CERAMIC AND CLAY PRODUCTS

CERAMIC
 Ceramics are a material often used in construction, made from a mixture of
minerals, typically silica sand, with a clay binder and some impurities, and up
to 30% water. They are fired at a higher temperature than bricks, so that the
silica re-crystallises to form a glassy material that has greater density,
strength, hardness, resistance to chemicals and frost and a greater
dimensional stability. Besides being natural, high-quality and maintenance
friendly ceramics are sustainable in all production stages – from raw material
extraction to production and packaging, through to processing. They are very
stable, resistant to high temperatures and do not expand or shrink with
temperature variations.

CLAY
 Clay is created by the by the chemical weathering and geothermal alteration
of igneous rocks into hydrous aluminum phyllosilicates.

Advantages
Clay bricks and roof tiles are among the oldest building materials in the
world and still extremely popular. This does not come as a surprise, because
clay building materials are natural, versatile, durable and of stable value.
Selecting the right building materials is a decision for life. A modern building
must comply with numerous ecological and economic demands. Our
products contain the experience and know-how of nearly 200 years. By
carefully selecting the raw materials and using state-of-the-art production
facilities, we are able to guarantee a product that gives pleasure over
generations.

Versatile
Clay building materials can be used for a variety
of applications. They can be used for walls,
façades and roofs as well as for gardens,
terraces and open spaces. Clay tiles and bricks
can be used almost anywhere and for all
architectural styles, whether for the construction
of single family houses or apartment blocks,
office or public buildings.
Energy-efficient
Owing to their excellent insulation properties and their heat storage capacity clay
building materials help to reduce the energy consumption of buildings.

Durable
Clay building materials are robust, stable and,
as a result, especially durable; their lifespan is
more than 100 years. Brick buildings, which
have lasted for centuries, can be discovered
all around the world. Buildings made of clay
tiles and bricks are weather-resistant,
earthquake-proof and fire-resistant.

Aesthetic
Clay bricks and tiles are aesthetic and versatile.
Thanks to a wide range of available colours,
shapes and surfaces, the number of possible
designs and variations is almost unlimited. The
colour spectrum ranges from super white to
classic red to coal-black. Available variants
include rough, smooth and glazed surfaces,
elongated and wide formats. Roof tiles and facing bricks as well as pavers can be
perfectly coordinated with one another.

Economic
A solid building envelope made of brick can be
constructed quickly and flexibly – this saves both
time and money. Wind and weather, heat and frost
are not able to damage clay building materials. As
a result, maintenance and service costs are low.
Owing to their favourable insulation properties, clay
building materials also help to save energy costs.

Natural
Clay blocks, facing bricks and clay roof tiles
as well as pavers are particularly sustainable
and natural building materials because they
consist of the natural raw materials clay and water. Bricks and tiles are absolutely
free of pollutants and allergens and thus especially compatible with humans and
nature.

Stable in value
Even after many years, buildings made of
clay building materials retain their value - or
it even increases. Owing to their durability,
stability and special living quality, brick
buildings and apartments are in great
demand and achieve high resale values.
Furthermore, bricks and tiles are easy-to-
clean and low-maintenance.

TILES
 Tiles in building construction are thin plates or elements used to cover
surfaces like roofs, floors, and walls. 
 Tile is a durable and environmentally friendly material that many builders and
homeowners use. Tile comes in many shapes, colors and sizes but they are
not all created equal. Each type of tile has its own pros and cons that you
should consider when planning a design project that involves tiling.

TYPES
Based on Application

Roofing Tiles - The roofing tiles are

earthenware that is baked products. Its
manufacture is similar to that of brick.

Flooring Tiles - Floor

tiles are too designed to bring the beauty of
flooring and movement. But it is
subjected to higher load, pressure and other
undesirable material action. So, these tiles are
made more durable, abrasion resistant, water
impervious and easy clean form. Floor tiles
 along with the mentioned properties should also provide good aesthetics. The
degree of burning is the parameter that differentiates the wall and the floor
tiles.

Wall Tiles - The wall tiles as well as the floor tiles, are

employed in the interior as well as the exterior of the
building. This is mainly employed based on the requirement
of decoration or aesthetics. These belong to the class of
ceramics and are called as white wares. Tiles that are used
on walls and floor are available in both glazed and in the
unglazed forms. Mostly the wall tiles are glazed by a thin
layer of glazing when it is available in the market.

Based on Material

 Ceramic Tiles – Ceramic tile is made of clay, sand and other natural
occurring materials. Once the tile has been molded into its desired shape, it
is fired in a kiln. Ceramic tile can be either be glazed or unglazed, making
them a versatile choice for any home. Because ceramic tiles are so durable,
they make for great floors, especially if there are animals in the home.
 Ceramic is highly resistant to water, making it the perfect tile for kitchens
and bathrooms – both the floors and walls.

 Porcelain Tiles – In general, ceramic and porcelain tiles are quite similar,
both being made form clay and naturally occurring materials, but the clay
used for porcelain tiles is more refined and purified, making it even more
dense than ceramic.

 Glass Tiles – Glass tile is made of glass. It is impervious to water, making it

perfect for bathroom and shower walls. Glass tile can be used all over the
home. Whether it be in the kitchen as a beautiful backsplash of in the
bathroom as your shower walls, glass tile creates a look like no other. Also,
because of how versatile you can be with the colors, glass tile can be
wonderful to use as an accent wall.
 Cement Tiles – Cement tiles are made from a mixture of sand, cement, color
pigment, and a marble powder that is poured into metal molds, backed by a
concrete mixture and then compressed under 2,000 pounds of pressure to
give its durability.
 Natural Stone Tiles and Pebbles – Natural stone tiles are especially
beautiful because each piece of stone offer its own unique form and texture,
shaped by the earth itself, making each floor, wall or backsplash unique on its
own way. Common natural stone tiles include the following:
o Granite - Granite is a type of igneous
rock that is very dense and hard. Its
distinctive appearance is due to
speckled minerals found within the
rock, and its unique veining means
no two granite floors are the same.
Once polished, granite resists
scratching well, making it an ideal
choice for the kitchen and other
high-traffic areas.
o Slate - Slate is a metamorphic rock
which can be found in large deposits
all over the world. Used in flooring
for centuries, it comes in a range of
colours, such as blue/grey, green,
red, orange, or brown. There are
often veins of colours running
throughout the tile, meaning no tile
is identical. Slate is naturally slip-
resistant, even when wet or greasy,
making it an ideal material for kitchens, bathrooms, or around the
pool. It’s also durable and can be used to keep rooms cool or warm
with circulating systems that run under the tile. In high-traffic areas,
the slate should be periodically stripped and resealed to keep it looking
great, and regular mopping with plain water is required.
o Travertine - Travertine is a type of
limestone that is a byproduct of
natural artesian springs, hot springs,
and caves from around the world.
A natural, porous stone, its pits and
rough texture are caused by air
bubbles and organic matter, and this
is what gives travertine tiles such as
varying colours. In Ancient Rome,
travertine was used in the construction of temples, bathrooms,
 statuaries, and theatres, and any trip to Italy will tell you that
travertine can stand the test of time. Used for both indoors and out,
travertine is naturally slip-resistant and an excellent choice for
walkways, pool decks, bathrooms, and other applications where water
is present.
o Marble - Marble is a highly durable
stone that exists in almost every
colour due to the variability of
component minerals. Marble tiles
have multiple finishes from polished
to honed and brushed to tumbled,
making marble an ideal choice for
any room in your home. As a natural
stone, marble tiles offer high
aesthetic value and add both
elegance and value to a home. They are costly, however, and care for
marble tiles can be time-consuming. Their absorbent nature does
make them prone to stains, and generally not acceptable for exteriors
or in landscaping.
o Onyx - Onyx is a translucent,
calciferous stone similar in makeup
to marble. Because it’s one of the
more fragile types of stone, it’s
frequently produced with a mesh,
resin, or fibreglass backing to help
give it strength as a tile. Onyx is a
popular choice for indoor, light-traffic
floors, or countertops, and each onyx
tile varies in colour, making its usage completely unique. To ensure a
pleasing layout of tiles, a dry layout should be performed before
installing them. It’s important to mix up the colours so that colour
variation is well presented.
o Sandstone - Sandstone has a
wonderfully earthy appeal and
comes in a range of colours, sizes
and styles. Ideal for pool
surroundings, walkways and patios,
sandstone gives your outdoors a
rich, natural feel.

TERRACOTTA
 Terracotta is a ceramic material that has been used for building construction
and decorative arts since ancient times in cultures around the world.
Terracotta, which literally means "baked earth," is made from natural clay,
which gives it a characteristic reddish-brown color. The color varies slightly
depending on the clay used. Terracotta is hard-baked, brownish red earthen
ware, often glazed and colored may be glazed for extra durability or to
provide color. Usually hand-made and varies in color, texture and
appearance. The colors range from natural earth stones such as gray and
brownish yellow to various shades of red. It is a waterproof and very sturdy
material.
 When used indoors, terra cotta tile floors can be left
raw, but more often, terra cotta is finished with a top
coat sealer. Some terra-cotta tiles are purported to be
waterproof. To the contrary, all raw clay tiles are like
sponges when it comes to soaking up water.
 There are many different types of ceramic tiles that you
can use for garden and home, but Terracotta may be
the most widely used outdoors.

EARTHENWARE
 Ceramic ware made of slightly porous opaque clay fired at low heat.
 most building bricks, nearly all European pottery up to the seventeenth
century, most of the wares of Egypt, Persia and the near East; Greek, Roman
and Mediterranean, and some of the Chinese; and the fine earthenware which
forms the greater part of our tableware today.
 Generally, earthenware bodies exhibit higher plasticity than most white ware
bodies and hence are easier to shape by RAM press, roller-head or potter's
wheel than bone china or porcelain. Due to its porosity, earthenware, with a
water absorption of 5-8%, must be glazed to be watertight.[11] Earthenware
has lower mechanical strength than bone china, porcelain or stoneware, and
consequently articles are commonly made in thicker cross-section, although
they are still more easily chipped. Darker-colored terracotta earthenware,
typically orange or red due to a comparatively high content of iron oxide, are
widely used for flower pots, tiles and some decorative and oven ware.

STONEWARE
  This is similar in composition to fireclay, but is fired at a higher temperature
than fireclay and contains a higher proportion of glass. As a result it is harder
and less absorbent. Modern manufacturing processes mean that stoneware
no longer has to be glazed for use in drainage pipes.
 The stoneware products sit between the ceramic products and porcelain
products, hence called semi-porcelain. Its structure is denser than that of
porcelain; the water absorption is small but not as white as porcelain. Its clay
body is colored and not semi-apparent The stoneware can be divided into
crude and fine. The water absorption of the crude stone ware is between 4%
and 8%, and that of the fine stoneware is lower than 2%. The crude products
include facing tile, floor tile and mosaic tile; the fine products include
household utensils, chemical and electrical ceramics. The ceramic products
used in finishing construction belong to the extent of fine pottery and crude
stoneware.

PORCELAIN
Is a ceramic material made by heating materials, generally including kaolin, in a kiln
to temperatures between 1,200 (soft-paste porcelain) and 1,400 °C (hard-paste
porcelain)

PROPERTIES
 hardness
 whiteness
 translucency
 toughness
 low permeability
 elasticity
 considerable strength
 resonance
 high resistance to chemical attack and thermal shock

Primary components
 clays
 feldspar or flint
 silica

TYPES OF PORCELAIN
Hard-Paste

 Made from a mixture of china clay (kaolin) and china stone (petuntse). The

use of china stone dispenses with the need for the 'frit' used in soft-paste
porcelain.

 This type of porcelain often has a grey appearance and is extremely hard, it
is fired at a much higher temperature than soft-paste porcelain. The
ingredients melt and fuse into a dense strong body. It will allow bright light to
pass through it. Colours lie on top of the glaze. 

 Hard-paste porcelain recipe: 50% china clay, 30% china stone,

20% flint. Firing: Biscuit temperature 900 C - 1000 C. Glost firing 1350 C -
1400 C.

Soft-Paste

 First produced in Europe in 1738.

 Soft-paste porcelain is produced by mixing white clay with 'frit' - a glassy
substance that was a mixture of white sand, gypsum, soda, salt, alum and
nitre.
 Lime and chalk were used to fuse the white clay and the frit, the mixture is
then fired at a lower temperature than hard-paste porcelain.

 Soft-paste porcelain is soft and the body is granular since the ingredients do
not melt together.
  The glaze is clear and thick and sometimes gathers into pools. The enamel
colours sink into the glaze.

 Glassy porcelain has no standard recipe but the body is made from -
Glass, China stone, other ingredients. Firing temperatures: biscuit 1200 C -
1300 C, glost 1050 C - 1150 C

 Porcelaneous ware was first made in China, hence its common

name china. Chinese porcelain is less vitrified (and therefore softer) than its
modern European counterpart, which was developed in Germany in the early
18th century.

Bone China

 Stronger than hard-paste porcelain and easier to manufacture.

 Its ivory white appearance is created by adding bone ash to the ingredients
for hard-paste porcelain.
 Bone china is extremely hard, intensely white and will allow light to pass
through it.
 Strength is provided by the fusion of body ingredients during firing. This
unique English pottery body is made from the following: 50% animal bone,
25% china clay, 25% china stone. First or biscuit firing 1200 C - 1300 C.
Second or glost firing 1050 C - 1100 C.

Process of making Porcelain

To make porcelain, the raw materials—such as clay, felspar, and silica—are first
crushed using jaw crushers, hammer mills, and ball mills. After cleaning to remove
improperly sized materials, the mixture is subjected to one of four forming
processes—soft plastic forming, stiff plastic forming, pressing, or casting—
depending on the type of ware being produced. The ware then undergoes a
preliminary firing step, bisque-firing.

After bisque firing, the porcelain wares are put through a glazing operation, which
applies the proper coating. The glaze can be applied by painting, dipping, pouring,
or spraying. Finally, the ware undergoes a firing step in an oven or kiln. After
cooling, the porcelain ware is complete.

Examples in building
(Chinese artist renovates century old building with antique porcelain)
(Used in façade systems, Inalco´s porcelain tiles help insulate buildings and
optimize the energy needed to heat or cool their interiors.)

(Original arched door of the Porcelain Tower. The tower was one of the largest
buildings in China, rising up to nine stories. The tower was mostly built with white
porcelain bricks during the reign of the Yongle Emperor (1402-1424 AD), it was
destroyed during the Taiping Rebellion.
(Porcelain tiles)
 BRICKS
A brick is a block or a single unit of kneaded clay-bearing soil, sand and lime, or
concrete material, fire hardened or air dried, used in masonry construction.
Typically, bricks are about 4 wide, 8 inches long, with a variety of thicknesses.
Larger stone- or clay-based building units of the type used in foundations are
usually called blocks.

TYPES
According to Shape

 Brick veneers: These bricks are thin and used for surface cladding.

 Airbricks: These bricks contain large holes to circulate air and lessen weight.
They are used in suspended floors and cavity walls.

 Perforated bricks: These bricks contain many cylindrical holes drilled

throughout the brick. They are very light in weight. 

 Bullnose brick: These are bricks molded with round angles.

 Paving bricks: These bricks contain a good amount of iron. They are used in
underfoot paving applications.

 Capping bricks: These bricks are used to cap the tops of freestanding walls. 

 Hollow bricks: About one-third of the weight of the normal bricks, these are
used mostly in partition walls where load-bearing is not required.
According to Raw Materials

Types of Bricks Raw Materials Uses

Burnt clay bricks wet clay masonry walls,
foundations, columns
Sand lime bricks (calcium sand, fly ash and lime Structural foundations
silicate bricks) and walls, exposed bricks
wall and pillars,
ornamental uses (when
pigment are added)
Concrete bricks solid concrete  Fences, internal (hidden)
brickwork
Fly ash bricks clay and fly ash—a Structural walls,
byproduct of coal burning foundations, pillars,
—fired at about 1,000 anywhere that improved
degrees C fire resistance is required
Firebrick specially formulated earth lining of chimneys and
with a high aluminum furnaces, pizza ovens and
oxide content outdoor brick barbecues

Burnt clay bricks

Sand lime bricks

Concrete bricks

Fly ash bricks

Firebrick

Advantages of Brick Construction

 Aesthetic
 Strength
 Porosity
 Fire protection
 Sound attenuation
 Insulation
 Wear-resistance

STONES, GYPSUM AND LIME

Difference between Rock and Stone
 Rock – a book, Stone by Stone, Robert Thorson writes “Rock is raw
material in situ.”
- “A large rugged mass of hard mineral material or stone.” (Oxford)
- Impure substance. Rock is made up of mixture of minerals, dust
particles and so on. So it is an impure substance.
- People often use rock to refer to something solid, large, grounded,
substantial, something to base your faith upon, such as a mountain or
palisade.

 Stone - Stone usually connotes either human handling or human use,

although it can also be used to describe naturally produced fragments
of rock larger than a cobble. (Robert Thorson)
- “A piece of rock or hard mineral substance of a small or moderate
size,” (Oxford)
- Stone, while connoting a hard mineral substance, favors smaller
objects, such as something you can pick up in your hands.
- Stone more often implies some sort of human use. Stone also does
seem restricted to smaller material. But rock can also be used in these
situations.
NOTE: All rocks are stones but not all stones are rocks.
Classification of Rocks
1. Igneous Rocks - crystalline solids which form directly from the cooling of
magma.
- The word igneous is derived from the Latin word Ignis which means fire.
The rocks formed by the solidification on the cooling of molten magma, are
called igneous rocks.
Intrusive Extrusive

2. Sedimentary Rocks - These rocks get their name

from the Latin word sedimentum which means settle down.
- These rocks are formed by the settling down of sediments.
- Sediments are the smaller particles / fragments that are formed by the
breaking down of rocks when they roll down, crack and hit each other.
- These sediments are transported by wind, water etc.
- These sediments; when compressed and hardened; form sedimentary
rocks.
- Sandstone is an example of sedimentary rock. It is made up of grains of
sand.
- The sedimentary rocks may also contain fossils of plants, animals and other
micro – organisms that once lived on them.
*Sedimentary structure

3. Metamorphic Rocks - The Greek word ‘metamorphose’ which means

change of form, is the root of the word metamorphic. In other words, these
are the rocks that are formed when the igneous and sedimentary rocks
change their form under the following two circumstances: Great heat and
Great pressure.
 Migmatite

Why do we use stone for building construction?

Stone is a highly durable, low maintenance building material with high
thermal mass. It is versatile, available in many shapes, sizes, colours and
textures, and can be used for floors, walls, arches and roofs. Stone blends
well with the natural landscape, and can easily be recycled for other building
purposes.
Advantages
a. it resists weather weather conditions
b. many surface textures
c. gives the designer engineer a wide variety of design details and shapes to
choose from for his building elevations and frames of openings
d. increases the insulation of the walls due to the increased thickness of the
wall
Disadvantages
a. slows the construction process because building the stone needs special
care and accuracy to build it and while building you need always to choose
the best stone for your project
b. It is a heavy material
NOTE: stone building is one of the oldest building materials used in the
history of architecture.

Uses of stone in building construction

1. Building and decorative – resistance to weather and aesthetics.

2. Aggregates – stones are

used because of its strong
physical properties. rushed and sorted into various sizes for use in concrete,
coated with bitumen to make asphalt or used 'dry' as bulk fill in construction.
Mostly used in roads, concrete and building products.

3. Lime burning (calcining) - limestone when heated to a high temperature

breaks down into lime (calcium oxide) and carbon dioxide gas. It can then be
used as a more powerful alkali than limestone (see above) or used as a
cement with sand, to make mortar.
4. Cement – if limestone (or its variety chalk) is mixed with clay or sandstone
before firing, it can produce Portland cement which when mixed with
aggregate makes concrete.

Kinds of Stone Used for Building Purposes

1. Rubble - pieces of rough or undressed stone used in building walls,
especially as filling for cavities. Also called escombro and lastillas.

2. Dimension (cut stone) – pieces that have been cut or finished, usually
used for facing of walls.

3. Flagstone - is a generic flat

stone, cutting regular
rectangular or square in shape
and usually used for paving
slabs or walkways, patios,
flooring, fences and roofing.
4.
Crushed Rock - Crushed stone or angular rock is a form of construction
aggregate. Used in large extent in concreting.

Characteristics of Good Building Stones

1. Appearance and color - Stones with much iron should be discouraged
2. Weight – must be heavy
3. Porosity and absorption - Stones with much pores are unsuitable
4. Fineness of grains - Fine grained are suitable for moulding works.
5. Compactness and Durability - Compact, homogeneous stones having
negligible water absorption are durable.
6. Resistance to Fire - homogenous in composition and free form calcium
carbonate or oxide of iron.
7. Electrical resistance - A stone should be non-absorbent (like Slate) to have
steady and high electrical resistance.
8. Hardness and Toughness – must be hard and tough
9. Strength – strong in compression

Building Stones - naturally occurring rocks of igneous, sedimentary or

metamorphic origin which are sufficiently consolidated to enable them to be
cut or shaped into blocks or slabs for use as walling, paving or roofing
materials in the construction of buildings and other structures.
1. Granite – Igneous. Composed of quartz, feldspar and mica.
 Appearance and color: Granites are coarse to medium-grained in
texture, massive, unlayered and crystalline in structure. They are
commonly of light colors and often spotted. Granites occur in
appealing colors and have a capacity to take very fine, Glossy, mirror-
like-finish on polishing.
 Most granites possess excellent building properties such as; high
strength and hardness, low absorption value, least porosity, good
resistance to frost and weathering,
excellent durability. However, they
have poor resistance to fire.
 Uses: ornamental columns/plinths. Sea
walls, bridge piers. Building blocks.
Road metals or railway ballast. Flooring
wall paneling. Mullion facings. Stair
treads or flagstone.
2. Basalts (Traps) – Igneous. Silica alumina and feldspar.
 Appearance and color: Basalts and traps are fine textured crystalline
rocks which sometimes show cavities and pores due to escape of gases
at the time of cooling of lava. Because of their composition (being rich
in ferro-magnesium minerals) most basalts are dark or light dark in
appearance.
 Basalts, like granites, possess very high strength values. They are
resistant to weather and being fine textured impervious to moisture
(except when rich in gaseous cavities). Being very hard, they are very
difficult to dress in fine shapes. It has good sound absorption and
insulation; heat insulation and heat reserve capacities. It is
environmentally green building material. Basalt is acid and alkali
resistant.
 Uses: Suitable for paving sets and as road metal. Used for manufacture
of artificial stones. Used as aggregate in concrete.

3. Argillite – Sedimentary. Rock made of clay

 Appearance and Color: Commonly dark-blue with faint shades of green
 Rock that is made up of clay or silt particles that is hardened.
  Uses: Floor tile, stair treads, coping stones, interior wall base, interior
window stools of exterior window sills.

4. Slate: Metamorphic rock. Alumina mixed with sand or carbonate of lime.

 Appearance and color: Slate is a very fine textured rock, so much so
that its constituents can hardly be identified even under a microscope.
It shows typical slat cleavage which means that the rock can be split
into large thin sheets in certain directions. This slat cleavage makes it
an excellent rooting material for ordinary Construction. Black, green,
red, grey or purple.
 It can be split into thin sheets. It is non-absorbent. Sheets of slate are
strong under transverse loading and quite impervious to water hence
they make ideal good roof covering. Hard and slightly rough. Slate
shows great variation in its building properties which depend on the
thickness of the sheets and the color of the rock. Black colored thin
sheets are used for ordinary roofing. This type of stones are practically
impervious to moisture. Thickly layered slates have a good
compressive strength and may find use in sills and for pavements.
 Uses: Roof, flooring, window sills, stools, stair treads and facing.
5. Limestone: Sedimentary rock of calcareous variety ("mostly or partly
composed of calcium carbonate"). Pure state contains CaCO3 but frequently
mixed with MgCO3 and small amount of silica and alumina. Limestones
containing 10% or more of magnesia are called as magnesian and those
having over 45% of it are termed as dolomites.
 Appearance and color: Most Limestones are invariably fine textured.
Some of them may contain fossils. In structure, they may be stratified
or sometimes massive. They also show great variation in texture and
structure. It varies greatly in limestones. From pure white (Chalk)
varieties, Limestones of Grey and dark varieties are also known. The
color depends on the presence of accessory minerals finely dispersed
in the carbonate matrix.
 Very low in absorption and has a smooth texture. The use of
limestones as facing stones should be avoided in areas where the air is
polluted with industrial gases and also in coastal regions. In both
cases, air is likely to strike the rock chemically and change its surface
to spots of reactive compounds. Limestones are widely used in the
making of cement.
 Uses: Floor tiles
6.
Marble:

Metamorphic rock (changed from limestone or dolomite) of calcareous

variety. CaCO3 is the main constituent.
 Appearance and color: In texture, marble is a fine-grained rock with a
uniform granular (sugar-like grains) surface. It shows metamorphic
structures developed under heat. Marble occurs in almost all colors
from pure white to dense black. The color of marble depends on the
impurities that are finely distributed in it during its formation. Yellow,
white grey, black, green, violet or red
 Hard, smooth and mostly white. An excellent quality marble satisfies
all the requisite properties of a building stone. They are quite strong,
uniform in texture, least porous and take an excellent polish. They are
suitable both as ornamental stones and for general construction.
 Uses: for carving and decoration works. for steps, wall linings,
electrical switch boards, table slabs and columns.
7. Sandstone: Sedimentary rock (Siliceous variety) (high amount of quarts or
silica). Quartz and/or feldspar cemented by lime, mica, magnesium,
aluminium, oxide or iron or by a mixture of these materials. Sometimes
fragments of limestone, mica or feldspar are also present.
 Appearance and color: They occur in medium to fine-grained texture
and stratified structure and porous. Sandstones occur in many colors:
white, gray, pink, red, maroon and dark.
 some sandstones are excellent building stones. These are the varieties
that have a light color, and are rich in quartz and have a siliceous
cement and a line grained uniform texture. They must be free from
fine layers or minerals like mica and chlorite. Flagstone: sandstone of
thin-bedded variety. Grit: rock composed of angular sharp edged sand
grains. Free stone: sandstone that can be cut easily with mallet and
hammer into blocks for building. Durability of sandstone depends upon
the nature of cementing material. The quality of sandstone is poor if it
is porous or contains lime or clay. Sandstones are generally weak in
abrasion. They hold considerable water and allow percolation through
them.
 Uses: Wall, column, facing and decorative purposes. Fine grained are
used for ashlar work, mouldings, carvings etc. Rough and coarse
grained are used for rubble work; for slabs and tiles.

8.
Gneiss: Metamorphic rock, sometimes called
stratified or bastard granite with somewhat laminated structure. Quartz and
feldspar.
 Appearance and color: In texture, gneisses are coarsely crystalline
rocks. They often show a banded or layered structure in which case
mica minerals are segregated in distinct bands separating felspars and
other granular minerals. This destroys the usefulness of gneiss as a
building material.
 When coarsely crystalline and uniformly textured, gneisses are as good
building stones as granites. These are varieties light in appearance and
free from mica. Dark colored, mica-rich and banded types, however,
 are to be discarded. can be readily split into slabs and is more easily
worked than granite.
 Uses: building stones as granite
9. Laterite: Sedimentary, argillaceous
rock (clay minerals
are secondary but a
significant element).
composed mainly of
oxides of aluminum
with varying
amounts of oxides
of iron.
 Appearanc
e and color: The rock is formed
from the chemical decomposition
of alkaline igneous rocks by
leaching of some components.
This results in the development
of porous or spongy texture of
laterites. The laterites are light to
dark red in color depending upon
the quantity of iron in their composition.
 They are quite often used in the ordinary type of construction and
also as a road material.
 Uses: as building stones; as road metal.

STONE CONSTRUCTION
1. Dry Stone Stacking
- Earliest form of stone construction. These are
freestanding structures such as field walls, bridges and
buildings that use irregularly shaped stones carefully
selected and placed so that they fit closely together
without slipping. Structures are typically wider at the
base and taper in as height increases. The weight of
the stone pushes inwards to support the structure, and
any settling or disturbance makes the structure lock
together and become even stronger. Dry stone
structures are highly durable and easily repaired. They
allow water to drain through them, without causing
damage to the stones. They do not require any special
tools, only the skill of the craftsman in choosing and
placing the stones.
2. Stone masonry - Traditional stone masonry
evolved from dry stone stacking. Stone
blocks are laid in rows of even (courses) or
uneven (uncoursed) height, and fixed in
place with mortar, a cement or lime mixture
pasted between the stones.
Stones are either shaped
(dressed) into a block, known as
ashlar masonry, or left rough and
cut irregularly, known as rubble
masonry. Mortared stone
structures are less durable than
dry stone, because water can get
trapped between the stones and
push them apart. Traditional
stone masonry is rarely used
today, because stone is
expensive to quarry, cut and
transport, and the building
process is labour and skill-intensive. Instead, most modern stonework utilises
a veneer of stone (thin, flat pieces) glued against a wall of concrete blocks.
This is known as veneered stone or stone cladding.
GYPSUM
A soft mineral consisting of a hydrated calcium sulfate from which gypsum
plaster is made; colorless when pure as a retarder in Portland cement.
GYPSUM PRODUCTS
1. Plasters
a. Plaster of Paris- made from carefully selected white rocks
b. Keene’s Cement – highly resistant to moisture penetration and has a
smooth surface
c. Casting plaster – made from specially selected rock and ground much finer
than plaster of Paris. It is slower setting and cooler working.
d. Hard wall plaster- a neat gypsum plaster, containing fiber, widely used to
form the first coat and second coat on plastered walls and ceilings.
e. Cement band plaster – intended for application to concrete surfaces.
Almost any finish plaster can be applied over the coat.
f. Finish plaster – made specially to produce the finish coat for plastered
surfaces. It has to be mixed with hydrated Lime putty and water.
g. Prepared finish plaster – requires only water. It contains no lime, so the
plaster surface can be decorated as soon as it is dry.
h. Texture plaster – used when a rough surface is required.
i. Acoustical plaster – calcined gypsum is mixed with a light weight – mineral
aggregate to make a type of finish plaster that has a high rate of sound
absorption.
j. joint plasters – for filling nial holes and covering joints in gypsum wall
board.
2. Gypsum Boards
a. Gypsum wallboard – a fireproof sheathing for interior walls and ceilings. It
is made of a core of gypsum covered on each side by a heavy specially
manufactured kraft paper.
b. Gypsum lath – used as a base for plaster, providing adhesion for gypsum
plaster.
c. Gypsum precast roof decking – precast from gypsum containing various
types of fiber are made in either the square-edged plank from 4 to 6 feet or
metal-edged plank 10 feet long.
3. Gypsum Tile
a. partition and furring tile – made fro specially calcined gypsum, to which is
usually added about 5 percent wood fiber in the form of chips and
sometimes some perlite.
b. fireproofing tile – made to cover steel members in a building to protect
them against fire.
4. gypsum precast wall panels – made by casting in mold a panel consist of
two outer shells 5/8 in.thick reinforced with viscose fiber and separated by a
core of hexagonal cells.

LIME
Used in making of the finish or putty coat for interior plaster.
The lime used is hydrated or slake lime which is mixed with water to form a
plastic, putty like material to which is added gauging plaste. The mixture is
applied in a thin coat over a bare plaster and troweled to a smooth finish.
The lime in the putty begins to recarbonate and this hardening continues
slowly for along period of time.