Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Features (Characteristics) of OB
1. Individual Behaviour
(i) Personality
(ii) Perception
(iii) Values and Attitudes
(iv) Learning
(v) Motivation
2. Group Behaviour
(i) Work groups and group dynamics
(ii) Dynamics of conflict
(iii) Communciation
(iv) Leadership
(v) Morale
People
Environment Environment
Structure Fig. 1:Key elements in
organizational behaviour
Technology: Technology provides the resources with which people work and
affects the tasks that they perform. The technology used has a significant
influence in working relationships. The great benefit of technology is that it
allows people to do more and better work, but it also restricts people in various
ways. It has costs as well as benefits.
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
Individual differences
A whole person
Motivated behaviour
Value of the person (human dignity)
Social systems
Mutual Interest
Result
The idea of individual differences comes originally from psychology. From the
day of birth, each person is unique, and individual experiences after birth tend
to make people even more different. Individual differences mean that
management can get the greatest motivation among employees by treating
manager’s approach to employees should be individual, not statistical. This
belief that each person is different from all others is typically called the Law of
Individual Differences.
2. A WHOLE PERSON: Although some organisations may wish they could
employ a person’s skill or brain, they actually employ a whole person, rather
than certain characteristics. Different human traits may be separately studied,
but in the final analysis they are all part of one system making up a whole
person. Skill does not exist apart from background or knowledge. Human life
is not totally separable from work life and emotional conditions are not
separate from physical conditions. People function as total human beings.
Employee
Employee
goals
Superordinate Mutual
goal of accomplishment
mutual interest of goals
Organisational
goals
Organisation
“Give a person a fish, and you feed that person for a day
Teach a person to fish, and you feed that person for life”
No longer is there a one best way. Each situation must be analysed carefully to
determine the significant variables that exist in order to establish the kinds of
practices that will be more effective. The strength of the contingency approach
is that it encourages analysis of each situation prior to action, while at the same
time discouraging habitual practice based on Universal assumptions about
people. The contingency approach also is more interdisciplinary, more system-
oriented, and more research-oriented than the traditional approach. Thus it
helps to use in the most appropriate manner all the current knowledge about
people in organisations.
4. A systems Approach:
A system implies that there are many variables in organisations and that each
of them affects all the others in a complex relationship. All people in
organisations should be concerned with improving organizational behaviour.
Managers represent the administrative system and their role is to use
organizational behaviour to improve people – organisation relationships as
shown in the following figure.
Managers try to build a climate in which people are motivated work together,
productively, and become more effective persons.
Human
objectives
Better people
Administrative Organisational Orgn. Organisational
system behaviour relationships objectives
Social
objectives
Behavioural change
Social Attitude change
Psychology
Pschology Communication
Group processes
Group decision making
Comparative Values
Comparative Attitudes
Cross-cultural analysis
Anthropology
Sociology
Organizational culture
Organizational
Development
Conflict
Political Science Intraorganisational
Politics
Power
UNIT II: INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR
PERSONALITY
Personality refers to the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and
interacts with others. Personality determinants include heredity, environment
and situation.
1. Reserved Outgoing
2. Less Intelligent More intelligent
3. Affected by feelings Emotionally stable
4. Submissive Dominant
5. Serious Happy-go-luck
6. Expedient Conscientious
7. Timid Venturesome
8. Tough-minded Sensitive
9. Trusting Suspicious
10. Practical Imaginative
11.Forthright Shrewd
12. Self-assured Apprehensive
13. Conservative Experimenting
14. Group-dependent Self-sufficient
15. Uncontrolled Controlled
16. Relaxed Tense
Table 1 Sixteen source traits
Determinants of Personality
Group and culture are the early environmental factors that influence
later behaviour. Family and the social setting during early stages of education
are the important factors which influence the initial formation of personality.
Whatever the child learns lasts for life time. Later in life, it is the peer groups
of primary affiliations at work, social activities etc. which shape the personality
of an individual.
Development of Personality
(ii) The Ego: The ego is the conscious and logical part of human
personality and is associated with the reality principle. While id
represents the unconscious part, ego is conscious about the realities of
the external environment. The ego keeps the id in check through
intellect and reason.
(iii) The Super ego: The super ego represents societal and personal norms
and serves as an ethical constraint on behaviour. It can best be described
as the conscience. The superego provides norms to ego to determine
what is wrong or right. However, a person is not aware of the working
of the super ego, and conscience is developed by absorption of cultural
values and norms of the society.
(2) Erikson Stages: Erikson criticized the heavy emphasis given by Freud
on the sexual and biological factors in the development of personality. He
felt that relatively more attention should be given to the social factors.
Erikson identified eight stages of life that characterize the unending
development of a person.
(i) Infancy: During the first year of life, a child resolves the basic crisis
of trust Vs mistrust. An infant who is cared for in an affectionate
way learns to trust other people. Lack of love and affection results in
mistrust. This stages makes a serious impact on a child that
influences events for remaining life.
(ii) Early childhood: In the second and third years of life, a child begins
to assert independence. If the child is allowed to control these
aspects of life that the child is capable of controlling, a sense of
autonomy will develop. If the child encounters constant disapproval
by elders a sense of self-doubt and shame is likely to develop.
(iii) Play age: The four and five year old seeks to discover just how
much he can do. If a child is encouraged to experiment and to
achieve reasonable goals, he will develop a sense of initiative. If the
child is blocked and made to feel incapable, he will develop a sense
of ‘guilt and lack of self confidence’.
(iv) School age: From ages 6 to 12, a child learns many new skills and
develops social abilities. If a child experiences real progress at a rate
comparable with abilities, he or she will develop a sense of
enterprise. The reverse situation results in a sense of inferiority.
(vi) Early adulthood: The young adult during the twenties faces the
crisis of intimacy Versus isolation. The sense of identity developed
during the teenage years allows the young adult to begin developing
deep and lasting relationships.
(vii) Adulthood: During this stage, the adults face the crisis of
generativity Versus self-absorption. Self-absorbed persons never
develop an ability to look beyond themselves. They become
absorbed in career advancement and maintenance; and they never
learn to have concern for future generations, the welfare of
organizations to which they belong or the welfare of society as a
whole. Generative people see the world as much bigger than
themselves. Productivity at work and societal advancement become
important to them. Through innovation and creativity, they begin to
exert influence that benefits their organizations.
(i) The seven dimensions represent only one aspect of the total
personality. Much also depends upon individual’s perception, self-
concept and adaptation and adjustment.
(ii) The seven dimensions continually change in degree from the infant
to the adult end of the continuum
(iii) The model, being only a construct, cannot predict specific behaviour.
Five personality traits (the so called big five) have recently emerged
from research as being especially related to job performance. Characteristics of
these traits can be summarized briefly as follows:
The work of Daniel Levinson on adult life stages has received attention.
At first, he believed that “the life structure evolves through a relatively orderly
sequence throughout the adult years, “ and, unlike other stage theories that
were event-oriented (for example, marriage, parenthood or retirement), his was
age-based. In particular he believed there was little variability (a maximum of
two or three years) in four identifiable stable periods.
Hall has synthesized Levinson’s theory and other adult stage theories (in
particular the work of Erikson) into an overall model for career stages. The
following figure shows that there are four major career stages.
High
Employee Work Performance
Maintenance
Exploration
Stagnation?
Decline
Low
Age 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
After infancy, other members of the immediate family (father, brothers, and
sisters), close relatives and family friends and then the social group (peer,
school friends, and members of the work group) play influential roles. Edgar
Schein notes that the organization itself also contributes to socialization. He
points out that the process includes only the learning of those values, norms
and behaviour patterns which, from the organisation’s and work group’s points
of view, are necessary for any new organization member to learn.
Meaning:
Reinforcement
Behaviour
OB MODIFICATION
THEORIES OF LEARNING
There are four theories which explain how individuals learn new
patterns of behaviour.
Thorndike called this the “law of exercise” which states that behaviour
can be learned by repetitive association between a stimulus and a
response.
I Before conditioning
US UR
(Meat)
(salivation)
Neutral stimulus No
response
(Bell)
II During conditioning
CS
(Bell)
US UR
(Meat)
(salivation)
CS CR
(Bell)
(salivation)
The meat was an unconditioned stimulus (US). It invariably caused the dog to
react in a specific way, i.e, noticeable increase in salivation. This reaction is
called the unconditioned response (UR). The bell was a conditioned stimulus
(CS). It was originally neutral. But when the bell was linked with the meat (an
unconditioned stimulus), it eventually produced a response. After conditioning,
the dog started salivating in response to the ringing of the bell alone. In other
words, conditional stimulus (CS) led to conditioned response (CR).
Characterstics of Attitudes
Behaviour
The essence of La Piere’s work is that people acted in one way i.e. friendly and
hospitably, whereas they responded to Chinese in a different way i.e. negative
aspects and beliefs about Chinese. In other words, clearly there was a
discrepancy between the actual behaviour and reported attitude. The results of
this research created an uproar among behavioural scientists who then
attempted to define, redefine, measure and develop new theories of attitudes.,
Out of the refinement came some generalizations about attitudes and
behaviour.
1. First of all, the more specific the measurement of attitude, the more it is
to be related to the behaviour. La piere obtained extremely discrepant
information about the prejudice towards Chinese people in America. He
simply asked about Chinese people in general. He did not actually
measure the attitude.
2. Attitudes are related to behaviour. There is no doubt about it, but they
are influenced by situational factors such as pressures by union, top
management etc.
Cognitive Dissonance theory: In the late 50s Leon Festinger advocated the
“Cognitive Dissonance theory”. It explains the linkage between attitudes and
behaviour of employees.
Attitude Formation
Measurement of Attitudes
The most common and frequently used measures of attitudes are the
questionnaires which ask the respondents to evaluate and rate the attitude
towards a particular object directly and to respond favourably or unfavourably
about their belief regarding the attitude object. Different types of scales are in
use with respect to measurement of attitudes, viz. Thurstone’s scale, Likert’s
scale, Bogardus’s social distance scale, Guttman’s scale etc., Let us throw a
dim light on these scales.
There are many other good scales to measure attitudes. Edward and Kilpatrik
attempted to synthesize and integrate the Likert’s Thurstone’s and Guttman’s
approaches, with a technique called “scale discriminations”. Here are six
response categories ranging from strongly agree, agree, mildly agree, mildly
disagree, disagree and strongly disagree.
Sub-processes of perception
The following Figure Shows how several sub-processes relate to one another
B C
punishment or some
(eg. Reinforcement
CONSEQUENCE
BACK for
as rushing off or
Kinestheti
psycholog
clarificati
orgnl. Outcome)
(e.g) over such
BEHAVIOUR
covert such as
on (eg.
FEED
an attitude)
ical)
c or
INTERPRET
productivity)
stimulus (eg.
Motivation,
learning &
O
ATION
Of the
mechanisms)
(eg. Sensory
Of stimulus
and newral
ON
CONFRONT
supervisor or
stimulus (eg
procedure)
ATION of
specific
new
S
Sensual Stimulation
Research laboratory
Management styles
Discrimination etc
Environment
Sociocultural
Factory floor
Environment
environment
PERCEPTUAL SELECTIVITY
Climate etc.
External
Physical
Values
Office
Store
PERCEPTUAL SELECTIVITY
1. Intensity: The intensity principle of attention states that the more intense
the external stimulus, the more likely it is to be perceived. A loud noise, or
bright light will be noticed more than a soft sound or dim light.
Advertisers use intensity to gain the consumers’ attention. Examples
include bright packaging and television commercials that are slightly louder
than the regular programme.
2. Size: Closely related to intensity is the principle of size. It says that the
larger the object, the more likely it will be perceived. The maintenance
engineering staff may pay more attention to a big machine than to a smaller
one, even though the smaller one costs as much and is as important to the
operation. In advertising, a full page spread is more attention-getting than a
few lines in the classified section.
3.Contrast: The contrast principle states that external stimuli which stand
out against background or which are not what people are expecting will
receive their attention. The following figure 11 demonstrates this perceptual
principle.
The black circle on the right appears much larger than the one on the left
because of the contrast with the background circles. Both black circles are
exactly the same size.
5. Motion: The motion principle says that people will pay more attention to
moving objects in their field of vision than they will to stationary objects.
Workers will notice materials moving by them on a conveyor belt, but they
may fail to give proper attention to the maintenance needs of the stationary
machine next to them.
TURN OFF
THE THE
ENGINE
M-A-C-T-A-V-I-S-H
M-A-C-D-O-N-A-L-D
M-A-C-B-E-R-T-H
M-A-C-H-I-N-E-R-Y
MORALE
2. Internal factors (Endogenous factors): These are the factors that come
under the domain of control of management. These include:
3 4
Similarly, employees may not feel Low Morale Low morale
committed to gals, but are merely satisfied High Productivity Low Productivity
with their working conditions. For instance,
the morale of a University Lecturer may be high even though productivity is
low. In some cases, high morale leads to high productivity when employees
are properlyProductivity
motivated and the supervisors are considerable.
Fig.13 Relationship between morale & Productivity
Measurement of Morale
How can a Company (organization) check to see whether its employees have
relatively high morale? The answer lies in measurement of morale. Normally,
organizations measure morale by collection of necessary morale information.
A typical method of study is an opinion attitude or morale survey. Besides
morale surveys, there are some other indicators and sources of information with
the help of which morale can be measured.
i) Labour turnover
ii) Productivity
iii) Waste and Scrap
iv) Absenteeism and tardiness
v) Quality records
vi) Grievances
vii) Exit interviews
viii) Medical records
TYPES OF MOTIVES
Primary Motives: Hunger, thirst, sleep, avoidance of pain, sex etc, are
classified as primary motives.
FINANCIAL REWARDS:
1. Basic pay
8. Medical benefits
9. Provident Fund
10. Gratuity
The following table summaries some of the major categories of non – financial
rewards. Even though these are considered non – financial, they may still cost
the organization.
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Self - actualization
Esteem Needs
Love Needs
Safety Needs
Physiological Needs
1. Physiological needs: The needs of hunger, thirst, sleep and sex are
physiological needs. According to the theory, once these basic needs are
satisfied, they no longer motivate.
3. Love needs: Maslow’s use of the word love has many misleading
connotations, such as sex, which is actually a physiological need. Perhaps a
more appropriate word describing this level would be belongingness or
affiliation. Membership in formal and informal work groups is a belongingness
need.
4. Esteem needs: The esteem level represents the higher needs of humans.
The needs for power, achievement, and status can be considered to be part of
this level.
5. Needs for self – actualization: This level represents the culmination of all
the lower, intermediate, and higher needs of humans. People, who have
become self – actualized, are self fulfilled and have realized all their potential.
Self – actualization is the person’s motivation to transform perception of self
into reality.
According to Herzberg, there are satisfiers and dis-satisfiers in a job for the
individuals. Herzberg labeled satisfiers motivators, and he called the
dissatisfiers hygiene factors. Taken together, they became known as
Herzberg’s two – factor theory of motivation.
The most recent extension of the Herzberg and, especially, the Maslow content
theories of work motivation come from the work of Clayton Alderfer. He
formulated a need category model that was more in line with the existing
empirical evidence. Similar to Maslow and Herzberg, he does feel that there is
value in categorizing needs and that here is basic distinction between lower –
order needs and higher order needs.
Fig 16. Shows how these groups of needs are related to the Maslow and
Herzberg categories. Obviously, they are very close but the ERG needs do not
have strict lines of democration.
SELF – ACTUALIZATION
GROWTH
ESTEEM
MOTIVATORS
RELATEDNESS
LOVE
SAFETY
HYGIENE EXISTENCE
FACTORS
PHYSIOLOGICAL
Figure 16: The relationship between Alderfer’s ERG Needs, Maslow’s Five – level
hierarchy, and Herzberg’s two – factor theory.
Theory X Theory Y
Based on the assumption that people Based on the assumption that people
are basically lazy and so shirk work like work as children like play
People do not take initiative. They People like to take initiative. They
like to be directed. seek self – direction.
People avoid responsibility whenever People assume responsibility gladly if
possible conditions are favourable.
For getting things done, people must People do not require close and strict
be supervised strictly. supervision for properly performing
their jobs.
Autocratic style of leadership is likely Democratic or participative style of
to be more effective leadership is likely to be more
effective.
Applicable to illiterate, unskilled and Applicable to educated and skilled
lower – level workers employees who occupy high positions
in the organizations.
Believes in mental sickness and so Believes in mental health and so
negative motivation of employees positive and intrinsic motivation of
employees
Appraisal of McGregor’s contribution
The content models attempted to identify what motivates people at work (for
example, self – actualization, responsibility, and growth); they tried to specify
correlates of motivated behaviour. The process theories on the other hand, are
more concerned with the cognitive concepts that go into motivation or effort
and, more important, with the way they relate to one another. Now, let us
discuss two important process theories of motivation.
The following Fig. 18 briefly summarises the vroom model. As shown, the
model is built around the concepts of Valence, Instrumentality and Expectancy
and is commonly called the VIE theory.
Expectancy INSTRUMENTALITIES
First level
Outcome
Outcome 1a
Outcome 1
Outcome 2 Outcome 2a
Outcome 2b
Outcome 2c
According to Vroom, there are tow levels of outcome namely first level
outcome and second level outcome. The first – level outcome is instrumental
in obtaining the second – level outcome. Therefore, the first – level outcome is
called instrumentality input in valence. For ex, assume past performance is the
first – level outcome and promotion is the second – level outcome. Past
performance is instrumental in obtaining promotion. Therefore, past
performance (first – level outcome) is known as instrumentality input in our
example.
Porter and Lawler start with the premise that motivation (effort or force) does
not equal satisfaction and/or performance. Motivation, satisfaction, and
performance are all separate variables and relate in ways different from what
was traditionally assumed. The following Figure 19 depicts the porter and
Lawler model.
Intrinsic Rewards
Satisfaction
Efforts Performance
Extrinsic
Rewards
1. THEORY ‘Z’
Features of Theory Z
2. EQUITY THEORY
Many employees are concerned not only with satisfying their own needs but
also compare what others receive. They feel satisfied or dissatisfied with
comparative observations of their friends, neighbours and colleagues. The
equity theory was developed on this hypothesis. Employees feel they are
lacking with the comparison of others possessions. This lacking tension
motivates people to work hard to reach the levels of others. J. Stacy Adams
has propounded that this negative tension provides motivation to employees to
exert themselves. People are motivated by the inequity they note with others.
If a person is getting less than another, inequity exists because of being under
rewarded. He tries to improve himself so that he can reach the level of others.
In case both the ratios are equal, equity exists and the person is at a constant
level. He is not motivated on this ground. On the other hand, if a person’s
outcome as compared to his input is more than others in terms of his inputs, the
person is over rewarded and tries hard to remain higher than those of others.
1. Moderate risk taking: Low achievers take either a high or low risk, and
high achievers take a moderate risk.
2. Need for immediate feedback: People with high n Ach prefer activities
which provide immediate and precise feedback information on how they are
progressing towards a goal. High achievers tend to be more satisfied in jobs or
careers, such as sales or certain managerial positions, in which they are
frequently evaluated by specific performance criteria. On the other end of the
scale, high achievers tend to be frustrated in research and development or
teaching, where feedback on performance is very imprecise, vague.
The four characteristics noted above have evolved out of McClelland’s basic
research over the years. More recently, Jay Hall and his colleagues have
reported the results of a comprehensive study that compared the managerial
styles and methods of 16,000 high – medium – low – achieving managers. The
following are some of their major finding.
1. Low n Ach mangers are pessimistic and have a basic distrust of the
intent and competence of their subordinates. High n Ach managers are
optimistic and view their subordinates favourably.
2. High n ach managers are concerned with aspects of the job that provide
personal fulfillment; they talk to their subordinates about these things
and attempt to structure the job so that their subordinates can receive
such fulfillment. On the other hand, moderate achievers are concerned
mainly with status symbols, and low achievers with job security, and
both try to motivate their subordinates the same way.
5. High achievers show concern for both people and production, whereas
moderate achievers show high concern for production and low concern
for people, and low achievers are concerned mainly with self-
preservation and do not seem to care about people or production.
TABLE 5 :Categories of Non – Financial Rewards