Goal 7: Affordable and clean energy[edit]

"Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all."[53][edit]

Targets for 2030 include access to affordable and reliable energy while increasing the share of
renewable energy in the global energy mix. This would involve improving energy efficiency and
enhancing international cooperation to facilitate more open access to clean energy technology
and more investment in clean energy infrastructure. Plans call for particular attention to
infrastructure support for the least developed countries, small islands and land-locked developing
countries.[53]
As of 2017, only 57 percent of the global population relies primarily on clean fuels and
technology for cooking, falling short of the 95 percent target. [30]

Goal 8: Decent work and economic growth[edit]

"Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive
employment and decent work for all."[54][edit]
World Pensions Council (WPC) development economists have argued that the twin
considerations of long-term economic growth and infrastructure investment were not prioritized
enough. The fact they were designated as the number 8 and number 9 objective respectively
was considered a rather "mediocre ranking [which] defies common sense". [55]
For the least developed countries, the economic target is to attain at least a 7 percent annual
growth in gross domestic product (GDP). Achieving higher productivity will require diversification
and upgraded technology along with innovation, entrepreneurship, and the growth of small- and
medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). Some targets are for 2030; others are for 2020. The target for
2020 is to reduce youth unemployment and operationalize a global strategy for youth
employment. Implementing the Global Jobs Pact of the International Labour Organization is also
mentioned.
By 2030, the target is to establish policies for sustainable tourism that will create jobs.
Strengthening domestic financial institutions and increasing Aid for Trade support for developing
countries is considered essential to economic development. The Enhanced Integrated
Framework for Trade-Related Technical Assistance to Least Developed Countries is mentioned
as a method for achieving sustainable economic development. [54]

Goal 9: Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure[edit]

"Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization, and
foster innovation."[56][edit]
Further information: Resilience (engineering and construction) and Urban resilience
Manufacturing is a major source of employment. In 2016, the least developed countries had less
"manufacturing value added per capita". The figure for Europe and North America amounted to
US$4,621, compared to about $100 in the least developed countries. [57] The manufacturing of
high products contributes 80 percent to total manufacturing output in industrialized economies
but barely 10 percent in the least developed countries.
Mobile-cellular signal coverage has improved a great deal. In previously "unconnected" areas of
the globe, 85 percent of people now live in covered areas. Planet-wide, 95 percent of the
population is covered.[57]

Goal 10: Reducing inequalities[edit]

"Reduce income inequality within and among countries."[58][edit]
Target 10.1 is to "sustain income growth of the bottom 40 per cent of the population at a rate
higher than the national average". This goal, known as 'shared prosperity', is complementing
SDG 1, the eradication of extreme poverty, and it is relevant for all countries in the world. [59]
Target 10.3 is to reduce the transaction costs for migrant remittances to below 3 percent. The
target of 3 percent was established as the cost that international migrant workers would pay to
send money home (known as remittances). However, post offices and money transfer companies
currently charge 6 percent of the amount remitted. Worse, commercial banks charge 11 percent.
Prepaid cards and mobile money companies charge 2 to 4 percent, but those services were not
widely available as of 2017 in typical "remittance corridors." [60]

Goal 11: Sustainable cities and communities[edit]

"Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable." [61][edit]
The target for 2030 is to ensure access to safe and affordable housing. The indicator named to
measure progress toward this target is the proportion of urban population living
in slums or informal settlements. Between 2000 and 2014, the proportion fell from 39 percent to
30 percent. However, the absolute number of people living in slums went from 792 million in
2000 to an estimated 880 million in 2014. Movement from rural to urban areas has accelerated
as the population has grown and better housing alternatives are available. [62]

Goal 12: Responsible consumption and production[edit]

"Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns."[63][edit]
Further information: Sustainable products
The targets of Goal 12 include using eco-friendly production methods and reducing the amount
of waste. By 2030, national recycling rates should increase, as measured in tons of material
recycled. Further, companies should adopt sustainable practices and publish sustainability
reports.
Target 12.1 calls for the implementation of the 10-Year Framework of Programmes on
Sustainable Consumption and Production. [64] This framework, adopted by member states at
the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, is a global commitment to
accelerate the shift to sustainable consumption and production in developed and developing
countries.[65] In order to generate the collective impact necessary for such a shift, programs such
as the One Planet Network have formed different implementation methods to help achieve Goal
12.[66]

Goal 13: Climate action[edit]

"Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts by
regulating emissions and promoting developments in renewable energy."[67][edit]
The UN discussions and negotiations identified the links between the post-2015 SDG process
and the Financing for Development process that concluded in Addis Ababa in July 2015 and
the COP 21 Climate Change conference in Paris in December 2015. [68]
In May 2015, a report concluded that only a very ambitious climate deal in Paris in 2015 could
enable countries to reach the sustainable development goals and targets. [69] The report also
states that tackling climate change will only be possible if the SDGs are met. Further, economic
development and climate change are inextricably linked, particularly around poverty, gender
equality, and energy. The UN encourages the public sector to take initiative in this effort to
minimize negative impacts on the environment.[70]
This renewed emphasis on climate change mitigation was made possible by the partial Sino-
American convergence that developed in 2015–2016, notably at the UN COP21 summit (Paris)
and ensuing G20 conference (Hangzhou).[55]
At a 2017 UN Press Briefing, Global CEO Alliance (GCEOA) Chairman James Donovan
described the Asia-Pacific region, which is a region particularly vulnerable to the effects of
climate change, as needing more public-private partnerships (PPPs) to successfully implement
its sustainable development initiatives.[71]
In 2018, the International Panel of Climate Change (IPCC),[72] the United Nations body for
assessing the science related to climate change, published a special report "Global Warming of
1.5°C"[73]. It outlined the impacts of a 1.5 °C global temperature rise above pre-industrial levels
and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, and highlighted the possibility of avoiding
a number of such impacts by limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared to 2 °C, or more. The
report mentioned that this would require global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide
(CO2) to fall by about 45% from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching "net zero" around 2050, through
“rapid and far-reaching” transitions in land, energy, industry, buildings, transport, and cities.
[74]
 This special report was subsequently discussed at COP 24. Despite being requested by
countries at the COP 21, the report was not accepted by four countries – the US, Saudi Arabia,
Russia and Kuwait, which only wanted to "note" it, thereby postponing the resolution to the
next SBSTA session in 2019.[75]

Goal 14: Life below water[edit]

Further information: Marine protected area §  International efforts
"Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable
development."[76][edit]
Sustainable Development Goal 14 aims “to conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and
marine resources for sustainable development.” [77] Effective strategies to mitigate adverse effects
of increased ocean acidification are needed to advance the sustainable use of oceans. As areas
of protected marine biodiversity expand, there has been an increase in ocean science funding,
essential for preserving marine resources.[78] The deterioration of coastal waters has become a
global occurrence, due to pollution and coastal eutrophication (overflow of nutrients in water),
where similar contributing factors to climate change can affect oceans and negatively impact
marine biodiversity. “Without concerted efforts, coastal eutrophication is expected to increase in
20 per cent of large marine ecosystems by 2050.”[79]
The Preparatory Meeting to the UN Ocean Conference convened in New York, US, in February
2017, to discuss the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14. International law, as
reflected in the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), stressed the need to include
governance instruments to consider “anthropogenic activities taking place outside of the ocean”.
[80]
 Concerns regarding ocean health in destructive fishing practices and marine pollution were
discussed, in looking at the role of local communities of small island developing States (SIDS)
and least developed countries (LDCs) to not forget that oceans are a large part of their
economies.[80] The targets include preventing and reducing marine pollution and acidification,
protecting marine and coastal ecosystems, and regulating fishing. The targets also call for an
increase in scientific knowledge of the oceans.[81][82]
Although many participating United Nations legislative bodies comes together to discuss the
issues around marine environments and SDG 14, such as at the United Nations Ocean
Conference, it is important to consider how SDG 14 is implemented across different Multilateral
Environmental Agreements, respectively. As climate, biodiversity and land degradation are major
parts of the issues surrounding the deterioration of marine environments and oceans, it is
important to know how each Rio Convention implements this SDG.
Oceans cover 71 percent of the Earth's surface. They are essential for making the planet
livable. Rainwater, drinking water and climate are all regulated by ocean
temperatures and currents. Over 3 billion people depend on marine life for their livelihood.
Oceans absorb 30 percent of all carbon dioxide produced by humans.[83][full citation needed] The oceans
contain more than 200,000 identified species, and there might be thousands of species that are
yet to be discovered. Oceans are the world's largest sources of protein. However, there has been
a 26 percent increase in acidification since the industrial revolution. A full 30 percent of marine
habitats have been destroyed, and 30 percent of the world's fish stocks are over-exploited.[83][full
citation needed]
 Marine pollution has reached shocking levels; each minute, 15 tons of plastic are
released into the oceans.[84][full citation needed] 20 percent of all coral reefs have been destroyed
irreversibly, and another 24 percent are in immediate risk of collapse. [85][full citation needed] Approximately 1
million sea birds, 100 000 marine mammals, and an unknown number of fish are harmed or die
annually due to marine pollution caused by humans. It has been found that 95 percent
of fulmars in Norway have plastic parts in their guts.[84][full citation needed] Microplastics are another form of
marine pollution.
Individuals can help the oceans by reducing their energy consumption and their use of plastics.
Nations can also take action. In Norway, for instance, citizens, working through a web page
called finn.no, can earn money for picking up plastic on the beach. [86] Several countries, including
Kenya and Tanzania, have banned the use of plastic bags for retail purchases.[87][88] Improving the
oceans contributes to poverty reduction, as it gives low-income families a source of income and
healthy food. Keeping beaches and ocean water clean in less developed countries can attract
tourism, as stated in Goal 8, and reduce poverty by providing more employment. [85][full citation needed]
Characterized by extinctions, invasions, hybridizations and reductions in the abundance of
species, marine biodiversity is currently in global decline. [89] “Over the past decades, there has
been an exponential increase in human activates in and near oceans, resulting in negative
consequences to our marine environment.” [90] Made evident by the degradation of habitats and
changes in ecosystem processes,[89] the declining health of the oceans has a negative effect on
people, their livelihoods and entire economies, with local communities which rely on ocean
resources being the most affected. [90] Poor decisions in resource management can
compromise conservation, local livelihood, and resource sustainability goals. [91] “The sustainable
management of our oceans relies on the ability to influence and guide human use of the marine
environment.”[92] As conservation of marine resources is critical to the well-being of local fishing
communities and their livelihoods, related management actions may lead to changes in human
behavior to support conservation programs to achieve their goals. [93] Ultimately, governments and
international agencies act as gatekeepers, interfering with needed stakeholder participation in
decision making.[94] The way to best safeguard life in oceans is to implement effective
management strategies around marine environments.[78]
Climate action is used as a way of protecting the world's oceans. Oceans cover three quarters of
the Earth's surface and impact global climate systems through functions of carbon dioxide
absorption from the atmosphere and oxygen generation. The increase in levels of greenhouse
gases leading to changes in climate negatively affects the world's oceans and marine coastal
communities. The resulting impacts of rising sea levels by 20 centimeters since the start of the
20th century and the increase of ocean acidity by 30% since the Industrial Revolution has
contributed to the melting of ice sheets through the thermal expansion of sea water.[95]
Sustainable Development Goal 14 has been incorporated into the Convention on Biological
Diversity (CBD),[96] the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC),
[97]
 and the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD). [98]

Goal 15: Life on land[edit]

"Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably
manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and
halt biodiversity loss."[99][edit]
This goal articulates targets for preserving biodiversity of forest, desert, and mountain eco-
systems, as a percentage of total land mass. A "land degradation-neutral world" can be reached
by restoring degraded forests and land lost to drought and flood. Goal 15 calls for more attention
to preventing invasion of introduced species and more protection of endangered species.
[100]
 Forests have a prominent role to play in the success of Agenda 2030, notably in terms of
ecosystem services, livelihoods, and the green economy; but this will require clear priorities to
address key tradeoffs and mobilize synergies with other SDGs.[101]
The Mountain Green Cover Index monitors progress toward target 15.4, which focuses on
preserving mountain ecosystems. The index is named as the indicator for target 15.4.
[102]
 Similarly, the Red Index (Red List Index or RLI) will fill the monitoring function for biodiversity
goals by documenting the trajectory of endangered species.[100] Animal extinction is a growing
problem.[citation needed]

Goal 16: Peace, justice and strong institutions[edit]

Main article: Sustainable Development Goal 16
"Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to
justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels." [103]
[edit]
Reducing violent crime, sex trafficking, forced labor, and child abuse are clear global goals. The
International Community values peace and justice and calls for stronger judicial systems that will
enforce laws and work toward a more peaceful and just society. By 2017, the UN could report
progress on detecting victims of trafficking. More women and girls than men and boys were
victimized, yet the share of women and girls has slowly declined (see also violence against
women). In 2004, 84 percent of victims were females and by 2014 that number had dropped to
71 percent. Sexual exploitation numbers have declined, but forced labor has increased.
One target is to see the end to sex trafficking, forced labor, and all forms of violence against and
torture of children. However, reliance on the indicator of "crimes reported" makes monitoring and
achieving this goal challenging.[104] For instance, 84 percent of countries have no or insufficient
data on violent punishment of children. [30] Of the data available, it is clear that violence against
children by their caregivers remains pervasive: Nearly 8 in 10 children aged 1 to 14 are subjected
to violent discipline on a regular basis (regardless of income), and no country is on track to
eliminate violent discipline by 2030. [30]
SDG 16 also targets universal legal identity and birth registration, ensuring the right to a name
and nationality, civil rights, recognition before the law, and access to justice and social services.
With more than a quarter of children under 5 unregistered worldwide as of 2015, about 1 in 5
countries will need to accelerate progress to achieve universal birth registration by 2030. [30]

Goal 17: Partnerships for the goals[edit]

"Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership
for sustainable development."[105][edit]
Increasing international cooperation is seen as vital to achieving each of the 16 previous goals.
Goal 17 is included to assure that countries and organizations cooperate instead of compete.
Developing multi-stakeholder partnerships to share knowledge, expertise, technology, and
financial support is seen as critical to overall success of the SDGs. The goal encompasses
improving north–south and South-South cooperation, and public-private partnerships which
involve civil societies are specifically mentioned. [106]

Allocation[edit]
In 2019 five progress reports on the 17 SDGs appeared. Three came from the United Nations
Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA), one from the Bertelsmann
Foundation and one from the European Union.[107][108][109][110] According to a review of the five reports
in a synopsis, the allocation of the Goals and themes by the Basel Institute of Commons and
Economics, the allocation was the following:[111]

Allocation of the Goals and their major themes in five leading SDG reports 2019[111]

SDG Topic   Rank    Average Rank Mentions[Note 1]

Health 1 3.2 1814

Energy 1328
Climate 2 4.0 1328
Water 1784

Education 3 4.6 1351

Poverty 4 6.2 1095

Food 5 7.6 693

Economic Growth 6 8.6 387

Technology 7 8.8 855

Inequality 8 9.2 296

Gender Equality 9 10.0 338

Hunger 10 10.6 670

Justice 11 10.8 328

Governance 12 11.6 232

Decent Work 13 12.2 277

Peace 14 12.4 282

Clean Energy 15 12.6 272

Life on Land 16 14.4 250

Life below Water 17 15.0 248

 Social Inclusion 18 16.4 22

In explanation of the findings, the Basel Institute of Commons and Economics said Biodiversity,
Peace and Social Inclusion were "left behind" by quoting the official SDGs motto "Leaving no one
behind".[111]

Cross-cutting issues[edit]

Young people holding SDG banners in Lima, Peru

Three sectors need to come together in order to achieve sustainable development. These are the
economic, socio-political, and environmental sectors in their broadest sense. [112] This requires the
promotion of multidisciplinary and transdisciplinary research across different sectors, which can
be difficult, particularly when major governments fail to support it.[112]
According to the UN, the target is to reach the community farthest behind. Commitments should
be transformed into effective actions requiring a correct perception of target populations.
However, numerical and non-numerical data or information must address all vulnerable groups
such as children, elderly folks, persons with disabilities, refugees, indigenous peoples, migrants,
and internally-displaced persons.[113]

Women and gender equality