be smoothly relaxed so that the controls are neutralized as the
Insufficient feel for the airplane as evidenced by the
airplane returns to straight-and-level flight. If trim was used,
such as during a steep turn, forward elevator pressure may
be required until the trim can be adjusted. As the rollout is
being completed, attention should be given to outside visual
references, as well as the flight instruments to determine that
the wings are being leveled and the turn stopped.
For outside references, select the horizon and another point
ahead. If those two points stay in alignment, the airplane
is tracking to that point as long as there is not a crosswind
requiring a crab angle. It would also be a good idea to include
VFR references for heading as well and pitch. A pilot holds
course in VFR by tracking to a point in front of the compass,
with only glances at the compass to ensure he or she is still
on course. This reliance on a surface point does not work
when flying over water or flat snow covered surfaces. In
these conditions, the pilot must rely on the compass or gyro-
heading indicator.
Because the elevator and ailerons are on one control, practice
is required to ensure that only the intended pressure is applied
to the intended flight control. For example, a beginner pilot
is likely to unintentionally add pressure to the pitch control
when the only bank was intended. This cross-coupling may be
diminished or enhanced by the design of the flight controls;
however, practice is the appropriate measure for smooth,
precise, and accurate flight control inputs. For example,
diving when turning right and climbing when turning left in
airplanes is common with stick controls, because the arm tends
to rotate from the elbow joint, which induces a secondary arc
control motion if the pilot is not extremely careful. Likewise,
lowering the nose is likely to induce a right turn, and raising
the nose to climb tends to induce a left turn. These actions
would apply for a pilot using the right hand to move the stick.
Airplanes with a control wheel may be less prone to these
inadvertent actions, depending on control positions and pilot
seating. In any case, the pilot must retain the proper sight
picture of the nose following the horizon, whether up, down,
left or right and isolate undesired motion. It is essential that
flight control coordination be developed because it is the very
basis of all fundamental flight maneuvers.
Common errors in level turns are:
• Failure to adequately clear in the direction of turn for
aircraft traffic.
• Gaining or losing altitude during the turn.
• Not holding the desired bank angle constant.
• Attempting to execute the turn solely by instrument
reference.
• Leaning away from the direction of the turn while
seated.
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•
inability to detect slips or skids without reference to
flight instruments.
• Attempting to maintain a constant bank angle by
referencing only the airplane’s nose.
• Making skidding flat turns to avoid banking the
airplane.
• Holding excessive rudder in the direction of turn.
• Gaining proficiency in turns in only one direction.
• Failure to coordinate the controls.
Climbs and Climbing Turns
When an airplane enters a climb, it changes its flightpath from
level flight to a climb attitude. In a climb, weight no longer
acts in a direction solely perpendicular to the flightpath. When
an airplane enters a climb, excess lift must be developed to
overcome the weight or gravity. This requirement to develop
more lift results in more induced drag, which either results
in decreased airspeed and/or an increased power setting to
maintain a minimum airspeed in the climb. An airplane can
only sustain a climb when there is sufficient thrust to offset
increased drag; therefore, climb rate is limited by the excess
thrust available.
The pilot should know the engine power settings, natural
horizon pitch attitudes, and flight instrument indications that
produce the following types of climb:
Normal climb—performed at an airspeed recommended by
the airplane manufacturer. Normal climb speed is generally
higher than the airplane’s best rate of climb. The additional
airspeed provides for better engine cooling, greater control
authority, and better visibility over the nose of the airplane.
Normal climb is sometimes referred to as cruise climb.
Best rate of climb (VY)—produces the most altitude gained
over a given amount of time. This airspeed is typically used
when initially departing a runway without obstructions until it
is safe to transition to a normal or cruise climb configuration.
Best angle of climb (VX)—performed at an airspeed that
produces the most altitude gain over a given horizontal
distance. The best angle of climb results in a steeper climb,
although the airplane takes more time to reach the same
altitude than it would at best rate of climb airspeed. The best
angle of climb is used to clear obstacles, such as a strand of
trees, after takeoff. [Figure 3-19]
It should be noted that as altitude increases, the airspeed
for best angle of climb increases and the airspeed for best
rate of climb decreases. Performance charts contained in
the Airplane Flight Manual or Pilot’s Operating Handbook
 Best angle-of-climb airspeed (VX)
gives the greatest altitude gain in
the shortest horizontal distance.

Best rate-of-climb airspeed (VY)

gives the greatest altitude gain
in the shortest time.

Figure 3-19. Best angle of climb verses best rate of climb.

(AFM/POH) must be consulted to ensure that the correct
airspeed is used for the desired climb profile at the given
environmental conditions. There is a point at which the best
angle of climb airspeed and the best rate of climb airspeed
intersect. This occurs at the absolute ceiling at which the
airplane is incapable of climbing any higher. [Figure 3-20]
Establishing a Climb
A straight climb is entered by gently increasing back
pressure on the elevator flight control to the pitch attitude
referencing the airplane’s nose to the natural horizon while
simultaneously increasing engine power to the climb power
setting. The wingtips should be referenced in maintaining the
climb attitude while cross-checking the flight instruments to
verify performance. In many airplanes, as power is increased,
an increase in slipstream over the horizontal stabilizer causes
the airplane’s pitch attitude to increase greater than desired.
The pilot should be prepared for slipstream effects but also
for the effect of changing airspeed and changes in lift. The
pilot should be prepared to use the required flight control
pressures to achieve the desired pitch attitude.
The power should be advanced to the recommended climb
power. On airplanes equipped with an independently
controllable-pitch propeller, this requires advancing the
propeller control prior to increasing engine power. Some
airplanes may be equipped with cowl flaps to facilitate
effective engine cooling. The position of the cowl flaps
should be set to ensure cylinder head temperatures remain
within the manufacturer’s specifications.
Engines that are normally aspirated experience a reduction
of power as altitude is gained. As altitude increases, air
density decreases, which results in a reduction of power.
The indications show a reduction in revolutions per minute
(rpm) for airplanes with fixed pitch propellers; airplanes
that are equipped with controllable propellers show a
decrease in manifold pressure. The pilot should reference
the engine instruments to ensure that climb power is being
22,000
Absolute ceiling
20,000
18,000 Service ceiling

If a climb is started from cruise flight, the airspeed gradually 16,000

X)

Bes

decreases as the airplane enters a stabilized climb attitude.

of climb(V
Standard altitude (feet)

14,000
t rat

The thrust required to maintain straight-and-level flight at a

e of

given airspeed is not sufficient to maintain the same airspeed 12,000

le

clim

in a climb. Increase drag in a climb stems from increased lift

Best ang

10,000
b(V Y

demands made upon the wing to increase altitude. Climbing

)

8,000
requires an excess of lift over that necessary to maintain level
flight. Increased lift will generate more induced drag. That 6,000
increase in induced drag is why more power is needed and
4,000
why a sustained climb requires an excess of thrust.
2,000

For practical purposes gravity or weight is a constant. S.L.

80 90 100 110 120
Even using a vector diagram to show where more lift is
necessary because the lift vector from the wings is no longer Indicated airspeed (knots)
perpendicular to the wings, therefore more lift is needed from
the wings which requires more thrust from the powerplant. Figure 3-20. Absolute ceiling.

3-17