ti Él/ella (sí)
Instrumental CC Conmigo Contigo Consigo
instrument/company

There are some pronouns which function as nouns, however;

 They do not carry the same meaning: as the person, these pronouns may
present some grammatical features, indicate exact or imprecise number and
show deictic features;
 They do not go together with determinatives: they function independently;
 They do not go together with modifiers: they do not admit adjectives as
modifiers;
 They cannot go together with suffixes and preffixes;
 They constitute a closed classification: no new pronouns can be created;

26
  They are referential discoursive elements: they constitute the coherence in the
text by means of anaphoric and cataphoric reference.
Pronoun Morphologic, Semantic and Syntactical Classification
- Semantic classification in Spanish and in English:
Spanish English
Pronombres
personales/Personal Él vendrá pronto. He will arrive soon.
pronouns
Pronombres
Cualquiera puede
indefinidos/Indefinite Anyone can do it.
hacerlo.
pronouns
Pronombres
posesivos/Possesive La casa es mía. The house is mine.
pronouns
Pronombres
demostrativos/Demonstrative Aquella es Lucía. That is Lucy.
pronouns
Pronombres El autor que escribió The autor who/that
relativos/Relative pronouns esta novela. wrote this novel.
Pronombres interrogativos y
exclamativos/Interrogative & ¡Qué bonito! How nice!
Exclamative pronouns
Pronombres
Lo hice yo misma. I did it myself.
reflexivos/Reflexive pronouns
Pronombres
Se miraron el uno al They looked at each
recíprocos/Reciprocal
otro. other.
pronouns

Personal Pronouns
They are the only words which replace the noun. They are semantically bound to the
designation of a being, object or situation. From a morphological point of view, in
Spanish, they admit gender, number, person and case morphemes; in English,
however, they do not admit gender and number morphemes.
SPANISH ENGLISH
Singular Plural Singular Plural
Sujeto Yo Nosotros/nosotras I We
1ra Objeto Me Nos Me Us
persona Mí,
Término Nosotros/nosotras
conmigo
2da Sujeto Tú/vos Vosotros/vosotras You You

27
 persona Objeto Te Os You You
Término Ti, contigo Vosotros, vosotras
Sujeto Él/ella/ello Ellos/ellas He/she/it They
3ra
Objeto Lo/la/lo Los/las Him/her/it Them
persona
Término Él/ella/ello Ellos/ellas

En español, el pronombre átono lo es masculino cuando su referente es un sustantivo

masculino y es neutro cuando se refiere a cosas imprecisas, contenidos oracionales o
sustituye atributos (Te lo advertí; No lo comprendo; María lo era). En inglés, el
pronombre neutro it reemplaza a referentes singulares definidos o indefinidos,
conceptos abstractos o entidades que no tienen sexo determinado, por ejemplo, los
bebés (A child needs its mother) o los animales.
El leísmo: Fenómeno que consiste en el uso de los pronombres le y les en lugar de lo y
los. La RAE acepta el leísmo masculino de persona en singular pero no el de animal o
cosa (A Pedro lo llamé por teléfono = A Pedro le llamé por teléfono). Le o les no pueden
reemplazar a la o las. El leísmo de cortesía consiste en el reemplazo de le o les por lo
referido a usted, ustedes.
El laísmo: Consiste en utilizar incorrectamente los pronombres la y las de objeto
directo en lugar de los pronombres le y les de objeto indirecto.
El loísmo: Consiste en utilizar incorrectamente los pronombres lo y los de objeto
directo en lugar de le y les de objeto indirecto.
Pronombres posesivos
Denotan propiedad, posesión o pertenencia de alguien o de algo respecto a cualquiera
de las tres personas gramaticales que actúan como poseedores y a las que se refieren.
En español, los posesivos admiten morfemas de género y número y efectúan la
distinción nominal entre un poseedor (mío, mía) y varios poseedores (nuestro,
nuestra). Funcionan como adjetivos o sustantivo. En inglés, los pronombres posesivos
pueden sustituir al poseedor (This is the child’s bag = This bag is his) o bien a toda la
frase posesiva (This is his). A diferencia del español, no marcan distinciones nominales
en relación al objeto poseído (This bag is his/These bags are his).
En español, el uso proclítico, la forma apocopada de los posesivos afecta a los que se
refieren a un solo poseedor, salvo en la tercera persona (El abrigo mío = Mi abrigo; La
pileta tuya = Tu pileta). El apocopado acepta variación en número, pero es
genéricamente invariable. En inglés, esta variación ha sido clasificada como forma
adjetiva del pronombre posesivo con características morfológicas propias y ocupa una
posición sintáctica como modificador del sustantivo.
Sistema de los posesivos en español
Formas plenas Formas
apocopadas
Singular Plural Singular plural
Masculino Femenino Masculino Femenino

28
 1ª Un Mío Mía Mío Mías Mi Mis
persona poseedor
Varios Nuestro Nuestra Nuestros Nuestras
poseedores
2ª Un Tuyo Tuya Tuyos Tuyas Tu Tus
persona poseedor
Varios Vuestro Vuestra Vuestros Vuestras
poseedores
3ª Suyo Suya Suyos Suyas Su sus
persona

Sistema de los posesivos en inglés

Pronombres Adjetivos
Singular Plural Singular Plural
Masculino Femenino Masculino Femenino
1ª Un Mine Ours My Our
persona poseedor o
varios
poseedores
2ª Un Yours Yours Your Your
persona poseedor o
varios
poseedores
3ª Un His Hers Theirs His Her their
persona poseedor o
varios
poseedores

Pronombres demostrativos
Son palabras que expresan deixis (referencia) y que dependen de un marco referencial
que es externo al texto. Son empleados para la referencia espacial que rodea al
hablante. En inglés, así como en español, los demostrativos permiten expresar
distancia en el espacio o en el tiempo mediante una gradación que va desde la
cercanía (Este armario/This cupboard) a la lejanía (Aquel cuadro/That picture). En
español, los demostrativos admiten morfemas de género (masculino, femenino y
neutro) y número, mientras que en inglés solo existen las categorías: cercano singular
(this), cercano plural (these), distante singular (that) y distante plural (those).
Español Inglés
Singular Plural Singula Plura
r l

29
 Masculin Femenin Neutro Msaculin Femenin
o o o o
Proximida Este Esta Esto Estos Estas This Thes
d e
Distancia Ese Esa Eso Esos Esas
media
Lejanía Aquel Aquella Aquell Aquellos Aquellas That Thos
o e
Los demostrativos pueden desempeñarse en función de adjetivo o sustantivo. En
inglés, pueden modificar a u sustantivo, cumpliendo una función adjetiva (This book is
interesting/I like those pants), pero también pueden reemplazar al sustantivo en
función pronominal (This is good/I like those).
También existen demostrativos adverbiales, que cumplen la función de referir espacial
y temporalmente dentro del discurso.
Proximidad Distancia media Lejanía
Español Inglés Español Inglés Español Inglés
Este This Ese Aquel That
Aquí Now, here, Ahí Allí There,
hither, thiter,
hence thence

Los pronombres demostrativos y el seguimiento referencial: El seguimiento de la

referencia es un componente esencial en la coherencia, ya que garantiza un anclaje o
conectividad de los elementos del texto que le garantiza al lector un acceso más rápido
a la representación del texto. Cuantas más conexiones existan a nivel textual, más fácil
el acceso. Los marcadores discursivos que actúan como referentes para indicar la
relación espacial y temporal de los participantes del discurso son:
- Los interlocutores (I, you, we, all)
- Otros referentes (this one, that one, that one over there)
- Locación geográfica (here, there, way over there)
- Locación temporal (more, then, long ago, in the future, today, this week,
yesterday, etc)
Pronombres indefinidos
Aluden a conceptos como el de cantidad pero de manera imprecise e indeterminada.
Se oponen por ellos a los numerales. Funcionan como adjetivos, sustantivos o
adverbios y no tienen valor deíctico. (Hay muchas tablas con ejemplos en las páginas
135, 136 y 137 del capítulo de pronombres.)
Pronombres relativos
Sirven para reproducir la parte de un discurso de otro y a la vez introducir un período
subordinado, evitando la repetición del sustantivo que reemplazan. En español hay
cinco pronombres relativos: que, cual, quien, cuyo, cuanto, a los que se añaden las

30
formas adverbiales de valor asimismo relativo: donde, cuando, como. Pueden
funcionar como sustantivos, adjetivos o adverbios. Algunos son invariables y otros
admiten variación en género y número. En inglés, los pronombres relativos son: who,
whom, whose, whoever, whosoever, whomever, which, whatever, that. Ambos idiomas
distinguen entre antecedente animado o humano (who) y antecedente inanimado o no
humano (which). Los pronombres en inglés no varían en la marcación de caso, excepto
para la forma who, que expresa con el pronombre whose el posesivo y con el
pronombre whom el caso objetivo.
Singular Plural
Masculino Femenino Neutro Masculino Femenino
Que
That
Cual Cuales
Which on Which ones
Quien Quienes
Who Who
Cuyo Cuya Cuanto Cuantos Cuantas
Whose Whose How much How many How many
El que La que Lo que Los que Las que
Whoever Whoever Whichever Whoever Whoever
Donde/dondequiera
Where/whichever
Cuando/cuandoquiera
When/whenever
Como/comoquiera
What/whatever

Pronombres enfáticos
Aunque habitualmente se distingue entre relativos e interrogativos o exclamativos, en
realidad son las mismas formas que se distribuyen en dos series: una átona,
correspondiente a los relativos, y otra tónica, que constituye la de los interrogativos y
los exclamativos. Así las formas de los pronombres interrogativos y exclamativos
coinciden con las del relativo, aunque se diferencian en su carácter tónico en la
pronunciación del acento diacrítico en la escritura: qué, cuál, quién, cuánto, dónde,
cuándo, cómo.
Reflexives
In English, reflexive pronouns en in –self or –selves, so that Obj pronoun there is a
contrasting reflexive counterpart: me vs. myself, you vs yourself. In Spanish, the
contrast is marked only in the third person (including Ud./Uds.): le(s), lo(s), la(s) vs. se,
and in the standard language, a él (ella/Ud./ellos/Uds) vs. a sí (consigo).
Pseudo reflecive or “spurious” se: (Les di la llave→*Les la di→ Se las di)

31
Le and les change to se when followed by another pronoun beginning with l-. This rule
is strange and writers have explaind it as a “cambio eufónico” so as to avoid the
“cacofonía” of two successive occurrences of /l/. In short, pseudo-reflexive se is a
historical accident that has nothing to do with the reflexive.
True reflexive se:
Ella se vio en el espejo. She saw herself in the mirror.
El gerente se criticó. The manager criticized himself.
Olga se compró una blusa. Olga bought herself a blouse.
Here the reflexive has its original meaning, namely that de DO or IO is the same entity
as the Subj. in both languages, it contrasts with nonreflexives:
Ella la vio en el espejo. She saw her (someone else) in the mirror.
El gerente lo criticó. The manager critized him (someone else).
Olga le compró una blusa. Olga bought her/him (someone else) a
blouse.
Spanish contrasts se lavó with lo lavó, while English contrasts washed Ø (no Obj
pronoun, implicit reflexive) with washed him (someone else). A criterion for the true
reflexive in Spanish is the possibility of emphasis with a sí mismo (a mí mismo, etc.).
Reciprocal se: (Lucía y Joaquín se miraron.→ Lucy and Joaquin looked at each other.)
When the referents of a plural Subj. carry out something on each other, the
construction is called “reciprocal”. English uses each other or one another, but these
forms can be omitted: they agreed (woth each other), we hugged (each other), they
married (to each other). Spanish applies its reflexive system to the reciprocal, but the
reciprocal emphasizer is not a sí mismo but uno a otro, whose a represents IO or DO.
Without emphasizers, a plural reflexive can be ambiguous.
Lexical or inherent se: Ella se quejó de la sopa (*a sí misma)→ She complained
(*herself) about the soup.
Quejarse is inherently reflexive in that speaker who selects quejar automaticaly adds a
reflexive morpheme. The se agrees with the Subj (yo me quejo, tú te quejas, etc.), but
because a sí mismo is impossible with it, it is not a true reflexive. It is simply part of the
verb meaningless in itself since it contrasts neither with Ø (no Obj) nor with lo(s), la(s),
le(s) or some other Obj. other such verbs include arrepentirse, resentirse, percatarse
abstenerse, atreverse, jactarse, and atenerse. English parallels exist but are even rarer:
avail oneself, pride oneself, perjure oneself.
Meaning-changing and/or inchoative se:
The verbs of this category contrast with nonreflexive versions, fail the a sí mismo test
for true reflexivity (*ella se bebió el café a sí misma) and show a special shift of
meaning. In reírse, olvidarse, temerse, entrarse, merecerse, beberse, comerse, se
intensifies the action like the English particles up, down, out, away.
Me temo: el interés de lap ersona que habla
Se lo bebió: la buena disposición, el apetito, la decidida voluntad
Te lo sabes: la presunción de saberlo todo

32
Te enteraste: cierto conato o fuerza con que se vence algún estorbo.
An important of such inchoatives is that their state (once entered) is expressed by
estar + participle:
Process State
Se durmió: she fell asleep Está dormida: she’s asleep, sleeping
Se murió: she died Está muerta: she’s dead
Se casó: she got married Está casada: she’s married
However, there remain many verbs whose reflexives convey other meanings in other
structures. (quedar: be left/be→ quedarse: stay/remain; ir: go→ irse: go away/leave;
llevar: carry→ llevarse con: get along with, etc.)
Intransitivizing se:
Ella se detuvo en el andén. → She stopped on the platform.
Los vasos se rompen. → Glasses break.
El barco se hundirá. → The boat will sink.

Many English verbs can be used transitively (with DO) or intransitively (without DO)
with the special semantic contrast of “X caused Y to verb” vs. “Y verbed by itself”: Joe
stopped her (caused her to stop) vs. She stopped. The Spanish counterparts to such
verbs generally take se for the intransitive sense. Spanish seems to use a reflexive
when the Subj acts upon itself while English optionally deletes its reflexive.
Reflexive se of emotional reaction: Se alegra mucho de esto. → She’s very happy
about this.
The psych verbs in this group forma large, important set: aburrir(se), alegrar(se),
animar(se), asombrar(se), deprimir(se), enojar(se), etc. When nonreflexive, the cause
of the emotional reaction is cast as the verb’s Subj, and the experiencer is cast as Obj:
Esto les aburre/sorprende.→ This bores/surprise them. When reflexive, such verbs cast
the experiencer as Subj and the cause of the reaction as an optional PP: Ellos se
aburrieron (de la tele) → They got bored (with TV); Ella se sorprendió (de que vinieras).
→ She was surprised (that you were coming).
Causative se: Juan se operó anoche. → John had an operation last night.
The verbs in this group are few: operarse,bautizarse, retratarse, vacunarse cortarse (el
pelo), and some others. Se here indicates that the Subj causes something to be done
for or upon himself/herself. Since these verbs are transitive, they can also occur
nonreflexively: el medico operó a Juan.
Passive and impersonal se:
Se cierra la puerta a la una. → The door is closed at 1:00; one closes the door at 1:00.
Se habla español. → Spanish is spoken; one speaks/you speak Spanish.

Passive se differs from impersonal se in several ways. First, many speakers see se cerró
la puerta as so passive in its force that they add an agent phrase as in true passives: se
cerró la puerta por el guarda = la puerta fue cerrada por el guarda. Second, impersonal

33
se is distinct from passives because it can be used in true passives: se es juzgado por la
posteridad (one is judged by posterity). Third, passive se only accompanies transitive
verbs (intransitive cannot be passivized: *fui venido), in which case it converges with
intransitive se. Impersonal se, in contrast, accompanies either kind of verb transitive or
intransitive, provided that a human subject is implied (*se llueve is odd for the same
reason as *ella llueve):
Se vivía bien en aquel entonces. → One/They lived well back then.
¿Se puede entrar? → Can one enter?
Como se vive, se muere. → One dies as one lives/You die as you live.
Fourth, with passive se the NP is the subject. The verb agrees with it, and this Subj
precedes or follows the verb like any other Subj or is dropped when deemphasized
(Silvia comió/Comió Silvia/Comió).
The more immediate problem is the lack of a single handy English equivalent for
impersonal/passive se. Formal English uses one whereas colloquial usage favors you or
they, which are also possible in Spanish. As an alternative to impersonal se, Spanish
likewise uses uno: es que no se tiene suficiente cuidado = es que uno no tiene suficiente
cuidado.
The true reflexive is distiguished from the passive/impersonal sense by employing
personal a for the latter: Nunca se mtará el tirano. → The tyrant will never kill himself.;
Nunca se matará al tirano. → People will never kill the tyrant.
Prominalizing with clitics:
“Prominalization” is the process whereby NPs are changed into pronouns. In English,
this process does not greatly affect word order, for pronouns occur in the same
positions as other NPs:
Mary gave her phone number to the man who asked her out.
She gave it to him.
In Spanish, though, position depends on the type of pronoun. Traditionally, two sets
are distinguished, the Subj/OP forms and the DO/IO forms:
Set 1: Subj/OP: yo, mí, tú, ti, Ud., él, ella, ello, nosotros (-as), vosotros (-as), Uds., ellos
(-as), sí.
Set 2: DO and IO: me, te, le, lo, la, nos, os, los, les, las, se (all types).
Some of the key contrasts of Spanish clitics with English pronouns are the following:
1) They do not occupy NP positions in surface structure: Vi los animals. *Vi los.
2) They cannot be used apart from a verb: -¿A quién prefieres? -*Te.
3) They cannot be joined by conjunctions: *Te y me vieron. (English: They saw you
and me)
4) They generally do not share verbs: Puede lavarse y vestirse. *Puede lavar y
vestirse.
5) They cannot be emphasized as separate words.
Neutral: He introduced her to you. Te la presentó.

34
 Emphatic Subj: HE introduced her to you. Él te la present. / Te la
presentó él.
Emphatic Obj: He introduced her to YOU. Te la presentó a ti. / A ti te la
presentó.
6) Even when the Obj is “spelled out” as a specific pronoun or when the IO is
named by a full NP, the clitic still accompanies the verb, a phenomenon called
“clitic doubling”:
*(Lo) vi a usted.
Aquellos tipos *(lo) tartan a uno como inferior.
A Sonia *(le) gustan las plantas.
*(Nos) lo dieron a mí y a mi hermana.
*(Le) di los dulces a mi amigo.
An a-phrase is also used to emphasize a DO clitic (¿Me escogiste a mí? ¿Lo quieres a
él?) Consequently, a + NP may represent DO, IO, or a PP that is not an Obj of the verb
at all, and its pronominalization is not obvious from form alone:
DO: atender a Clara→ atenderla; visitar a Clara→ visitarla
IO: hablar a Clara→ hablarle; server a Clara→ servirle
PP: regresar a Clara, regresar a ella; referirse a ella→ referirse a ella

35
Nouns
Nouns are the names of people, things or places. Many, but not all, have a plural as
well as a singular form, and frequently they are able to take an article or other
determiner.
They may be classified in the following manner:
I. Proper nouns
Proper nouns include the names of people, countries, months, days, magazines,
animals, holidays, towns, villages, cities, buildings, streets, squares, continents,
geographical names (Mountains, lakes, some names of countries, islands, mountain
ranges, seas, rivers and other geographical features) and the names of other places
with an unique reference.
 Proper nouns that take the definite article: Among the geographical names,
some names of countries (the Philippines), republics (the People’s Republic of
China), kingdoms (the Kingdom of Nepal), islands (the Island of Skye), mountain
ranges (the Pyrenees), seas (the Mediterranean Sea), rivers (the North Sea),
and other geographical features (he Panama Canal) take the definite article.
Other kinds of proper nouns that take it are: names of newspapers (the Buenos
Aires Herald), public buildings and other places with a unique reference (the
Empire State), plural family names (The Simpsons), and plural names denoting
nationality (the Americans).

II. Common nouns

Common nouns denote classes or kinds of things. Sometimes, they denote abstract
qualities. They make up the majority of nouns and do not take a capital letter.
III. Collective nouns
Collective nouns may be replaced by the pronouns it or they, using a plural or singular
verb accordingly, while the noun itself remains unchanged.
Sometimes, there is a slight difference of meaning:

English Spanish
A burning coal fell on the countable noun Un tizón cayó en la
rug alfombra
Coal is mined in Wales mass noun En Gales se extrae carbón

Dictionaries usually advise choosing a singular verb when one thinks of the group
collectively and a plural verb when one thinks of the individuals composing that group.
e.g.: The government is / are…
Nouns denoting fish, animals or birds may be used collectively.
Words denoting plants may be used in the singular with a collective sense.
36
 Some nouns have a collective sense when they function as mass nouns and may
denote a single item when they act as countable nouns.
Gender
Gender is not merely a grammatical expression of sex but may be connected with the
need to differentiate between living and lifeless, big and small, etc. It is not always
evident from the morphology of the word in question but may influence the form of
other words. The distribution of words into different genders is often arbitrary. There
are few distinctions of gender in English and these are usually related to sex. While
English does not normally use suffixes to distinguish gender, Spanish does.
Kinds of gender in the noun
A. Nouns denoting persons may be: B. Nouns denoting non-personal
1. masculine entities may be:
2. feminine 1. higher animal: masculine
3. dual feminine
4. common 2. higher organism
5. collective 3. lower animal

A. 1.
2.
Masculine and feminine nouns
English distinguishes the male from the female sex in nouns by means of using
a completely different stem, composition or an adjunct.
Usually a suffix is added to the masculine form to form its feminine. An
exception to this rule is the word widower, where the suffix is added to the
feminine word to form the masculine.
When a separate word exists for a woman, sometimes it means she holds a
certain position or has a certain occupation and sometimes it means that she is
married to a man who holds that position or occupation. Nowadays the
different laws created to prevent discrimination based on gender promote the
use of gender neuter nouns such as the recently created compound
chairperson instead of chairman or chairwoman.
Completely different words Add a suffix
Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine
husband wife actor actress
boy girl god goddess
son daughter duke duchess

Feminine endings
-ess Lioness
-ine Heroine
-ina Czarina

37
 -ette Suffragette

3. Dual gender
This class of nouns has no separate names for one of the sexes. This class
includes many nouns formed from verbs and nationalities and words indicating
the religion or politics of a person. If needed, the sex can be distinguished by
means of adding constructions such as “a lady … / a woman … / a female …”
A. 4. Common gender
This class of nouns lies between personal and non-personal nouns and can take
the pronouns who / he / she / it. The choice depends on the context and the
relationship of the speaker with the noun in question. For example, a man may
refer to his car as she whereas someone else would use the pronoun it. Some
nouns in this class are: baby, car, ship, and nouns denoting pets (dog, cat, etc.).
A. 5. Collective nouns
These nouns may be substituted by either a singular or a plural pronoun and
take a verb in the plural or the singular form, whichever agrees with the
pronoun of choice. E.g.: The government has / have decided to call elections.

B. 1. Higher animals
There exist male and female forms as well as dual forms for many animals.
Sometimes, the female form is used to refer to both sexes (especially in the
plural). Some words denoting felines form the feminine form by adding the -ess
ending.
Masculine Feminine Plural / both sexes
drake duck duck(s)
dog bitch dog(s)
B stallion mare horse(s)
.
2. Higher organisms
This class includes ships, cars, countries, and other nouns which speakers
occasionally substitute with personal pronouns as a sign of affection.
B. 3. Lower animals and inanimate nouns
Lower animals are usually substituted by the pronoun it. However, their sex is
sometimes indicated in the corresponding noun (both sexes / plural: rabbit,
male: buck-rabbit, feminine: doe-rabbit).
The sex of plants and flowers is not distinguished in English except for the carl
hemp (a masculine form used for the female plant because it is bigger) and its
counterpart the fimble hemp.
Countable Nouns and Mass Nouns
COUNTABLE NOUNS

38
Countable nouns may form the plural, take the indefinite article, take cardinals, be
used with some, be used in the plural with many, be used in the interrogative plural
with how many and be used in the plural without the article to express general ideas
(Flowers bloom in the spring).
MASS NOUNS
Mass nouns do not form a plural unless they may be reclassified as countable nouns
(Would you like a beer? vs Too much beer is bad for you). They may, however, have a
plural sense (furniture).
Mass nouns do not usually take the indefinite article except when they are reclassified
as countable nouns (a glass of water). They are used with some in the singular and may
form phrases with much and interrogatives with how much.
Sometimes, Spanish usage coincides, but often different words are used to express the
two concepts:
English Spanish
gray hairs count noun canas
hair mass noun pelo

Typical partitives
Typical partitives are sometimes exclusive of some nouns.
♦ a glass of
♦ a bottle of
♦ a can of
♦ a slice of
♦ a stick of
♦ a lump of
♦ a blade
♦ a sheet of
♦ a loaf of
♦ a bar of
♦ a slab of

General Partitives
General partitives are not restricted to specific nouns.
♦ a bit of
♦ a piece of
A lot of, not much, a little, a few
A lot of, not much, a little and a few are often used with the verb in the singular when
used with mass nouns:
There is a lot of gold in that mine.
However, countable nouns use them in the plural:
Only a few hours were allowed to me by fate.

39
Not much may be used for negative statements:
There is not much wine left.
A little may express the opposite of a lot of for mass nouns:
There is only a little coffee in the jug.
The opposite of a lot of may be a few for countable nouns:
There are only a few books on the shelf.

The Genitive
It may indicate that the noun which is inflected possesses the object which follows it
(the man’s son). This is the specifying or possessive genitive.
It may express the class to which the non-inflected noun belongs (lamb’s wool). This is
the classifying or descriptive genitive.
It may indicate that the inflected noun carried out the action expressed by the noun
that follows it (the girl’s refusal). This is the subjective genitive.
It may indicate that the inflected noun is the cause or origin of the noun that follows it
(uncle’s funny story). This is the genitive of origin.
It may indicate that the inflected noun suffers the action expressed by the noun that
follows it (the man’s dismissal). This is the objective genitive
The -s genitive
An apostrophe followed by s is added to singular nouns:
Singular: Jane’s uncle/the girl’s bag/the children’s toys
Plural nouns which do not end in s add only the apostrophe:
Plural: the horses’ owners/the boys’ holidays
OTHER WORDS THAT TAKE ONLY THE APOSTROPHE
1. Greek or classical names of more than one syllable;
2. Many names which end with the sibilant /z/;
3. In fixed expressions for the sake of euphony;
The semi independent or elliptic genitive
In this construction the headword need not be repeated if it occurs earlier or later in
the sentence: He put his arm through his wife’s
Sometimes the elliptic genitive is placed before the element ellipted: Maureen’s is a
happy family. This construction may be used predicatively with a form of the verb to
be:
Whose is this book? It’s Michael’s.
The post-genitive or double genitive
This structure combines the inflected genitive with the of construction:
a friend of Tom’s
a relative of my uncle’s
The group genitive
The genitive inflection is appended to the last element:

40
 His mother-in-law’s house
The Duke of Kent’s residence
Other structures could have two different meanings according to whether one or both
elements carry the -s suffix. In David and Mark’s dogs all the dogs belong to both of
them but in David’s and Mark’s dogs would mean that some dogs belong to David and
some to Mark. In the first case this structure is called group genitive and in the second
example it is called coordinated genitive.
The local genitive
The local genitive is used
1. To denote residence (my mother’s, the Brown’s)
2. With a proper noun to denote a department store, restaurant, church,
hospital, and other buildings or institutions, or added to a saint’s name
(Lyon’s Coffee House, Mc Donald’s, St. Paul’s Cathedral)
With a common noun to denote commercial establishments or places where a
service is rendered (the grocer’s, the chemist’s)

The apostrophe is omitted in the names of some towns named after saints, sometimes
even if a common noun follows the saint’s name. It is also omitted in some cases
where the building or institution has become familiar.

The periphrastic genitive

Of is the principal preposition used in the periphrastic genitive although constructions
with to are also possible: the lady-in-waiting to the Queen
Uses of the periphrastic genitive
♦ Balance: The of genitive is not usually used with proper names unless balance is
required (The uncle of Peter and Jane, Peter and Jane’s uncle).
♦ Prominence: Sometimes it is used to give prominence to the proper name (The
works of William Shakespeare).
♦ Names or relatives: These nearly always take the -s genitive, even when
accompanied by a possessive pronoun. Sometimes the -of genitive is used to
give emphasis (The birth of his son was the cause of great joy).
♦ Lower animals and inanimate nouns: The -of genitive is usually preferred with
nouns denoting lower animals and with inanimate nouns except for those
which may also take the -s genitive. Some of these nouns can form
constructions with both the -of genitive and the -s genitive (the surface of the
earth, the function of the brain). Some inanimate nouns only take the -of

41
 genitive yet may take the -s genitive when the noun is replaced by a pronoun:
the width of the material.
The elliptic genitive
In the case of the elliptic genitive the –s genitive may be replaced by the genitive when
it is preceded by that or those.
He put his arm through his wife’s.
He put his arm through that of his wife.
The local genitive
The local genitive cannot be formed with the of- genitive although it may form part of
it:
The curate of St. Paul’s.
THE -S GENITIVE VS. THE OF-GENITIVE
-s genitive -s genitive or of-genitive
names of relatives with proper names
with classifying genitives with names of persons in the singular
with temporal nouns with names of animals in the singular
as post-genitive in written English with plural names of
persons and animals
as local genitive with certain inanimate nouns
as a subjective genitive before a gerund with some names of measures and values
in set phrases
The of-genitive is used rather than the -s genitive
with inanimate nouns
in spoken English with nouns with a plural -
s suffix

Plural
The plural form in English is formed:
1. Adding the -s suffix in most words. This is also the case for shortened words
(kilogram -> kilo -> kilos)
2. Adding -ies in the case of words ending in -y preceded by a consonant (fairy ->
fairies)
3. Adding the -en or -ren suffixes (children, oxen)
4. Adding -es to words ending in -sh, -ch, -o, -ss and –x (tomatoes, ashes)
5. Adding -ves to words ending in -fe and -lf (wolves, knives)
6. Some words of foreign origin keep their original plural form (criterion, criteria;
curriculum, curricula)
7. Other words use the ‘zero plural’ meaning they remain unchanged
morphologically but with a plural sense (fish, fish; sheep, sheep; deer, deer).

42
Articles
ENGLISH
Definite Indefinite Ø
The A / an / some
♦ Used with old / given ♦ Used with new ♦ Used with abstract
information or information concepts and
information that has ♦ Most nationalities generalizations
been restated ♦ Professions
♦ generalizations ♦ To talk about the
♦ musical instruments religion or political
♦ geographical names ideology of a person
that imply a group of
something
♦ superlatives
SPANISH
Definite Indefinite Ø
El / la Un(os) / una(s)
♦ Generalizations ♦ The singular form has a ♦ used with noun
♦ Some geographical numerical sense. It complements, unless
names might mean a / an or they’re modified (e.g.
♦ superlatives one Es abogado)
♦ titles ♦ used with noun ♦ in expressions of price,
complements when speed, ratio
they are modified or in ♦ fixed expressions (e.g.
figurative speech (e.g. ¡Qué lástima!)
Es una Buena
profesora)

43
El adjetivo
 ¿Los adjetivos en inglés siempre van antepuestos al sustantivo?
Generalmente sí, pero hay excepciones.
Los adjetivos affected, required, available, suggested, free, imaginable, necessary, open y
visible pueden ir antes o después del sustantivo al que modifican.
Los adjetivos "elect” (president elect), “incarnate” (devil incarnate), “minor” (Asia minor) y
“designate” (ambassador designate) siempre deben ir después del sustantivo.
 ¿Cómo se pueden clasificar los adjetivos?
Attributive: Son los adjetivos que van antes del sustantivo. Le dan un atributo al sustantivo
que modifican: “A green door”.
Predicative: Son los adjetivos que van después de un verbo: “She feels ill”.
Postpositive: Son los adjetivos que van directamente después del sustantivo al que
modifican: “The devil incarnate”.
Gradable & Non-gradable
Gradable: Adjectives or adverbs which can be set on a scale of ‘more’ or ‘less’ in terms of
their qualities, properties, states, conditions, relations, etc. (good, small, easily, nicely).
Gradable adjectives and adverbs can be premodified by degree adverbs (That’s an extremely
good camera.) and can take the comparative and superlative inflections (smaller, smallest),
or be preceded by more or most (more easily, most superior).
Non-gradable: Adjectives or adverbs that cannot be graded on a scale of ‘more’ or ‘less’ in
terms of the property they describe (dead/alive, male/female, truly, main, married). Non-
gradable adjectives and adverbs cannot take the comparative or superlative inflection, nor
can they be preceded or premodified by words like more, most, quite, rather, so, very
(more male, rather dead, very truly, very married are not possible).
 ¿Cuál es el orden correcto de los adjetivos en inglés?
O S B A SH C O M P
Opinion Size Build Age Shape Color Origin Material Purpose
“These fantastic monumental strong old grey Indian log-carrying elephant.”

(!) Se recomienda no usar más de tres adjetivos juntos.

 Elder vs. Older
Elder sólo se usa en posición atributiva (“their eldest daughter has arrived”), mientras que
older puede ocupar cualquier posición (“that’s the oldest cathedral of Argentina”).
(!) Elder no se puede usar junto con than: “My sister is Elder than me.” “My sister is older
than me.”
 ¿Cómo se forman los adjetivos compuestos en inglés?
1. Número + sustantivo: A three-star hotel
2. Número + parte del cuerpo (+ed) + sustantivo: A one-eyed man
3. Adjetivo + participio: A fast-running/hard-working/bad-tempered employee
4. Adjetivo + parte del cuerpo (+ed): A fair-haired woman

44
  Adjetivos que parece adverbios (!)
Cuando el adjetivo termina en –ly no se pueden formar adverbios agregando nuevamente –
li o –ly, por lo tanto, hay que parafrasear la oración. Algunos adjetivos terminados en -ly:
Ugly, costly, miserly, unruly, silly, orderly.
Por ejemplo: Friendly (adj.) -> Friendlily -> In a friendly way. | Silly -> Sillily -> In a silly
manner.

45
La ortografía y la puntuación
PERIOD / PUNTO
. At the end of a sentence (a Punto y seguido. Punto y aparte. Punto final.
statement or a command)
. After abbreviations Luego de las abreviaturas.
NEVER in titles, subtitles. NUNCA en títulos o subtítulos.
NEVER after exclamation or NUNCA luego de signos de admiración o de
interrogation marks. pregunta.
NUNCA en las cifras que indican años o número
de página.
NUNCA en las entradas de una enumeración si
son breves (precedidas por números, letras o
guiones).
NUNCA en las frases que sirven de epígrafe.
(!) Números:
12 345 678 (12.345.678)
12.10 / 12:10
12.11
SEMICOLON / PUNTO Y COMA
; Between independent clauses when = Español
ideas are closely connected (when it
replaces a coordinating conjunction).
; To separate items in a series when = Español
they already have commas between
them.
COMMA / COMA
, To signal a short pause within a = Español
sentence.
, After introductory words, phrases or Después de oraciones subordinadas.
clauses, and before the subject of the “Si te parece, llamame mañana.”
main clause. If the introductory “Cuando llegues a la ciudad, si te parece
phrase is short, the comma can be llamame.”
omitted.
, Between independent clauses joined Entre construcciones verbales equivalentes o
by a coordinating conjunction. If the que cumplen igual función sintáctica, excepto
clauses are short, the comma can be cuando están precedidas por Y, E, NI, O y U.
omitted. “Antes de abandonar el país, visitó a sus
amigos, donó libros y fue de visita…”
, “She came to the room, only to find Sin embargo, se coloca coma delante de la
somebody on the ground” conjunción cuando la construcción que esta

46
 encabeza expresa un contenido semántico (ya
sea temporal, consecutivo, etc.) diferente al
expresado por la secuencia anterior:
“Arrojó al fuego las cartas, un par de fotos y su
diario, *otra acción+ y luego huyó de allí”
, “Happily, …” Cuando hay que indicar que un elemento se
relaciona no con la palabra inmediatamente
precedente, sino con otra más alejada.
“Logró su objetivo, felizmente.”
, = English Delante o detrás de un vocativo.
“Juan, llámame.”
, = English Cuando se interviene el orden regular de los
componentes de la oración.
“Para no olvidarme, haré un nudo en el
pañuelo.”
, To separate items in a list. (For the Separa términos de una enunciación
last two items, use “and”. The (sustantivos, adjetivos, verbos, adverbios, etc.)
comma can be omitted in this case.)
, To separate words, phrases or = Español
clauses which add information (e.g.
non-defining relative clauses or
appositions).
, To separate a quotation from the = Español
rest of the sentence.
, After interjections. After “Yes” and = Español
“No”.
(!) In the structure NEITHER… NOR… the Cuando la conjunción el NI y se repite, debe
comma is not used. colocarse coma delante de cada uno de los
miembros coordinados:
“No le gustan ni el aspecto, ni las costumbres
de la ciudad, ni la lengua.”
, = English En lugar del verbo:
“Los niños, en el jardín.”
NEVER between the verb and the Cuando los elementos que conforman la
subject. enumeración forman el sujeto y van
antepuestos al verbo, no se pone coma detrás
del último:
“Los geólogos, los arqueólogos y los
antropólogos deben tener…”
NEVER between the verb and the = Spanish
object.

47
 NEVER after a coordinating Se puede usar antes de PERO: “Está cansado,
conjunction. pero contento.”
COLON / DOS PUNTOS
: Between two independent clauses = Español
when the second one explains the
first.
: To introduce a quotation. It must be En español se usa “,”.
an independent clause; it is more Se usa mayúscula después de “:” si se introduce
formal. una oración nueva.
: Before a list or an explanation. = Español
NEVER before a linking verb (e.g. to Los dos puntos nunca pueden ir precedidos de
look, to feel, to smell, to sound, la conjunción “que”.
and to taste) or a preposition.
DASH / GUIÓN
- To separate words, phrases or
clauses that add extra information
when:
1. You have already used
commas.
2. To emphasize the
information.
- To indicate a sudden interruption in
thought.
(!) AVOID using this punctuation mark
to introduce direct speech in
narratives.
- “Hello,” she said.
English doesn’t use “raya de
diálogo”.
APOSTROPHE / APÓSTROFO
´ To indicate possession.
´ To indicate that a letter or a number = Español
has been omitted.
QUOTATION MARKS / COMILLAS
“ To introduce a direct quote. = Español
”
“ To highlight a word because it is a = Español
” coinage, it has a special meaning or
because the writer wants to distance
himself from the word/phrase.

48
“ When you introduce a full quote, = Español
” include any punctuation marks inside
the quotation marks.
´ ´ Use single quotation marks when
quoting something inside another
quote.
QUESTION MARKS / SIGNO DE INTERROGACIÓN
? At the end of questions and question = Español, sólo que se usa doble “¿…?”
tags.
EXCLAMATION MARKS / SIGNO DE EXCLAMACIÓN
! After imperative clauses, commands, = Español
orders or interjections.
BRACKETS|PARENTHESIS / PARÉNTESIS
( ) To enclose a closely connected
comment or explanation.
( ) After a quote, to indicate the author,
year of publication and page number.
SQUARE BRACKETS / CORCHETES
[ ] To include changes, corrections or = Español
additions in a quotation.

49
Adverbio
La función del adverbio puede ser:
- Intraoracional: cuando actúa dentro del sintagma verbal.
La reunión se desarrolló rápidamente.
- Periférica: cuando modifica todo el enunciado. El adverbio puede modificar el
dictum (contenido proposicional de toda la oración) o el modus (modalidad o actitud
del hablante)
Políticamente, la institución ha mejorado (dictum)
Lamentablemente, otro niño fue atacado por un perro en la vía pública (modus)
Algunos adverbios solo cumplen una función:
- Los apocopados muy, tan y cuán solo complementan adjetivos o adverbios: Muy
lejano.
- El adverbio medio solo complementa adjetivos o participios: Medio loca, medio
dormido.
- El adverbio recién solo complementa participios en España: recién nacido, recién
llegada. Sin embargo en América, también complementa verbos en forma personal:
recién salió, recién nació.
Clasificación semántica (los adverbios pueden clasificarse de varias maneras)
1) Adverbios léxicos:
- Los que derivan de adjetivosa través del sufijo –mente (en español) y –ly (en
inglés).
- Los adjetivales, que funcionan como complemento de un verbo, en español
adoptan forma masculina. Agustín juega limpio.
- Los que indican lugar (arriba, adentro, lejos), tiempo (antes, luego, temprano),
modo (bien, mal) y modalidad (quizá, quizás, acaso)
2) Adverbios pronominales:
- Espaciales: aquí, ahí, acá, allá.
- Temporales: ahora, entonces, hoy.
- Modales: así.
- Cuantitativos: tanto, poco, mucho, bastante.
- Numerales: primero, segundo, medio.
- De polaridad: sí, no, también, tampoco.
- Relativos: donde, quien, cuando.
- Interrogativos o exclamativos: dónde, cómo.

1) También se los puede clasificar tomando como base la circunstancia que expresan:
Tipo de adverbio Español Ingles
De lugar Aquí, allí, ahí, arriba, abajo, Here, there, upwards,
dentro, fuera, cerca, lejos, downwards, inside, outside,
etc. near, close, far, etc.

50
De tiempo Ayer, hoy, mañana, antes, Today, yesterday, then,
ahora, después, pronto, now, afterwards, son, late,
tarde, nunca, etc. never, etc.
De modo Bien, regular, mal, así, Well, wrong, so , slowly,
despacio, deprisa, quickly, especially, slyly,
suavemente, clearly, etc.
especialmente,
astutamente, a oscuras, a
las claras, etc.
De cantidad Mucho, poco, bastante, mas Much, Little, enough, more,
menos, tanto, etc. less, etc.
De afirmación Si, también, ciertamente, Yes, too, also, certainly,
efectivamente, en verdad, definitively, really, etc.
etc.
De negación No, tampoco, jamás, etc. No, neither, (either), never,
etc.
De duda Quizá o quizás, tal vez, Maybe, probably, perhaps,
acaso, probablemente, etc. etc.
De deseo Ojala, así, etc. Hopefully, etc.
De exclusión, inclusión o Solo, aun, inclusive, Only, even, besides, also,
adición además, incluso, etc.
únicamente, etc.
De identidad Mismamente, cabalmente, Own, precisely, concretely,
mismo, propiamente, etc.
precisamente,
concretamente, etc.
De exclamación Que, cuán, etc. What, how, etc.

2) Algunos adverbios perteneces a varias clases semánticas:

Español Clase semántica Inglés
Igual De modo o de duda Like
Habla igual que vos. He talks lik you.
Igual llueve mañana.
Horriblemente, De modo o de cantidad Horribly, terribly,
terriblemente, extraordinarily, absolutely,
extraordinariamente, etc.
absolutamente, etc. Horribly sick.
Horriblemente feo. Terribly tired.
Terriblemente cansada.
Nunca y jamás De tiempo y de negación Nevermore, never again

51
Nunca más se vieron elfos Nevermore were the elves
en la ciudad. seen in that town.
Nada De negación y de cantidad

No le gusto nada.
Así De modo, de cantidad o de Likewise
Quiero hacerlo así. deseo I´m tempted to do likewise.
Así de moscas.
Así te parta un rayo
Bien De modo o de cantidad Way
Está bien excedido de peso. He is way overweight.
Está bien lejos.

3) Algunos adverbios no pertenecen a ninguna de estas clases: viceversa, justo,

justamente, contrariamente y siquiera.
Locuciones adverbiales – adverbials
Son conjuntos sintácticos indivisibles de dos o más palabras cuyo comportamiento es igual al
de un adverbio.
Algunas locuciones provienen del Latín, como ex profeso, grosso modo, in situ, ipso facto,
latu sensu, modus operandi, modus vivendi, motu proprio. En estos casos debe evitarse el
agregado de preposiciones: lo hizo ex profeso.

52
Preposition
The preposition is considered a key element for the organization of a sentence. It contains
grammatical information as to the relation between words with lexical meaning on their
own.
Characteristics:
1) Functional/linking words: There are “full prepositions” which have lexical meaning
and “empty prepositions” which are merely a link between a word and a
complement.

In Spanish, such distinction is not very clear and mostly depends on the context, still you
could say that: ante, bajo, contra, desde, entre, hacia, hasta, para, por, según, sin, sobre and
tras may have lexical meaning on their own and a, con, de, en and por may be empty
prepositions.

2) The complement is always after the preposition.

In Spanish, unlike in English, the pronouns that are complements change position along with
the preposition.
¿De qué pedido me estás hablando? = ¿Vos me estás hablando de qué pedido?
Specify from which article you are quoting = Specify the article you are quoting from.

3) Closed type of word: New prepositions cannot be created.

4) Prepositions can be simple (a, de, con, etc.) or compund (por atrás, de debajo, etc.).

In Spanish, compound prepositions can only change position in some exceptions due to
style. Gracias a Dios = A Dios gracias.
Spatial relations:
- Basic relation: It depends on the position of an object as to the speaker, e.g.
here/there.
- Deictic relation: The position of two or more objects depends on the position of one
of the objects, e.g. x is under y.
- Intrinsic relation: a specific part of an object is used to make a reference, e.g. the
head of the bed is against the wall.
In English, there are two types of spatial prepositions: topological prepositions in which the
relation between two objects is permanent and projective prepositions in which the
relation depends on the point of view of the speaker.
Topological preposition: Coincidence (on, at), interiority (in) and exteriority (out of).
Projective preposition: inferiority (below), superiority (above), anteriority (in front of),
posteriority (behind) and laterality (between).
Simple prepositions
At In On Off

53
Out By From To
Up Down Over Under
With Within Without Near
Nearby Into Onto Toward
Through Throughout Underneath Along
Across Among(st) Against Around
About Above Amid(st) Before
Behind Below Beneath Between
Beside Outside Inside Alongside
Via
Compound prepositions
On top of In between to the side Parallel to
In back of To the left/right of In front of Perpendicular to
Temporal
During Since Until Ago
Intransitive
Here Outward Backward(s) South
There Afterward(s) Away East
Upward Upstairs Apart West
Downward Downstairs Together Left
Inward Sideways North Right

in – inside; out/out of – outside

In refers to inclusion or contention which may be partially or completely. The same happens
with out/out of, the relation may be partially or completely.
Inside refers to complete inclusion or contention and outside refers to complete exclusion.
In – on
In refers to the inside of a three-dimensional object while on refers to an object that is in
contact with a two-dimensional surface.
Through – throughout
Through is used with objects that cannot be distributed and throughout refers to the spatial
distribution along or across an object.
In Spanish, prepositions can be semantically “weak” (pantalón de sport; año de luz) which
can be omitted (pantalón sport; año luz) and “strong” which can make opposite prepositions
(con/sin; desde/hasta; sobre/bajo; etc.)
Preposición Significado
Sin Compañía negada, falta, carencia, etc.
Bajo Lugar inferior, sumisión, etc.
Sobre Encima de, acerca de, aproximación, etc.
Tras Lugar o espacio posterior

54
Ante En presencia de, respect de
Con Compañía
Instrumento
Modo

Expresión de lugar
En Lugar en que se cumple la acción: vivo en Santa Rosa.
A Proximidad o aproximación en el espacio: Voy a Santa Rosa.
De Separación: Vengo de Santa Rosa.
Tras Situación: Está tras la puerta
Entre Situación: Entre las hojas del libro
Hacia Dirección: Va hacia allí.
Por Lugar a través del cual se realiza la acción: Pasea por la calle. Levanta los
pies.
Con Compañía: Quedó con ellos.

Expresión de tiempo
A Momento particular en un espacio de tiempo: A las nueve.
En Unidad de tiempo en toda su expresión: En Navidad.
De Duración o momento indeterminado: De noche.
Por El momento de la acción: por la noche.
Desde Punto de partida en el tiempo: desde hoy.
Con Simultaneidad: No vas a salir con este tiempo.
Sobre Proximidad: sobre las once.
Para Conclusión: Para mañana.

Expresión de causa o finalidad

Por Causa. Con verbos de movimientos, finalidad: Voy por agua.
Para Finalidad: Para Mercedes.
A Finalidad: Útil a sus amigos.
De Agente: Preferido de todos.

Expresión de instrumento
Con Medio o instrumento: Con un cuchillo.
De Expresa autor o causante de un estado: Seguido de un amigo.
A Instrumento: A sangre y fuego.
En Material o cantidad: Pagar en oro.

Expresión de modo
De, a, por, con, en Cuando forman parte de locuciones

55
 adverbiales: a gatas, de firme, por ventura,
con prudencia, en serio.

- It should be avoided the use of more than one preposition with the same
complement.
“Café con azúcar o sin ella” instead of “café con o sin azúcar “
- When a preposition is repeated, it can be elided.
Licuado de leche y de banana = licuado de leche y banana (both are right)
- Elision cannot link together two entities that are to be taken as separate.
Estuvo en Córdoba y en Tucumán = Estuvo en Córdoba y Tucumán (the second is
wrong)
- Elision cannot be used before pronouns.
Trajo regalos para él y para mí =Trajo regalos para él y mí (the second is wrong)
- Elision cannot take place between two nouns when only one of the nouns is modified
by an adjective.
Sirve para lana y para algodón peinado = Sirve para lana y algodón peinado (the
second is wrong)
- Elision cannot take place when only one of the words has a complement.
Aprendió a multiplicar y a dividir por cinco = aprendió a multiplicar y dividir por cinco
(the second is wrong)

Movement:
Spanish is a type of language that expresses movement and path with the verb (i.e.
entrar/salir), unlike English that uses a particle or a satellite to express path (i.e. move/go in;
move/go out).
For example, as a satellite, over may refer to path; and as a preposition, it may indicate a
position in relation to a spot.
It flipped over = se dio vuelta en el aire/ daba vueltas en el aire.
He jumped over the wall = Saltó por encima de la pared/Saltó la pared.
The difference between a satellite and a preposition is that the satellite is closely related to
the main verb, while the preposition is to the complement.

When a satellite is before a preposition, there is movement, path and source/destiny.

I ran out of the house.
When a reference can be deduce by the context, it can be elided.
I ran out (of the house)
Sometimes the satellites combined with the prepositions can make a single lexical unit
called satprep.
- Satellite: I went up.
- Preposition: I went to Mary´s house.
- Satprep: I went up to the door.

56
Sentences & Clauses
There are three kinds of sentences:
 Simple: Subject + Predicate
 Compound: two simple sentences joined by a coordinating conjunction
 Complex: Main clause + Subordinate clause
Conjunctions
ENGLISH
Logical connector _________ C ________ _________. C, ________:
C _________, ________ __________. ________, C
Intra-sentential connector Extra-sentential connector
Concession/Contrast Although/Even though/Though he He was tired.
was tired, he decided to go. However/Nonetheless/
Despite the fact that I was tired, Nevertheless/Notwithstanding
(…)/Despite being tired, I decided that, he decided to go.
to go.
I like football, whereas/while my
brother likes tennis
However + ADJ + SUBJ + VERB =
CONTRAST
Addition Both Marta and Luciana like going There are general problems
to the park. regarding safety. In
Not only Marta but also Luciana addition/Furthermore/Moreover/
likes going to the park. Besides/Additionally/On top of
They’ll take my money as well as that/What’s more, there are
my CDs other issues that…
Purpose I went to the bank to/in order to/so
as to/with the aim of/with a view
to cash a cheque for fear of losing
my money.
I went to the bank in order that/so
that I could cash a cheque.
Consequence I was ill, so I missed a class. I was ill. That’s
I was so tired that I stayed home. why/Consequently/As a
It was such a good book that I read result/Hence/Thus/Therefore I
it twice. decided to stay home.
He was so good a student that…
So + ADJ + a/an + NOUN + that
He is too tall to walk through the
door.
He’s not old enough to go to this

57
 pub.
ADJ + enough
Enough + NOUN
Reason I missed the class
because/since/as/for/given that I
was ill.
Since/As tend to go at the
beginning because they are
discourse markers.
Because of/Owing to/Due to +
NOUN/-ing/the fact that
Conditionals Inversion
- Should you see Peter, (…)
- Were I you, (…)
- Had I seen him, (…)
Provided that the weather is fine,
we'll have a picnic on Saturday.
Unless the weather is fine, we
won’t have that picnic.
I’ll carry an umbrella in case it
rains.
Time I’ll phone you as soon After I came back, he left.
as/when/after/before I arrive. I was doing my homework. After
I won’t phone you until I arrive. that, I watched TV.
She phoned you while you were He entered the room, and then
out he looked around and saw his
She bought some shoes as he did keys.
the shopping.
He died when I was in London.
Place I am happy
wherever/everywhere/where I go
Exemplification He has a sweater like that one. I like fruits. For example/For
I like many fruits, such as apples, instance, apples.
grapes, etc.
Sequencing First/Second/Third/Finally, he
deigned to appear before us.

ESPAÑOL
Tipo de encabezador Función de la
Proposición Incluyente Relacionante proposición

58
 sujeto, predicativo,
el que, la que, los
predicado
que que, las que,
Sustantiva nominal, objeto directo,
si quien, quienes,
término de
cuanto, cuanta
complemento
atributo de sustantivo,
que, quien, cual,
predicado nominal,
cuyo, donde;
Adjetiva predicativo, aposición de
cuando, como,
un
cuanto
adjetivo
circunstancial de modo,
como, según,
Adverbial de atributo de un adjetivo,
conforme
modo modificador de
como si, cual
modalidad
cuando,
antes (de) que,
mientras, circunstancial de tiempo,
después (de)
conforme, predicado adverbial,
que, luego que,
según, siempre termino
de tiempo hasta (que),
que, en tanto de complemento,
una vez que, no
que, ahora que, aposición de
bien, en cuanto,
al tiempo que, adverbio
apenas
cada vez que
circunstancial de lugar,
aposición de adverbio,
de lugar donde predicado adverbial,
termino
de complemento
porque, ya
circunstancial de causa,
que, puesto
de causa modificador de
que, dado que,
modalidad
como, que
circunstancial de
de cantidad cuanto, lo que cantidad,
aposición de adverbio
circunstancial de fin,
para que, que,
final modificador de
a fin de que
modalidad
modificador de! núcleo
si, a no ser que,
oracional, modificador
condicional a menos que,
de
como
modalidad

59
 aunque, aun modificador del núcleo
cuando, por oracional, modificador
concesiva
mas que, a de
pesar de que modalidad

que (con modificador de adjetivo,

Intensif.: tan, modificador de adverbio,
consecutiva
tanto, tal) modificador del núcleo
que (sin oracional
intensif.)
(masímenos)...
que
aposición del intensivo,
(masímenos)...
atributo del cuantitativo
de (tan/tal/
comparativa o cualitativo, termino de
(mejor/peor)... tanto)...como
complemento
que
comparativo
(mayor/
menor)... que

Noun Clauses
1. Wh- noun clauses
What you say is true.
SUBJECT
Where she is, I don’t know.
2. That noun clauses
She said that she was coming.
3. If/whether noun clauses REPORTED SPEECH
She asked me whether I was coming
Clefting (focusing)/Oraciones hendidas
Example: Mary told me the truth at a pub.
It was Mary who told me the truth at a pub.
It was the truth that Mary told me at a pub. IT-CLEFT SENTENCES
It was at a pub that Mary told me the truth.
Cleft sentences are used to focus in some particular information. They are said to be limited,
given that the only pronouns they admit are that and who.
Adjectival Clauses
1. Defining relative clause
 They provide essential information
 They cannot be omitted
 No commas are used
Example: Peter is a neighbor whose dog I hate.

60
 An island is a piece of land that is surrounded by water.
2. Non-defining relative clause
 “That” is not used
 They can be omitted
 They are often written between commas
Example: Mary, who lives in Lanús, is a good actress.
3. Sentential relative clause
 They make a reference to the whole sentence
 They are a kind of non-defining relative clause
Example: The fact that the book was a success, made the writer happy.
In this type of clauses, a common error made by non-native speakers is the choice of
the relative pronoun.
For example: Mary, that lives in Lanús, is a good actress/Mary, who lives in Lanús, is
a good actress.
4. Reduced relative clause
 They lose the relative pronoun and the verb
Example: An island is a piece of land that is surrounded by water.

61
Bibliografía
 Miranda, L. et al (2009). Español-inglés en clave contrastiva. Volumen 1. Santa Rosa:
Universidad de la Pampa. Capítulos 2, 3 y 4.
 Miranda, L. et al (2009). Español-inglés en clave contrastiva. Volumen 2. Santa Rosa:
Universidad de la Pampa. Capítulos 1, 2, 4, 5 y anexo.
 García Negroni, M.M. & Tordesillas, M. (2001). La enunciación en la lengua. De la
deixis a la polifonía. Madrid: Gredos. Capítulo IV.
 Palmer, F.R. (1987). The English Verb. Second edition. Harlow: Longman. Chapters 6 &
7.
 Viñas Urquiza, M.T. (2002). Ambiguity Keys. English & Spanish. Buenos Aires: Editorial
Dunken.
 Whitley, M.S. (2002). Spanish / English Contrasts. A Course in Spanish Linguistics.
Washington D.C.: Georgetown University Press. Capítulos 9, 11 y 13.
 Loredo-Vera, M. (2008). Contrastive Analysis of Prepositions in Spanish and English.
 Gómez-González, M. y Gonzálvez-García, F., On Clefting in English and Spanish.
 Baker, M. (1994). “Equivalence at word level” in In Other Words. London:
Routledge.

62
Índice
 Morphology .................................................................................................................. 2
 The Verb ....................................................................................................................... 5
 The Subjunctive Mood .................................................................................................15
 The Pronoun .................................................................................................................26
 Nouns ........................................................................................................................... 36
 Adjectives ..................................................................................................................... 44
 La ortografía y la puntuación ....................................................................................... 46
 El adverbio .................................................................................................................... 50
 The Preposition ............................................................................................................53
 Sentences & Clauses.....................................................................................................57
 Bibliografía ................................................................................................................... 62

63