This content has been downloaded from IOPscience. Please scroll down to see the full text.

Download details:

IP Address: 41.253.28.104
This content was downloaded on 24/04/2020 at 01:10

Please note that terms and conditions apply.

 Gravity, Magnetic and
Electromagnetic Gradiometry
Strategic technologies in the 21st century
 Gravity, Magnetic and
Electromagnetic Gradiometry
Strategic technologies in the 21st century

Alexey V Veryaskin
Trinity Research Labs and University of Western Australia

Morgan & Claypool Publishers

Copyright ª 2018 Morgan & Claypool Publishers

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system
or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording
or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher, or as expressly permitted by law or
under terms agreed with the appropriate rights organization. Multiple copying is permitted in
accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, the Copyright
Clearance Centre and other reproduction rights organisations.

Rights & Permissions

To obtain permission to re-use copyrighted material from Morgan & Claypool Publishers, please
contact info@morganclaypool.com.

ISBN 978-1-6817-4700-2 (ebook)

ISBN 978-1-6817-4701-9 (print)
ISBN 978-1-6817-4702-6 (mobi)

DOI 10.1088/978-1-6817-4700-2

Version: 20180201

IOP Concise Physics

ISSN 2053-2571 (online)
ISSN 2054-7307 (print)

A Morgan & Claypool publication as part of IOP Concise Physics

Published by Morgan & Claypool Publishers, 1210 Fifth Avenue, Suite 250, San Rafael, CA,
94901, USA

IOP Publishing, Temple Circus, Temple Way, Bristol BS1 6HG, UK

To my beautiful wife Svetlana and
loving daughter Anya
 Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall:
Humpty Dumpty had a great fall.
All the King's horses and all the King's men
Couldn't put Humpty Dumpty in his place again.
Lewis Carroll, Through the Looking Glass
 Contents

Preface ix
From the author xiv
Author biography xv

1 Gravity gradiometry 1-1

1.1 Introduction 1-1
1.2 History and recent developments 1-3
1.2.1 Quantum gravity gradiometers 1-12
1.2.2 Recent gravity gradiometer developments at Lockheed Martin 1-14
1.2.3 Superconducting gravity gradiometers 1-17
1.2.4 String (ribbon) gravity gradiometer developments 1-22
1.2.5 Conventional absolute gravity gradiometers 1-26
1.2.6 MEMS gravity gradiometers 1-28
1.3 Classification of existing gravity gradiometers 1-30
1.4 Gravity gradiometry applications 1-37
1.4.1 Gravity gradiometry in oil, gas and mineral exploration 1-37
1.4.2 Borehole gravity gradiometry 1-41
1.4.3 Global positioning system (GPS)-free navigation 1-47
1.4.4 Underground tunnels and void detection 1-48
1.4.5 Cargo hidden masses detection 1-49
1.4.6 Space missions 1-50
References 1-52

2 Magnetic gradiometry 2-1

2.1 Introduction 2-1
2.2 History and recent developments 2-2
2.3 Direct string magnetic gradiometer developments 2-6
2.4 Advantages of measuring the magnetic gradients 2-9
2.5 Magnetic gradiometry applications 2-9
2.5.1 Magnetic gradiometry in oil, gas and mineral exploration 2-9
2.5.2 Borehole magnetic gradiometry 2-13
2.5.3 Space missions 2-14
2.5.4 Archaeology 2-15
2.5.5 UXO detection 2-15
2.5.6 Medical applications 2-16
References 2-16
vii
 Gravity, Magnetic and Electromagnetic Gradiometry

3 Electromagnetic gradiometry 3-1

3.1 Introduction 3-1
3.2 EM gradiometry in geophysical prospecting 3-3
3.3 A novel EM gradiometric technique for early detection of 3-10
breast cancer
3.4 Passive EM gradiometry 3-12
References 3-14

4 Selected topics of gravity, magnetic and electromagnetic 4-1

gradiometry
4.1 Spatial coordinates and reference frames 4-1
4.2 Gravity field spatial gradients: representation and properties 4-2
4.3 Gravity gradient tensor for arbitrary ellipsoid 4-4
4.4 A simple torsional oscillator in inhomogeneous gravity field 4-6
4.5 Noise analysis and problems of optimum detection in 4-8
gravity gradiometry
4.6 Moving-base gradiometry without gradiometers: back to 4-17
the future
4.7 Electromagnetic gradiometry application examples 4-23
References 4-30

Appendix A-1

viii
 Preface

Gradiometry deals with the extraction of useful information from the spatial
variation of the physical fields that exist naturally on Earth and other planets,
such as the gravity, magnetic and electric fields. The Earth’s field of gravity (or
gravity field) is a quasi-stationary physical field whose temporal variations are so
slow that it can be treated as a constant complex pattern imprinted into the space
inside and outside of our planet1. The magnetic and electric fields have much
broader spectral contents, ranging from DC to hundreds of MHz. They also include
a manmade contribution on top of the natural background content.
All such fields are characterized by physical units, which can be measured
practically with special instruments. The gravity field is characterized by the
acceleration g caused by the force of gravity, which is the same for all freely falling
matter2, and which is measured with accelerometers and gravimeters (Chapin 1998).
It is a vectorial quantity with respect to arbitrary coordinate frames of reference, and
also with respect to those associated with measuring devices. Accelerometers
possessing a single sensitive axis indicate a fixed direction in space. It can be
associated with, say, the x-axis of its local Cartesian coordinate system (section 4.1).
The accelerometer will then measure the gx projection of the acceleration of gravity
in its local frame of reference. Gravimeters only measure the acceleration of gravity
along the vertical (plumb) line.
If one moves the accelerometer from one point in space to another along a
constant line (say along the y-axis) and keeps the orientation of its sensitivity axis
unchanged, then any change in the accelerometer’s output signal will manifest the
presence of an xy component of gravity gradients. The latter ones are the so-called
spatial derivatives of the gravitational acceleration vector. The plurality means there
are a definite number of gradient components that can be measured individually or
concurrently (section 4.2).
One can ask the following. What happens if an accelerometer on its own is
mounted on a moving platform that experiences tilts and kinematic and angular
motion effects, and, above all, vibrates enormously? The answer is simple. If it is
simply mounted in a moving-base environment, as it is, nothing interesting will be
measured because the signals from the movement will overwhelm any desired signal.
Due to Einstein’s equivalence principle, both the gravity and kinematic accel-
eration will be measured as a whole and one cannot separate the former from the
latter. The good news is that if two identical accelerometers, separated by a certain
spatial distance (called the baseline), are used in the same moving-base environment
then they are both affected by kinematic acceleration in the same way. By

1
The temporal variations in the field of gravity caused by tidal effects will not be considered within the scope of
this book, as they do not possess any measurable spatial gradients (Wahr 2011).
2
Einstein’s equivalence principle has proved to be a cornerstone of modern physics. There had been a question
mark concerning whether it also works in the quantum world. This question was first answered positively in
2004 (Fray et al 2004), and was confirmed recently with an atom interferometer in a gravity gradiometer
configuration (Rosi et al 2017).

ix
 Gravity, Magnetic and Electromagnetic Gradiometry

Figure 0.1. (a) Sensors in a uniform medium. (b) Sensors in a medium possessing a spatial gradient.

subtracting the accelerometers’ output signals one can cancel out, to some extent,
the influence of motion effects not related to gravity. On the other hand, the gravity-
related signals do not cancel each other, provided that there is a gravity gradient
along the baseline. This is the simplest example of a gravity gradiometer made from
a pair of identical accelerometers.
The same applies to magnetic gradient measurements. A magnetic gradiometer
can be made out of two identical magnetometers (von der Osten-Woldenburg 2011)
separated by a baseline and with their output signals subtracted in real time. This
suppresses the influence of the Earth’s strong uniform magnetic field acting on both
sensors, while any local deflection from its uniformity will manifest itself in the
sensors’ differential output (see figure 0.1 above).
The term ‘identical’ used above is not well defined. We can ask here, to what
extent can two different objects copy each other? The answer is—nothing is perfect,
except quantum-mechanical particles that are all the same. This fact has stimulated a
quest for quantum gradiometers. Two sufficiently cold identical atoms can be used
in the same way as two paired accelerometers. The term identical is absolute in this
case.
The reality is that such simplicity is not good enough to make an advanced
moving-base gradiometer. In most mobile applications of various types of gradi-
ometers, the signal-to-noise ratio is typically a few parts in a billion. Further, the
above assumes that there is no drift in the output of the paired sensors used in such
simple gradiometers. This is a profound problem in so-called static gradiometers,
where no modulation is applied to the input signal. A modulation–demodulation
technique is required in order to move the signal’s useful spectral content far from
the quasi-DC variations inherent to all static measurements (section 4.4). Typically,
they are caused by temperature instabilities, mechanical creep in sensing elements,
voltage drift in operational amplifiers and other electronic components3.
Some recently developed gradiometers operate in a cryogenic environment and
make use of highly accurate sensing elements based on the superconducting
properties of matter. Superconducting gravity and magnetic gradiometers have

3
So-called 1/f noise or pink noise is always present in the spectral content of all measured datasets. Its origin is
still not well understood (Voss 1978).

x
 Gravity, Magnetic and Electromagnetic Gradiometry

demonstrated their superior performance in terms of stability and sensitivity in the

laboratory environment.
Summarising the above, one can say the following. Gradiometry is a multi-
disciplinary area that combines theoretical and applied physics, ultra-low noise
electronics, precision engineering and advanced signal processing. Gradient signals
fall off with distance from the source more rapidly than the field strength itself and
this makes the gradient measurements more difficult.
However, there has been a considerable investment, in terms of both time and
money, in the development of various types of gradiometers, driven by the extremely
valuable type of information that is contained in gradients. Their applications
include the search for oil, gas and mineral resources, navigation in global positioning
system (GPS)-denied environments, defence, medical research and so on.
The categories of gradiometers include gravity gradiometers, magnetic gradiom-
eters and electromagnetic (EM) gradiometers. The first two do not require active
sources for the primary physical fields whose gradients are measured, such as gravity
and ambient magnetic fields. EM gradiometers do require a primary EM field,
pulsed or sinusoidal, which propagates through media and creates a secondary EM
field. This contains information about the non-uniformity of electromagnetically
active media, such as conductivity and magnetic permeability contrasts. These
anomalies are the boundaries of mineral deposits, oil and gas traps, underground
water reserves, buried artifacts, unexploded ordnance (UXO), nuclear submarines
and even cancerous human tissue.
The general advantages of using any gradient measurements—it does not matter
whether gravity, magnetic or EM gradiometers are used—are as follows (Pedersen
and Rasmussen 1990, Sunderland 2009).
• Higher resolution, especially for shallow and medium-depth features. This
also allows for the discrimination of smaller and larger features, and the
definition of discrete targets located close together. In airborne surveys, the
higher resolution can be traded off against survey height, allowing for higher
and hence safer flying.
• Selectivity. Suppression of regional anomalies of potential fields produced by
deep sources.
• Minimisation of aliasing. Aliasing is the effect of having greater data density
along survey lines compared to between survey lines. By acquiring gradient
data, a better interpolation between survey lines is possible. This allows for
larger line spacing and hence for cutting survey costs. It is also possible to
determine which side of a survey line an anomaly lies on.
• Quantitative analysis. Better definition of structural features. This includes
easier detection of long and thin anomalies, determination of the strike and
dip directions of a mineral bed, and refined estimates of an anomaly’s Euler
structural index (Pedersen and Rasmussen 1990).
• Ease of interpretation. Inverse modelling solutions are more rare when
gradients are used. Tighter constraints are possible during modelling and
better estimates can be made regarding the extent of a detected target, such as
a mineral deposit.

xi
 Gravity, Magnetic and Electromagnetic Gradiometry

• The combination of gradient tensor components allows for the extraction of

different kinds of information compared to what is contained in individual
tensor components (Veryaskin and McRae 2008)

In the next decade, we will see the exponential growth of those technologies capable
of replacing the man-controlled carriers that have been serving as moving-base
platforms for various types of gradiometers. On Earth, helicopters and fixed-wing
airborne platforms will be replaced with drones, UAVs and the like. Fast-moving
undersea submarine hunters, carrying ultra-sensitive gravity and electromagnetic
gradiometers on board, will be a real threat to strategic nuclear-missile submarines.
In space, there will be a need to explore other planets by means of moving-base
platforms carrying a selection of sophisticated sensors, including gradiometers.
Gradiometry, as a standalone professional activity, consists of three integral
parts. These are instrumentation, measurements, and visualisation and interpreta-
tion of the results of the measurements. The latter is normally done in a post-
processing stage, which may consume a substantial amount of time. However, work
is in progress towards real-time processing of the raw data based upon superfast
computing technologies and elements of artificial intelligence.
This book provides readers with a comprehensive introduction to the history,
potential applications of and current developments in some of the most advanced
technologies of the 21st century. Instrumentation and measurements are the major
topics covered. Most of the developments are strictly controlled by defence export
control rules and regulations, as introduced in all developed countries, which
typically require permission to transfer relevant information from one country to
another and even to publish relevant results for such strategic developments. The
whole content of this book is based on materials that are available in the public
domain, such as scientific journals, extended abstracts from conferences and online
presentations. The medical applications of EM gradiometers are exempt from any
control and some new ideas relevant to breast cancer early-detection research are
published in this book for the first time.
Below are the individuals and institutions that, directly or indirectly, have made
the publication of this book possible. Some of them are well known as pioneers in
developing new principles and instrumentation and can be put on the list of those
responsible for the most sophisticated engineering achievements.
Daniel DiFrancesco (Lockheed Martin Corporation, USA), Thomas Meyer
(Lockheed Martin Corporation, USA), David Gleason (Air Force Research
Laboratory, USA), Mark Dransfield (CGG Multi-Physics, Australia), Ho Jung
Paik (University of Maryland, USA), Frank van Kann (University of Western
Australia, Australia), Mark Kasevich (Stanford University, USA), Brian Main
(Gedex, Inc., Canada), Howard Golden (NordGold, RF), Ian McArthur
(University of Western Australia), Andrew Sunderland (University of Western
Australia), Thomas Schnepple (University of Western Australia), Eugeney Ivanov
(University of Western Australia), Jeremy Bourhill (University of Western
Australia), Michael Tobar (University of Western Australia), Gary Light
(University of Western Australia), Steve Osborne (University of Western

xii
 Gravity, Magnetic and Electromagnetic Gradiometry

Australia), John Moore (University of Western Australia), Timo Vaalsta

(University of Western Australia), Martin Ebert (Sir Charles Gairdner Hospital
and University of Western Australia, Western Australia), David Blair (University of
Western Australia), Li Ju (University of Western Australia), Marc Kaye (Cadlink,
Western Australia), Neil Provins (The Creasy Group, Western Australia), Francis
Neill (Ziebel AS Ltd, UK), Jens Balkau (Regis Resources, Western Australia),
Laurent Ameglio (GyroLag, South Africa), Fang Guangou (Institute of Electronics
of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, People’s Republic of China), Tim Niebauer
(Micro-g and LaCoste, USA), Joseph Suter (Johns Hopkins Applied Physics
Laboratory, USA), Ronny Stolz (Leibniz IPHT, Germany), Szabolcs Szentes
(DotConsulting, New Zealand), Chris Benson (IOP Publishing, United Kingdom),
the Geological and Geophysical Institute of Hungary (Hungary), the Australian
Society of Exploration Geophysicists, Geoscience Australia, Pleiades Publishing Ltd
(RF), Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory (USA), The American Physical
Society, The American Institute of Physics, eoPortal (Earth Observation Resources),
The European Space Agency (ESA), Supracon AG (Germany).
Special acknowledgement to Howard Golden, Andrew Sunderland, Mark
Dransfield and Dan DiFrancesco for kindly reviewing the textual content of this
book and providing useful suggestions and improvements. The author is thankful to
Institute of Physics Publishing (UK) for kindly offering to publish this book.

References
Chapin D 1998 Gravity instruments: past, present, future Leading Edge 17 100–12
Fray S, Diez C A, Hänsch T W and Weitz M 2004 Atomic interferometer with amplitude gratings
of light and its applications to atom based tests of the equivalence principle Phys. Rev. Lett.
93 240404
Pedersen L B and Rasmussen T M 1990 The gradient tensor of potential field anomalies: some
implications on data collection and data processing of maps Geophysics 55 1558
Rosi G, D’Amico G, Cacciapuoti L, Sorrentino F, Prevedelli M, Zych M, Brukner Č and Tino G
M 2017 Quantum test of the equivalence principle for atoms in coherent superposition of
internal energy states Nat. Commun. 8 15529 1-6
Sunderland A 2009 Characterising and improving a magnetic gradiometer for geophysical
exploration PhD thesis University of Western Australia
Veryaskin A V and McRae W 2008 On combined gravity gradient components modeling for
applied geophysics J. Geophys. Eng. 5 348–56
von der Osten-Woldenburg H 2011 Magnetic Gradiometry, Encyclopedia of Solid Earth
Geophysics ed H K Gupta (Berlin: Springer) p 758
Voss R F 1978 Linearity of 1/f noise mechanism Phys. Rev. Lett. 40 913
Wahr J M 2011 Earth tides Encyclopedia of Solid Earth Geophysics ed H K Gupta (Berlin:
Springer) p 129

xiii
 From the author

This book is not a professional manuscript and nor is it a popularization of the

technological breakthroughs that normally do not affect our daily lives much. It is a
mix of both. The author has tried to combine technical language, professionally
oriented, with that used to popularise topics that are difficult to understand for those
who are not involved in research and development in the relevant areas of science
and technology.
The book is designed to let everyone who is interested delve deeper into some of
the human activities that combine physics, technology and passion to pursue the
impossible.

xiv
 Author biography

Alexey V Veryaskin
Dr Alexey V Veryaskin, PhD, is the Director and Founder of Trinity
Research Labs, an independent R&D laboratory based at the
School of Physics of the University of Western Australia (UWA).
He is an Adjunct Professor and a member of the UWA Frequency
Standards and Quantum Metrology Group. He received his MSc
degree in electronic engineering in 1973 and PhD in Theoretical and
Mathematical Physics in 1982. In his early career, he spent 12 years
as a research fellow at the Sternberg State Astronomical Institute of the
Moscow State University (the Faculty of Physics) specialising in precise gravity
measurements. He also was specialising in Superconducting Quantum Interference
Devices (SQUIDs) applied to gravimetry and gravity gradiometry. In 1992, he was
invited to join a team of researchers at the University of Strathclyde in Glasgow
(Scotland, UK) where he was working on a superconducting gravity gradiometer
and some aspects of the Satellite Test of Equivalence Principle (STEP), a European
space mission. In 1995 he moved to New Zealand where he patented a Direct String
Gravity Gradiometer, a technology that attracted a reasonable investment either
from private sector or various institutions and government agencies in a number of
countries across the globe. He also invented a Direct String Magnetic Gradiometer
technology and an Extremely Low Frequency Interferometric System (ELFISTM),
which is a new type of electromagnetic gradiometer. Recently, the ELFISTM
technology has found its application for breast cancer early-detection research and is
currently under development at UWA. Dr Veryaskin moved permanently to Perth
(Western Australia) in 2005, and has been working since on various applications of
gravity, magnetic, and electromagnetic gradiometry.

xv