WELL STIMULATION TECHNIQUES

PDB4323 / PDB4323Z
HYDRAULIC FRACTURING - PART 3
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WELL STIMULATION TECHNIQUES

By

IR. HAIZATUL HAFIZAH HUSSAIN

haizatulhafizah.hus@utp.edu.my

Office Ext. : 7373

Office : L-1-22

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LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this lecture, students should be able to:

Understand the importance of

knowing the fracture size,
containment and growth, and the
shape of the induced fracture

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LECTURE CONTENTS

1 Fracture Size, Containment,

and Growth

2 Fracture Height Measurement

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 Photo Courtesy of 123rf.com

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FRACTURE SIZE

Figure 1 : Fracture size limited by

geometry and fluid contacts

 Greater volumes of fracturing fluid will create larger fractures. However, often uncontrolled growth
of fractures is not desirable from a production point of view e.g. when the target oil zone is
overlain by gas with water underneath.

 It assumes that: The fracture is initiated from perforations at the mid point of the oil zone and the
fracture propagates radially. The resulting maximum allowable fracture half length (𝐿𝑓 ) is slightly
less than half the height of the oil column. 6
FRACTURE CONTAINMENT
 The hydraulic fracture should thus be designed so that it does not contact unwanted fluids within a
single formation layer.

 It must also consider whether the hydraulic fracture is contained within the pay zone i.e. whether
upward and / or downward fracture growth is retarded by changes in the formation property
contrast between the two layers.

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FRACTURE CONTAINMENT

Figure 2 : In-situ stress contrasts

 (Minimum) in-situ stress: permeable formations e.g. sand typically have a lower Poisson’s Ratio
compared to the bounding shale layers. The resulting lower in-situ stress will aid hydraulic fracture
containment.

 Fracture toughness: increased values of the fracture toughness imply that it is more difficult for
the fracture to propagate in that zone.

 Leak off: high fluid loss rates will retard fracture propagation through the zone. 8
HIGH IN-SITU STRESS CONTRASTS AND
FRACTURE SHAPES
 Figure 3 shows a case where a massive, homogeneous, gas
bearing sandstone is overlain by a (sodium chloride) salt zone
(the cap rock). The well is perforated near the top of the pay
zone.

 There is thus a very large in-situ stress contrast (estimated as

10 Mpa) at the salt/sandstone boundary resulting in upward
fracture growth being immediately halted. Due to the
homogeneous nature of the sandstone, it is expected that there
is a constant stress gradient.

Figure 3 : Different types of stress in pay zone

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HIGH IN-SITU STRESS CONTRASTS AND
FRACTURE SHAPES
 The effect on fracture shape and containment of differing
values of the stress gradient is illustrated.

 (i) Constant stress (or zero stress gradient) : The fracture grows
downwards due to the density of the fracturing fluid giving rise
to an increased pressure at the bottom surface of the fracture
compared to the top surface.

 (ii) Hydrostatic stress gradient (0.45 psi/ft) : The stress gradient

in the formation is now the same as that of the fracturing fluid
– resulting in radial propagation of the fracture, apart from the
top surface where upward growth is stopped due to large
(10 Mpa) stress contrast at the salt/sandstone boundary.
Figure 3 : Different types of stress in pay zone
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HIGH IN-SITU STRESS CONTRASTS AND
FRACTURE SHAPES
 (iii) Extensional stress gradient (0.7 psi/ft) is commonly found in
relaxed tectonic environments. A longer fracture results since the
fracture downward growth becoming limited due to the
minimum in-situ stress increasing at a greater rate (0.7 psi/ft)
than the hydrostatic head of the fracturing fluid (0.45 psi/ft).

 (iv) Overburden (or maximum) stress gradient (1.1 psi/ft). This

scenario yields the longest fracture with the least downward
growth. In fact, the fracture is trying to grow upwards, the
reverse of the first scenario. This upwards growth constrained by
the high stress contrast of the salt/sand boundary.

Figure 3 : Different types of stress in pay zone

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FRACTURE GROWTH
INTO BOUNDARIES
 Whether a pay zone boundary is capable of containing a fracture
will depend on the magnitude of the fracture containment; e.g. the
minimum in-situ stress contrast and the thickness of the boundary.

 Figure 4 illustrates fracture containment for three different values of

the stress contrast. Initially the fracture propagates radially in the
pay zone until the boundary layer is reached; after which it becomes
more elongated - with greater stress contrasts giving rise to the
more elongated shapes.

 The fracture lines growing with the increasing times / volume of

hydraulic fracturing fluid pumped. Figure 4 : Fracture containment
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for three different values
FRACTURE GROWTH
INTO BOUNDARIES
 Figure 5 illustrates what occurs when fracture containment is no
longer effective due to the height of the upper barrier and the
available in-situ stress contrast being insufficient to prevent the
fracture breaking through into a shallower (water bearing) zone.

 Fracture is initiated at the centre of the pay zone (Time 1), and
initially grows radially (Time 2 and 3) since a hydrostatic stress
gradient is present. This results in the FPP decreasing as the
fracture becomes longer.

Figure 5 : Fracture containment

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no longer effective
FRACTURE GROWTH
INTO BOUNDARIES
 The stress contrast at the upper and lower boundary cause
upward and downward fracture growth to be retarded. Upward
fracture growth is some what easier as the stress contrast in this
direction is less. The effect of this partial fracture containment is
to increase the FPP (Times 4, 5, and 6).

 At time 7, the upward growth allows the fracture to break

through into the upper water bearing zone. Since this has a very
low, constant fracture gradient, the fracture will grow rapidly
upwards, resulting in a drop in the FPP.

Figure 5 : Fracture containment

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no longer effective
FRACTURE GROWTH
INTO BOUNDARIES
 Note that the fracture length in the pay zone has actually
decreased due to the fracture’s rapid expansion into the upper,
water sand. Real time measurement of the FPP thus allows
monitoring of fracture containment.

Figure 5 : Fracture containment

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no longer effective
 Seismic Temperature
Measurements Log

FRACTURE
HEIGHT
Borehole MEASUREMENT Production
Camera Log

Gamma
Ray Log
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FRACTURE HEIGHT MEASUREMENT
There are a number of possible measurement techniques which can be used to measure fracture
height :

1. Run a temperature log immediately after the fracture treatment to measure cooled zone
denoting fracture fluid entry.

2. The depth at which fluid is entering into the well from the fracture can be measured by running a
production log across the perforated interval to measure the flow profile (spinner a flow meter
log) or the flow induced noise (noise log) or temperature changes.

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FRACTURE HEIGHT MEASUREMENT
3. The proppant can be given a lightly radioactive coating. Running a gamma ray log after the excess
proppant has been cleaned out of the well will measure the propped fracture height.

4. The fracture can be physically observed in open hole completions using borehole camera
generating a picture of the borehole wall using video.

5. Making seismic measurements. These seismic monitoring are installed at the surface or in an
observation well.

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MODELLING THE SHAPE OF THE
INDUCED FRACTURE
 Several (commercial) programmes are available to predict the shape (height, length and width) of
the induced hydraulic fracture. They fall into one of three classes:

 2D : These models use two dimensional, analytical equations where the fracture height is
required as input.

 P3D : or pseudo three dimensional programs. These programs combine analytical and numerical
routines that can predict the fracture height and width somewhat independently

 Fully 3D : Complex numerical modelling programs with extensive input data and high end
computing requirements.

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2D FRACTURE MODELS
 The complexity of hydraulic fracturing models derives from the need to simultaneously satisfy
two sets of laws:

 Conservation of momentum, mass and energy;

 A fracture propagation criteria that controls the advance of the fracture tip.

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SUMMARY

Fracture Size, Containment,

and Growth

Fracture Height Measurement

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Have you achieved
the learning
outcomes today?

Any thoughts?
 THANK YOU

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