.

WELDING RESEARCH
SUPPLEMENT TO THE WELDING JOURNAL, SEPTEMBER, 1980
Sponsored by the American Welding Society and the Welding Research Council IfDlj

Metallurgical and Thermal Characteristics

of Non-Vertical Electroslag Welds
Welds can be made with satisfactory penetration at angles of
inclination of 60 degrees, and possibly more, although the
"window" of current values allowable at a given voltage
for higher angles of inclination may be reduced

BY J. E. JONES, D. L. OLSON A N D G. P. MARTINS

ABSTRACT. The metallurgical and
thermal aspects of electroslag welds
which might be affected by having a
nonvertical weld axis have been inves-
tigated. Electroslag welding has tradi-
tionally been performed in a vertical
orientation. Problems of containing
the large molten pool of flux and metal
as well as positioning the electrode are
less severe w i t h a vertical process;
however, due to intention or accident,
nonvertical orientations can occur.
I he symmetry associated w i t h the
thermal processes of electroslag weld-
ing is altered by the inclination of the
weld axis. The electroslag w e l d i n g pro-
cess and, in particular, nonvertical
electroslag welds are very sensitive to
welding parameters. Quite drastic ani-
sotropy of HAZ w i d t h and penetration
can result from misaligned vertical
electroslag welds which causes the
weld axis to be inclined only slightly
from vertical. In addition, the resulting
anisotropy of heat distribution in small
angle welds is much more sensitive to
welding parameter values than in
larger angle welds.
This study indicated that radiation
heat transfer from the flux pool surface
appears to be significant for certain
combinations of welding parameters.
Preferential radiative preheating of the
upper weld surface is probably a major
cause of penetration and HAZ width
anisotropy in nonvertical electroslag
welds. The increase in current is pro-
portionately less rapid than the
increase in electrode velocity for a
given voltage. In addition, this obser-
vation was quantified to show that the
current appears to vary directly with
the square root of electrode velocity
and the cube root of the voltage.
The electroslag welding process is
quite applicable to situations in which
the weld axis is inclined from vertical.
The limitation of 10 to 15 deg imposed
by Paton 8 is far too restrictive, and
welds can be performed at angles of
inclination of 60 deg or possibly
greater w i t h satisfactory penetration.
However, the " w i n d o w " of current
values allowable at a given voltage for
higher angles of inclination may be
reduced.
Paper presented at the 61st AWS Annual
Meeting held in Los Angeles, California,
during April 14-18, 1980.
I. E. JONES, D. L. OLSON and G. P. MAR-
TINS are with the Center for Welding
Research, Department of Metallutgica! En-
gineering, Colorado School of Mines, Gold-
en, Colorado.
Introduction
The electroslag welding process has
traditionally been performed in a verti-
cal orientation. 1 " 8 Problems of contain-
ing the large molten pool of flux and
metal as well as positioning the elec-
trode are less severe when the process
is so oriented. However, many joining
situations are best facilitated by
orienting the electroslag weld w i t h the
longitudinal axis inclined from verti-
cal. Examples of those situations
which necessitate using a non-vertical
electroslag weld include:
1. Joining of "barrel" sections of
large thick-sectioned pressure vessels
which cannot be continuously rotated
to keep the weld oriented vertically.
2. Joining of turbine blades to the
base and crown of turbine assemblies
for high-head hydroelectric generating
stations. 3
3. " I n - s i t u " welds on bridge girders
when the bridge, itself, is located on a
grade and thus has an inclined traveled
surface.
The electroslag welding of nonverti-
cal joints is not often discussed in the
literature. Welding of curved cross-
section joints was discussed by Law-
rence 4 from a process control stand-
point; however, due to the moderate

W E L D I N G RESEARCH S U P P L E M E N T I 245-s
curvature of the workpieces, only
slightly nonvertical welds were investi-
gated w i t h neither heat flow charac-
teristics nor resultant joint morpholo-
gy being examined. Paton 8 discussed
briefly non-vertical electroslag welded
joints of up to 45 degrees (deg) incli-
nation, stating simply that greater than
30 deg welds are not recommended
and that some joint morphology and
heat flow anisotropy apparently results
from incorrect electrode positioning.
Although electroslag welding in a
vertical orientation is to be preferred,
due to intention or accident this is not
always the case. Consequently, this
investigation has been concerned w i t h
certain of those metallurgical and ther-
mal aspects of electroslag welds w h i c h
might be affected by having a nonver-
tical weld axis. The symmetry asso-
ciated w i t h the thermal processes of
vertical electroslag welding is altered
by the inclination of the weld axis. The
resultant anisotropy of the energy
transport and subsequent metallurgi-
cal characteristics are discussed.
Physical Description
Two distinctly different types of
nonvertical welds can exist. Figure 1
illustrates the two situations:
1. Where the surfaces of base metal
are vertical and the dams (i.e., cold or
hot shoes) which retain the flux and
molten weld metal are inclined.
2. Where the surfaces of the base
metal are inclined but the weld con-
tact surfaces of the dams are vertical.
The work in this investigation is con-
cerned w i t h those welds of the second
type; however, certain of the informa-
tion contained herein is equally appli-
cable to either case.
Nonvertical electroslag welds exhib-
it many similarities to vertical welds.
However, the nonvertical weld shows
certain anisotropies which indicate
significantly different heat transport
mechanisms may be dominant in non-
vertical as opposed to vertical welds. A
typical nonvertical electroslag weld
cross section macrophotograph is
shown in Fig. 2.
The fusion zone of an inclined elec-
troslag weld consists of t w o regions,
similar to a non-inclined weld. 5 - 8
Extending from the fusion line inwards
toward the center of the weld is a
coarse columnar grain region, the
grain growth direction being approxi-
mately perpendicular to the liq-
uid-solid interface or liquidus iso-
therm. Near the center of the depo-
sited weld metal, the grains are
reduced in size yet columnar and
again w i t h a longitudinal axis approxi-
mately perpendicular to the liquidus
isotherm. The significant difference
between a vertical w e l d , and the n o n -
vertical weld shown in Fig. 3 is that the
246-sl SEPTEMBER 1980
Fig. 1—Examples of two distinct types of
non-vertical electroslag welds
Fig. 2—Photomacrograph of the cross sec-
tion of an electroslag weld inclined at 60
deg from vertical. Weld was produced by
filling a tube 7 in. I.D. by 3.125 in O.D.
Weld, as shown, reduced 46% from original
size
Fig. 3—Schematic of a non-vertical electro-
slag welding specimen with experimentally
determined weld pool shape. Photomacro-
graph is a longitudinal section of an electro-
slag weld inclined at 45 degrees from verti-
cal. Weld was produced by filling a tube 1
in. I.D. by 3.125 in. O.D. Weld, as shown,
reduced 31% from original size
fusion zone exhibits i skewed cross
section, although the initial cavity was
circular in cross section. The anisotro-
py of penetration was observed to be
due to greater melt-back on the top
edge than on the bottom edge of the
weld. Figure 3 contains a schematic
representation of a nonvertical elec-
troslag weld showing the observed
results of anisotropy of heat distribu-
tion.
The measured heat-affected zone
(HAZ), or easily identified grain
growth region, extends from the
fusion line into the base metal. This
HAZ exhibited anisotropy similar to
the fusion zone. A skewed cross sec-
tion was typical w i t h the wider region
in the material on the top edge of the
weld than in the bottom. The wider
HAZ and increased penetration into
the top edge of nonvertical welds
appears to be related both to the angle
of inclination, and the relative values
of voltage, current and wire speed, as
discussed later.
Several welds, initially planned,
were terminated during operation due
to excessive penetration in the upper
surface causing melt-through and loss
of the flux bath from the test speci-
men. The nonvertical electroslag
welds exhibited three distinct types of
defects. Cracking was evident in t w o
locations: on the center line of the
weld, and on the fusion line adjacent
to the heat-affected zone. Flux entrap-
ment was found in certain of the welds
along the fusion line and occured in
some instances when penetration of
the base metal was evident.
Experimental Procedure
The welds were performed on spec-
imens produced from AISI 501 stain-
less steel seamless mechanical tubing
with 3.125 in. (84 mm) O.D., and 1 in.
(25 mm) I.D. A starting steel plate 1 in.
(25mm) x 3 in. (75 mm) X 6 in. (150
mm) was welded to the bottom of the
specimen.
The inside of the specimen was
cleaned w i t h hot water and detergent,
and swabbed with a methanol-satu-
rated cloth to remove all dirt and
cutting oil and allowed to dry several
days prior to welding.
The welding equipment used con-
sisted of a Hobart Porta-Slag system
using a constant potential power
supply, adapted for high current
(300-750 ampere) use. The consuma-
ble guide used was Hobart type 48
Porta-slag guide Vi in. (13 mm) O.D., '/a
in. (3 mm) I.D. which is similar compo-
sition to the electrode. The %2 in. (2.3
mm) diameter electrode used was
Hobart HB-25P wire, and to prevent
sticking in the guide tube was not
copper-coated. The flux used was
 ELECTR0SLAG
WELDING
amps
volts

390 500 525 550 550 625 | 650 650 675 <- CASE I - HIGH V , LOW I
1 5° 32 32.5 37 29 35 31.5 33 36 36

500 600 650 700

2 0° 33 35 36 37

500 600 700

25° 33 35 37

600 700 800 600 700 800 1 650 900 800

30° 33 33 33 35 35 35 j 37 37 37
CASE II - MOD. V, MOO. I -

600 700 800

35° 33 35 37

600 600 800

40° 33 35 37

600 700 800 600 700 800 650 900 800

45° 33 33 33 35 35 35 37 37 37 CASE I I I - LOW V, HIGH I

Fig. 4—Experimental test matrix used for non-vertical electroslag welds

Fig. 5—Effect of welding parameters on

Hobart PF-203 starting flux. The start-
ing flux was used exclusively to aid in
weld stability. 9
The weld specimens were attached
to a fixture which allowed for both
horizontal and vertical adjustment as
well as horizontal axial rotation. Strip
chart recorders were used to record
thermocouple data in the range 1000°
F (538° C) to 2500° F (1371° C), the
welding potential directly between
the t w o lead taps on the power supply,
the welding current, and the voltage
across the power leads on the wire
drive motor. This latter measurement
was used to determine the electrode
velocity. A thermal analysis of these
data will be presented in future publi-
cations.
Forty-five nonvertical electroslag
welding experiments were performed.
Figure 4 is the test matrix designed for
the work on nonvertical electroslag
welding. All of the welds at a given
angle of inclination from vertical were
performed before proceeding to the
next greater angle welds. Table 1 is a
compilation of the data collected and
indicates the current and voltage val-
ues which were measured. Welds
which were terminated due to upper
surface melt-through are not included
in Table 1.
After cooling to room temperature,
each experimental specimen was sec-
tioned. Six inches (150 mm) of weld
was removed from the top and bottom
of the specimen prior to sectioning to
obtain data free of thermal boundary
transients. T w o welds w i t h different
parameters were performed in each
experiment—one in each half of the
specimen. The top and bottom of each
of the t w o welds in each experiment
yielded a V2 in. (12.7 mm) thick cross
section and the center of each weld
was sectioned so as to produce a 314 in.
(89 mm) longitudinal section. The
resultant pieces were then examined
as follows:
1. Each piece was surface ground to
200 grit.
2. The sections were then individu-
ally immersed into a macro-etch solu-
tion of 12% sulfuric acid, 38% hydro-
chloric acid, and 50% deionized water
kept at 70° C (158° F); the pieces
remained in the solution for a suffi-
cient time to provide resolution of the
grains in the fusion zone and HAZ
grain growth region.
3. After washing and drying, they
were then photographed; the various
widths of the zones across each speci-
men were measured from the prints.
4. The data were reduced by a PDP-
10 computer to the form of Table 1,
and included adjustment for photo-
graphic scale.
Thermal Processes in Electroslag
Welding
Electroslag welding is an ohmic pro-
cess. Some resistance preheating of
the wire and guide tube does occur.
However, most of the heat is gener-
ated by transmission of current
through the ionically conductive flux.
In addition, mechanical, physical,
chemical and electrical processes i n -
teract w i t h each other in a quite c o m -
plex manner to determine the exact
heat generation situation at any given
time and for specific weld parameter
values. 1011
The mechanical processes of wire
filler metal feed speed and flux pool
stirring contribute to the heat genera-
tion situation. 12 Physical behavior of
the filler metal melt rate, electrical
resistivity, and base metal penetration
need to be considered. 1 3 " Chemical
variables, including variable flux c o m -
position, weld metal refinement, and
possible activation and concentration
polarization effects may contrib-
ute.15"18 Electrical characteristics, such
as power supply characteristics, Lor-
entz forces, and temperature depen-
ohmic heat generation
dent flux resistivity may alter the gen-
eration of heat in an electroslag
weld.
If only the current paths through the
flux which represent the most direct
(i.e., least resistance) paths are consid-
ered, then the heat generation within
the flux pool can be discussed in rela-
tion to three separate cases. In subse-
quent sections, each of the three situ-
ations is shown to relate to specific
morphologically characteristic welds.
The current to voltage ratio is the
determining factor. For purposes of
illustration, consider three welds all
performed at the same fixed current
but at different voltages. The most
direct current path assumption de-
mands that current passing to the flux
from the sides of the electrode be
conducted to the sides of the flux pool
until the electrode t i p gets sufficiently
close to the bottom of the flux pool; at
this point, current will flow from the
tip of the wire to the bottom of the
pool. As the electrode tip approaches
the bottom of the pool, a smaller
portion of the current w i l l pass to the
sides of the weld pool from the elec-
trode.
It should be noted that the farther
the electrode extends into the flux, the
larger the contact area between elec-
trode and flux available for conduction
of current and hence, the lower the
effective resistance. In addition, as the
electrode tip approaches the bottom
of the pool, the resistance through
which current must pass to the bottom
of the pool, (which is directly related
to the gap distance) decreases and the
effective resistance is further de-
creased—Fig. 5.
Case 1 occurs at relatively high vol-
tage for the given current. Since an
ohmic (E = IR) model is assumed, this
implies that the effective resistance (R)
is relatively large. Since a large value of

W E L D I N G RESEARCH S U P P L E M E N T I 247-s
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248-s I SEPTEMBER 1980

- 500 F
200
100 -
100 150
ELECTRODE FEED RATE
Fig. 6-lnfluence of electrode feed rate on weld width and base metal penettation as found by Libys and Paton"
R will occur when the electrode
extends only a short distance into the
flux pool, the resultant heat generation
will be concentrated near the top of
the flux pool and much of the heat
may be lost by radiation from the top
of the flux.
Interestingly, increasing the voltage
further (or decreasing the current) will
result in decreased electrode exten-
sion into the flux pool. Eventually, the
electrode will melt back to the surface
of the flux pool where arcing w o u l d be
expected to occur. Experimental evi-
dence has confirmed that holding vol-
tage constant and decreasing the cur-
rent in an electroslag weld eventually
causes arcing to occur between the
electrode and the flux surface.19
Consider Case III next, a relatively
low voltage at the same fixed currents
for Case I. Ohm's law requires a much
lower effective resistance than with
the first situation; consequently, the
electrode will extend nearly to the
bottom of the flux pool. By the initial
assumption, a large portion of the cur-
rent will flow through the flux directly
below the electrode tip to the bottom
of the flux bath. Thus, much of the
heat generated in the process will be
concentrated in the relatively small
region of flux between the electrode
tip and the bottom of the flux pool.
The end result of the low voltage is
that much of the heat generated is
transported, by way of superheated
droplets, to the liquid metal pool and
less heat is available for penetration
into the base material.
Finally for Case Ii, when a voltage
midway between the relatively high
and relatively low voltages discussed
previously is used, heat will be gener-
ated primarily in the central region of
the flux pool. The electrode will
extend a moderate distance into the
flux pool, resulting in an intermediate
effective resistance. Current w i l l flow
primarily from the electrode to the
sides of the flux bath generating heat
which is more readily available for
200 20
100
(in/min)
base metal penetration than in the
previously discussed t w o cases.
A non-linear relationship between
electrode velocity and base metal pen-
etration or weld width has been
observed by several investigators. Spe-
cifically, Paton 8 and Liby5 f o u n d that at
a given voltage (50 V, Paton; 44-46 V,
Liby) base metal penetration was
observed to increase with increasing
electrode feed rate at low feed rates,
and to decrease with increasing elec-
trode feed rate at high feed rates—Fig.
6. However, since each investigator
also determined that current is a
monotonically increasing function of
wire filler metal speed, the data could
also be construed to relate base metal
penetration w i t h current in the same
manner.
Due to the specimen geometry, wall
thickness, and power supply limita-
tions, and the fact that the primary
thrust of this investigation was to
study the effect of angle of inclination
on the process, the entire range of
possible parameter values available at
NON-VERTICAL
1.0 ELECTROSLAG
WELDING
0.9
• - 33 VOLTS
0.8 A - 35 VOLTS
• - 37 VOLTS
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
/
0.2
200 400 600
CURRENT (AMPERES)
Fig. 7—Plot of total penetration vs. current for non-vertical electroslag welding.
Data indicate shift in maximum point of total penetration as affected by welding
current and voltage
W E L D I N G RESEARCH S U P P L E M E N T I 249-s
ELECTROSLAG
WELDING
Paton (8)
200 300 400
ELECTRODE FEED RATE (m/hr)
each angle was not fully exploited.
However, the observations of the pre-
vious investigations discussed above
are confirmed in the data of this exper-
imental study.
As can be seen in Fig. 7, at high
voltages, as described in Case I, the
total base metal penetration increases
as current increases. (Note: total base
metal penetration refers to the weld
width minus the initial cavity width.)
The dashed line in Fig. 7 indicates that,
if a full range of possible current varia-
tion had been implemented, the pene-
tration should pass through a maxi-
mum and finally decrease with in-
creasing current. At low voltage levels,
as described in Case III, the base metal
penetration was observed to decrease
w i t h increasing current. Again, a
dashed line in Fig. 7 has been used to
indicate the expected trend of the data
based on previously reported results.
In addition, in examining Case II
(the point of maximum penetration) at
varying voltages but identical geome-
tries, electrode extension into the flux
800 1000 1200
bath would be approximately the same
in each weld. The current w o u l d be
expected to vary directly w i t h voltage;
consequently, the total unit energy
input, and thus the value of the maxi-
mum penetration w o u l d vary directly
with voltage. This variation in maxi-
mum penetration of base metal direct-
ly with voltage was shown by Paton. 8
Although the point of maximum
penetration is not well defined by the
observed data in either the low voltage
or the high voltage case, it appears to
occur at a current of less than 500
amperes (A) for the low voltage region
and at a current greater than 850 A for
the high voltage region. However, the
welds performed at 35 V do seem to
exhibit a maximum penetration at
approximately 800 A. This condition,
while not exactly the same as that
determined by Paton (probably due to
differing geometries), does, however,
agree qualitatively in that the maxi-
mum penetration point occurs at low-
er current values as the voltage is
decreased.
W e l d i n g Parameter Interaction
The electroslag welding process has
several controllable variables. Howev-
er, for a given weld configuration and
number of electrodes, there are only
two degrees of freedom. First, the
open circuit voltage setting deter-
mines which of the family of power
supply characteristic curves will dic-
tate machine response. Second, the
electrode velocity into the molten flux
bath is controlled by the weld operator
and affects the welding current and
weld pool velocity as discussed be-
low.
Three parameters (welding voltage,
current, and electrode velocity) can be
easily observed. However, only a max-
imum of t w o of them can be indepen-
dent due to the constraints discussed;
consequently, certain mathematical
relationships must exist between the
three parameters.
Observation of the data from this
investigation and data previously re-
ported has indicated that current is
definitely not linearly related to elec-
trode velocity. Paton 8 depicted the
relationship which he observed as
linear; however, he noted in the
accompanying discussion that the
linear relationship did not really hold
and that " w i t h an increase of the feed
rate, the rise in current is not propor-
tional but considerably slower." O b -
servation of data in the present inves-
tigation indicated that a four fold
increase in wire filler metal speed pro-
duced a t w o f o l d increase in current.
Furthermore, current I appeared to be
related to the cube root of the voltage.
As can be seen in Fig. 8, the cur-
250-sl SEPTEMBER 1980
• 8S30
o 8 > 30
400
4 5 6 7
!
W"V (Ir/8V0LTS"7SEC"!)
Fig. 8—Interaction of current with voltage
and electtode velocity for non-vertical elec-
troslag welding
rent—electrode velocity relationship
which appears to fit the data is one of
the form:
I =
where w is electrode velocity and V is
welding voltage.
Additionally, the lower angle (less
than 31 deg of inclination) data appear
to fit the relationship given in equa-
tion (1) above, quite well. However,
the higher angle (greater than 31 deg
of inclination) data does not seem to
exhibit quite the same relationship,
suggesting a weak angular depen-
dence. Continued research efforts are
needed to establish the exact relation-
ship of angle to the welding parameter
interaction in non-vertical electroslag
welding.
Heat Generation
In electroslag welding, several vari-
ables may affect heat generation and
distribution. The surface perimeter of
the flux bath w i t h the metal surface
might be expected to influence the
heat flow from the flux pool. Thus, the
heat input per unit area of weld cavity
swept out by the moving flux pool
surface is reported herein instead of
the more traditional heat input per
unit length of weld.
The heat input is calculated as the
rate of electrical energy input (VI) div-
ided by the travel speed and then div-
ided by the perimeter of the flux pool
surface. The weld travel speed is equal
to the electrode velocity (w) multiplied
by the fill ratio (f), given by
A,
f (2)
where Ae is the cross sectional area of
the electrode, and A w is the cross
sectional area of the weld cavity. Final-
ly, the perimeter (P) of the surface of
the flux pool is calculated as the
perimeter of an ellipse formed by cut-
ting a right circular cylinder w i t h a
plane inclined at (90—9) degrees to the
cylinder axis. The final heat input
equation includes a factor of 0.001 for
conversion of watt-seconds to kilo-
joules. Thus, heat input per unit area
(Q) is given by:
VI (0.001)
Q = fp- 0)
fPw
Values of heat input for each weld
can be found in Table 1.
8 9
The heat input values calculated by
equation (3) are only useful in predict-
ing final weld morphology if some
relationship exists between penetra-
tion, HAZ size and heat input. The
penetration characteristics of a weld
depend upon the region of heat gener-
ation and heat flow w i t h i n the flux
pool. Consequently, a direct correla-
tion does not exist between heat input
and penetration for all possible w e l d -
(1) ing parameter values. However, as dis-
cussed previously, three different
ohmic heat generation situations exist
in the electroslag process, and the
distribution, generation, and flow of
heat in each case varies markedly from
the others. It w o u l d , therefore, be
expected that the relationship be-
tween penetration and heat input
would be different for each of the
three situations.
Although several variables affect the
distribution, generation, and flow of
heat, a fairly simple ohmic model of
heat generation can be developed
which fits the data obtained in the
experiments and which illustrates the
relationship between the current to
voltage ratio and the penetration data.
The total resistivity of the system con-
sists of t w o resistances in parallel: one
in the radial direction from the elec-
trode to the sides of the molten flux
pool, and one in the axial direction
from the end of the wire filler metal to
the bottom of the flux pool. These t w o
resistances can be calculated if the
resistivity of the flux and the shape of
the flux pool is k n o w n ; however, these
two quantities are not well defined.
Assuming the flux pool is a cylinder of
radius tt w i t h top and bottom horizon-
tal and w i t h an inclined rotational axis,
and assuming constant resistivity of
the flux pool allows the total radial
resistance to be determined according
to equation (4):
The total radial resistance is given
by:
dr
Rr = P (4)
/y'
where A(r) is the area of a thin cylin-
 l ^-O 1 1 1 1 1—

.07 ® LOW CURRENT 20<S<35

.07
(0) HIGH CURRENT 3O<0<45

O Flux Entrapment O Center line Cracking

• No Entrapment • No Cracking

Tendency for
.06 - Flux Entrapment .06

VOLT VOLT,
AMP AMP

Tendency for
.05 Center line Cracking

.04 .04
10 1.5 1.9 2.1 2.3

w/r W/VI
2 INCH
(INCH/ SEC-AMP xlO"' ( /SEC-VOLT-AMP xlO" )
Fig. 9—Interaction of welding parameters in non-vertical electroslag welding: A—low current welds: B—high current welds

drical shell in the flux w i t h the elec- ciprocal of the heat transfer rate, that
trode as rotational axis and thickness the initial wire temperature is insignif-
equal to dr. This area is given by the icant in comparison to the flux tem-
relation: perature, and that the flux temperature
is proportional to the unit power
A(r) = 2 w r ( / - r sin0)
input. Given these assumptions, the
77
length of wire extension into the pool
f r- (sinQ) (/) is given by the proportionality rela-
tionship:
(1 - cos $) d 0 , (5)
where 9 is the angle of inclination of w cant w i t h respect to the flux pool
/ •
penetration for decreasing current
(i.e., high voltage to current ratio) in
Fig. 7 are depicted in Fig. 9A giving a
negative slope relationship as pre-
dicted by equation (8).
Conversely, by the penetration
model, for the limiting case when the
voltage to current ratio is small, the
gap between the wire end and the
molten metal pool becomes insignifi-

the weld axis from vertical; p is the vT depth. A relationship of the form:
resistivity of the flux, and rw is the
The model discussed above may be
radius of the wire.
Similarly, the axial resistance is
assumed to be through a conical
shaped region just below the end of
manipulated to reflect conditions
when the voltage to current ratio is
large and the wire extension into the
V = cl - d
(I)
is obtained from the ohmic process,
(9)

flux pool is insignificant in comparison where c and d are again constants

the wire to the molten pool. Minimiza-
tion procedures show that the angle of
the apex of the conical shaped region
is zero for minimum total resistance
(i.e., a cylindrical region in the molten
flux). Thus, axial total restance (Ra) is
proportional to the distance from the
tip of the electrode to the metal
pool:
to the flux pool depth. This gives:
dependent on angle of inclination of
w = al 2 blV (7) the weld axis, flux depth, resistivity
and temperature, as well as the heat
as obtained for the ohmic process,
transfer coefficients in the system.
where a and b are constants which
Rearrangement of equation (9) yields:
depend on the angle of inclination of
the weld axis, flux depth, resistivity
and temperature, as well as heat trans-
fer coefficients in the system. This
equation can be rearranged to give
V
(I)
The data in the range of increasing
(10)

P ( D n e )
Ra = ^ ' (6) one of the form: penetration for decreasing current
2TT rw (i.e., low voltage to current ratio) in
One can assume that the time to -= a - b (8) Fig. 7 are depicted in Fig. 9B. The plot
melt the electrode after immersion in (T) in Fig. 9B indicates the negative slope
the flux pool is proportional to the re- The data in the range of increasing relationship of equation (10.)

W E L D I N G RESEARCH S U P P L E M E N T I 251-s

1.0 0
\ 1\
\ r
< .75
~\*\
cc \ \
.50 \y
< yy
err
\N
.25
15
Fig. 10—Effects of angle of inclination on penetration ratio as influenced by the
1/V ratio. Regions of potential weld defects are indicated
Relation of W e l d Characteristics to
Angle of Inclination
For certain welding parameters in
nonvertical electroslag welding, deep
penetration of the top side of a weld
may be coupled with no penetration
and/or flux entrapment between the
fusion zone and the HAZ on the bot-
tom side of the weld. Table 1 is a
tabulation of data collected during
and subsequent to each weld in this
investigation, and the last column is a
description of the final weld morphol-
ogy as described in the footnote.
The anisotropy of penetration and
HAZ size exhibited by non-vertical
electroslag welds is related to the
angle of inclination from vertical of
the weld axis. The measure of aniso-
tropy of penetration or HAZ size used
in this investigation is the ratio of
bottom penetration or HAZ w i d t h to
that of the top surface of the weld.
Figure 10 is a plot of penetration
ratio as a function of angle of inclina-
tion from vertical. The HAZ w i d t h ratio
exhibited similar behavior when
plotted as a function of angle of incli-
nation. The assumption being made
that the ratio of penetration or HAZ
width is equal to 1 when the angle of
inclination is zero (i.e., a vertical
weld). The data are depicted as
occuring in a fairly wide band; howev-
er, this is not as much related to
inherent variation in the electroslag
process as to the wide range of weld-
ing parameters investigated in this
work.
In general, those welds w i t h a high
current to voltage ratio occur in the
top of the band in Figs. 10 and 11; they
exhibited less anisotropy of penetra-
tion and HAZ w i d t h for a given angle
of inclination. Welds performed using
higher voltage and lower current tend
to occur in the bottom region of the
252-sl SEPTEMBER 1980
1 i i
NON-VERTICAL
ELECTROSLAG
WELDING
\ VA»
Vi\
\4v -
\ \
-
x&\
^-s-— i - 1
30 45 60
ANGLE OF INCLINATION
band, exhibiting greater differences
between upper and lower penetration
and HAZ w i d t h for a given angle. This
result, when examined in relation to
the previously discussed model of heat
generation and distribution in the flux
pool, suggests that all or a major por-
tion of the increased heating of the
upper portion of the weld is due to
radiation heat transport which pre-
heats the upper surface of the weld to
a greater extent than the bottom sur-
face.
Figure 10 also indicates that a non-
vertical weld which is performed at a
small angle or perhaps simply a mis-
aligned vertical weld has the potential
for a low penetration or HAZ ratio.
Therefore, it is imperative that the
weld operator carefully control the
operating parameters so as to preclude
the possibility of flux entrapment or
lack of fusion on the bottom surface.
The molten flux pool has been the
subject of study in previous
work. 1216 ' 1718 ' 20 A detailed description
of the flux pool must include the exact
heat generation situation involving the
flux resistivity as affected by both local
and general flux chemistry and local
flux temperature. Stirring within the
flux pool is affected by several forces
acting on the pool. These forces
include bouyancy and Lorentz forces
as well as forced fluid flow induced by
movement of the electrode, flow field
of the molten metal, and droplets fall-
ing through the pool.
Both experimental and mathemati-
cal approaches to the problems pre-
sented by the molten flux pool have
been attempted. 1 "' 3 ' 2 1 Each of these is
associated with difficulties w h i c h , to
date, have not been overcome. The
experimental approach has produced
results only in systems of low melting
point w i t h transparent fluxes, or in
electrical analog systems which only
Fig. 11—Schematic represenation of sur-
faces used to determine radiation heat
transfer between the molten flux surface
and the weld base metal
include a few of the variables of a true
electroslag weld. The mathematical
models, although not lacking in math-
ematical excellence, have been forced
to ignore many of the physical and
electrical constraints on the problem
due to computational complexity.
In a system composed of more than
one surface and in w h i c h the surfaces
are at different temperatures, the
intensity of radiation transferred from
A 1; to A2 is affected by several factors.
Mathematically, the view factor, F,2 is
used to account for the variation in
apparent area due to inclination of the
surfaces and distance between them.
It is defined as:
1 £
F12 = — - (cos DjdA,]
tr A, J A i
[(cos <MdA 3 ] (1/r 2 ) (11)
where cp, and <t>, are the angles of
inclination of the line between dA,
and dA, from the normals to the sur-
face at dA, and dA 2 respectively, and r
is the distance between dA t and dA 2 .
The net exchange of energy from sur-
face 1 to surface 2 is given by:
E„e, = F„ ( e , - e 2 ) A „ (12)
where e is the emissive power, defined
by:
Cff? (13)
Values of emissivities ( e ) and view
factors are tabulated for various mate-
rials and geometric configurations. 22
The values determined in this manner
have some experimental error and
approximation inherent in them; how-
ever, they provide a reasonable esti-
mate which can be used to fit experi-
mental data.
 1 —
0.5 o
NON-VERTICAL
ELECTROSLAG
WELDING
0.4 o -^""^^
0.3 o
0.2 o -
0.1
I I
0.10
0.20
VIEW FACTOR
Fig. 12—Relationship of penetration ratio to view factor ratio for a
constant 1/V of 79
For t w o surfaces at different but
uniform temperatures, the net ex-
change of radiative energy between
these surfaces is proportional to the
view factor. The preferential radiation
preheating of the top surface of the
non-vertical-electroslag weld can be
assumed to be the primary cause of
anisotropic heat flow in the weld. If
this is so, then the ratio of bottom
surface penetration to top surface
penetration and the similar HAZ w i d t h
ratio w o u l d be expected to vary direct-
ly w i t h and proportionally to the ratio
of view factors for the bottom and top
surfaces of the weld w i t h the flux pool
surface.
This contention was tested by exam-
ining the view factors of three narrow
intersecting strips incorporated into
these three surfaces as shown in Fig.
11. Narrow strips were chosen so that
the curvature of the top and bottom
surfaces could be neglected. The con-
figuration then reduced to a pair of
t w o inclined rectangular surfaces (the
flux pool surface c o m m o n to both),
one w i t h an acute angle and the other
w i t h an obtuse angle. The view factors
for these geometries are tabulated in
the literature. 23 Figure 12 is a plot of
penetration ratio vs. view factor ratio
for constant l/V. This plot indicates a
direct relationship which lends further
support to the idea of preferential
radiative preheating being the cause of
the heat flow anisotropy.
The relationship of welding parame-
ters to angle is depicted in Fig. 13. Both
low and high angle data are shown,
indicating the regions of no penetra-
tion (above the acceptable region),
penetration w i t h flux entrapment (be-
low the acceptable region), and pene-
tration w i t h no flux entrapment (the
acceptable region). This plot clearly
indicates, for increasing angles of incli-
nation from vertical, that a greater
current is necessary at a given voltage
to produce an acceptable weld mor-
phology.
- 1 1 —i
a NON-VERTICAL
900 . ELECTROSLAG
WELDING
o
800
•
700
600
,'
s
•
500
'',-'
28 30
0.30
RATIO
Fig. 13—Influence of angle of inclination on the acceptable weld
region of V-l space. Small angles are considered less than 30 deg
and large angles are greater than 30 deg
Additional observations
Two important implications to the
practical application of non-vertical
electroslag welding have been uncov-
ered in this work. The first is related to
the effects of small angles of inclina-
tion. Due to the current lack of k n o w l -
edge concerning nonvertical electro-
slag welds and due to a primary inter-
est in studying a broad range of angles
of inclination, the test matrix did not
include angles less than 15 deg from
vertical. Consequently, no data were
obtained for welds performed at very
small angles of inclination. However, it
is evident that welds performed at an
angle as small as 15 deg from vertical
can exhibit fairly marked anisotropy of
heat flow and resultant penetration
and HAZ w i d t h . In addition, welds
performed at an angle as large as 20
deg from vertical, for certain welding
conditions, showed essentially no dif-
ference in top surface and bottom
surface penetration.
The non-vertical electroslag w e l d , as
w i t h the vertical electroslag weld, is
very sensitive to welding conditions
(i.e., voltage and current) w i t h respect
to final weld morphology, particularly
at small angles of inclination. Thus,
careful control of welding parameters
by the weld operator during the weld
is imperative if lack of penetration and
flux entrapment is to be avoided. In
addition, this information is particular-
ly interesting in that the extrapolated
data indicates that welds inclined at
only 5 deg or less may, for certain
combinations of w e l d parameters,
exhibit a large degree of anisotropy.
Consequently, if a vertical electroslag
weld is improperly aligned, thus caus-
ing a small inclination of the weld axis,
the effects on final weld morphology
could be quite noticeable.
The second consideration of interest
is concerned w i t h nonvertical electro-
slag welds performed at large angles of
WELDING RESEARCH SUPPLEMENT I 253-s
1 *
/ .
/ .
/ & y ^-*"'
/ yyy y^
y^< .
y & y^y
-^y ^~^
^$y^^^B
- ^ i i i •
32 34 36 38
WELDING VOLTAGE (VOLTS)
inclination. Several welds were per-
formed satisfactorily, and with ade-
quate resultant weld morphologies, in
this investigation at angles of inclina-
tion greater than 45 deg from vertical.
One weld was performed at 60 deg
from vertical which produced an
acceptable weld w i t h adequate pene-
tration. The photomacrograph in Fig. 2
is a cross section of that weld.
Although no welds were performed at
angles of inclination greater than 60
deg from vertical, the data suggests
that such welds could be made. This
limit, obviously less than 90 deg, must
be determined by further investiga-
tion.
Conclusions
1. The electroslag welding process
is quite applicable to situations in
which the weld axis is inclined from
vertical. The limitation of 10 to 15 degs
imposed by Paton 8 is far too restrictive,
and welds can be performed at angles
of inclination of 60 deg or possibly
greater w i t h satisfactory penetration.
2. The electroslag welding process
and particularly non-vertical electro-
slag welds are quite sensitive to w e l d -
ing parameters.
3. It is of particular importance to
note that quite drastic anisotropy of
HAZ width and penetration can result
from misaligned vertical electroslag
welds where the weld axis is inclined
only slightly from vertical. In addition,
the resulting anisotropy of heat flow in
small angle welds is much more sensi-
tive to welding parameter values than
in larger angle welds.
4. Radiation heat transfer from the
flux pool surface appears to be signifi-
cant for certain combinations of weld-
ing parameters. Asymmetric heat flow
which causes preferential radiative
preheating of the upper weld surface
is probably a major cause of penetra-
t i o n a n d H A Z w i d t h a n i s o t r o p y in n o n -
vertical electroslag welds.
5. A l t h o u g h p r e v i o u s i n v e s t i g a t i o n s
f o u n d t h a t c u r r e n t increases m o n o t o n -
ically w i t h e l e c t r o d e v e l o c i t y , t h e
increase i n c u r r e n t is p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y
less r a p i d t h a n t h e increase in e l e c -
t r o d e v e l o c i t y f o r a g i v e n v o l t a g e . In
a d d i t i o n , t h i s b e h a v i o r has n o w b e e n
quantified empirically to show that the
c u r r e n t a p p e a r s t o vary d i r e c t l y w i t h
t h e square root of electrode velocity
a n d t h e c u b e r o o t of t h e v o l t a g e .
Acknowledgment
The authors a c k n o w l e d g e and ap-
p r e c i a t e t h e research a n d e q u i p m e n t
s u p p o r t o f t h e U n i t e d States A r m y
Research O f f i c e a n d t h e H o b a r t B r o t h -
ers C o m p a n y .
References
1. Thomas, R. D., Jr., "Electroslag W e l d -
ing—A New Process for Heavy Fabrication,"
Welding lournal, 39 (2), Feb. 1960, pp.
111-117.
2. Metals Handbook, V. 6, " W e l d i n g ,
Brazing and Soldering," American Society
for Metals, Metals Park, O h i o .
3. Simms, T., United States Bureau of
Reclamation, private communication,
1979.
4. Lawrence, B. D., "Electroslag W e l d i n g
Curved and Tapered Cross-sections," Weld-
ing lournal, 52 (4), April 1973, pp. 240-246.
5. Liby, A. L., and Olson, D. L., "Electro-
slag Welding Metallurgy—A Review," Col-
orado School of Mines Quarterly, 1974.
6. Nippes, E. F., "The Weld Heat-
Affected Zone," Welding lournal, 38 (1),
Jan. 1959, Research SuppL, pp. 1-s to 18-s.
7. Santilhano, P. D., and H a m i l t o n , I. G.,
"Experience in Electro-Slag W e l d i n g , " IIW-
Trans., Nov., 1963, pp. 256-275.
8. Paton, B. E., Electtoslag Welding,
American W e l d i n g Society, New York, 1959,
p. 467.
9. Liby, A. L., "Metallurgical Control of
Electroslag Welds," Colorado School of
Mines, Ph.D. Thesis, 1974.
10. Kato, M., Kojima, Y., Inouye, M., and
Toyoda, T., " D i s t r i b u t i o n of Electric Poten-
tial Between the Consumable Electrode
and the M o l d in Electroslag Remelting Pro-
cess," Denki Kagaku, V. 43, No. 7, pp.
368-371.
11. D u c k w o r t h , W. E., and Hoyle, C ,
Electro-Slag Refining, London, Chapmen
and Hall Ltd., 1969, p. 178.
12. Szekely, J., and Chang, C. W „ "Elec-
tromagnetically Driven Flows in Metals Pro-
cessing," /. Metals, Sept., 1976, pp. 6-11.
13. Campbell, J., "Fluid Flow and Droplet
Formation in the Electroslag Remelting Pro-
cess," j. Metals, V. 22, No. 7, 1970, pp.
23-35.
14. Ksendzyk, C. V., "The Rate at W h i c h
the Electrode is Melted in Circumferential
Electroslag Surfacing," Auto. Weld., No. 5,
1973, pp. 31-35.
15. Kato, M., Kojima, Y., Inouye, M., and
Toyoda, T., "Electric Resistance Between
the Consumable Electrode and the M o l d in
Electroslag Remelting Process," Denki Ka-
gaku, V. 43, No. 6, pp. 308-312.
16. Kato, M., Kojima, Y., Inouye, M., and
Toyoda, T., " A Model Study on the Mass
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WRC Bulletin 256

January 1980
Review of Data Relevant to the Design of Tubular
Joints for Use in Fixed Offshore Platforms

by E. C. Rodabaugh

T h e p r o g r a m l e a d i n g t o t h i s r e p o r t was f u n d e d by 13 o r g a n i z a t i o n s over a t w o - y e a r p e r i o d . T h e o b j e c t i v e w a s
to e s t a b l i s h a n d / o r v a l i d a t e d e s i g n m e t h o d s f o r t u b u l a r j o i n t s used in f i x e d o f f s h o r e p l a t f o r m s . T h e r e p o r t is
d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r self c o n t a i n e d c h a p t e r s , ( 1 ) Static S t r e n g t h ( 2 ) Stresses ( 3 ) F a t i g u e ( 4 ) D i s p l a c e m e n t s ,
w h e r e i n d e t a i l e d c r o s s c o m p a r i s o n s of v a r i o u s t y p e s of t e s t d a t a a n d d e s i g n t h e o r i e s a r e r e v i e w e d .
P u b l i c a t i o n of t h i s r e p o r t w a s s p o n s o r e d by t h e S u b c o m m i t t e e on W e l d e d T u b u l a r S t r u c t u r e s of t h e
S t r u c t u r a l Steel C o m m i t t e e of t h e W e l d i n g Research Council.
T h e p r i c e of WRC B u l l e t i n 2 5 6 is $ 1 3 . 0 0 per c o p y , p l u s $ 3 . 0 0 f o r p o s t a g e a n d h a n d l i n g . O r d e r s s h o u l d be
s e n t w i t h p a y m e n t t o t h e W e l d i n g Research C o u n c i l , 3 4 5 East 4 7 t h St., R o o m 8 0 1 , N e w Y o r k , NY 1 0 0 1 7 .

254-sl SEPTEMBER 1980