The third level is the fundamental, causal basis of the upper two divisions.

Conceptualized as an
excitation-inhibition balance (or ARAS arousal and inhibition of the cortex), this causal level may be
classed as the genotypic basis of personality. As an inheritable dimension, excitation-inhibition (or ARAS
functioning) may be thought of as the biological roots of personality. Figure 17.9 illustrates these levels
of Eysenck's theory.

Eysenck's original factor analysis of personality performance and physiological data derived from a large
group of subjects demonstrated that two independent dimensions could be used to describe their
personalities. A dimension of introversion-extroversion and a dimension of normality-neuroticisnm were
conceptualized as independent and ccntinuous variables. The extrovert type of person likes people, and
is sociable, strongly attracted to novel and exciting stimuli, easygoing, and optimistic. He or she is often
fond of practical jokes and may become aggressive and impulsive, unable to inhibit or control anger. The
typical introvert, by contrast, may be characterized as shy, quiet, withdrawn, and somewhat detached
from the social environment. He or she is usually a planner, looking ahead to anticipate problems before
they arise. He or she avoids overt and intense stimulation and excitement and usually keeps emotions
under strict control (Eysenck & S. B. G. Eysenck, 1975b). The typical individual who scores high in
neuroticism may be characterized as emotionally reactive, anxious, moody, and depressed.

Following Carl Jung's clinical insights that introverts succumb to dysthymic (psychasthenic) or anxiety
disorders, and that extroverts succumb to hysterical neuroses, Eysenck was able to show that a long
tradition stemming from Hippocrates and Galen through Pavlov and Hull had confirmed and refined
Jung's hunches. Pavlov's conditioning investigations established the existence of excitation and
inhibition as fundamental cortical processes underlying types of temperament.

Clark L. Hull's concepts of drive and habit, along with his notions of reactive and conditioned inhibition,
provided Eysenck with key conceptual tools to begin devising a biological and causal account of the
introversion-extroversion dimension. Introverts are individuals in whom the excitation-inhibition
balance is tipped in the direction of excitation, giving them weak or sensitive nervous systems. Thus they
condition more casily than extroverts, are more easily pained by excessive stimulation, and generally
perform in a superior way on laboratory tasks requiring sustained attentiveness. Extroverts, by contrast,
are individuals in whom the balance is tipped in the direction of greater inhibitory cortical functioning.
For this reason, extroverts are said to have a "strong" nervous system not easily aroused uy excessive
stimulation, but one that is easily overcome with boredom by repetitious or monotonous tasks that
rapidly build inhibition.

Eysenck provided a biological translation and refinement of his excitation-inhibition thcory. The
ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) has been conceptualized as the basis of cortical arousal and
inhibition. In this role, the ARAS is also the basis of introversion-extroversion. Introverts have more
highly aroused ARAS functioning than extroverts. The dimension of neuroticism has been conceptualized
as related to the functioning of the autonomic nervous system. Subcortical brain structures of the limbic
system and the hypothalamus, known collectively as the visceral brain (VB), have been postulated by
Eysenck to underlie the dimension of emotionality or neuroticism. Neurotics have a higher level of
chronic VB activation than do stable or normal individuals.
In terms of socialization, Eysenck has postulated hat introverts are more socialized (inhibited, ethical,
nsious) than extroverts because of their greater ease of conditioning. Extroverts are less socialized and
may be divided into two extreme groups. Some extroverts are characterized essentially by a trait of
extreme sociability, and these individuals tend to resemble the normal personality on measures of
neuroticism. On the other hand, some extroverts are characterized by a trait of extreme impulsiveness
and by a lack of ethical and moral inhibitions. These individuals are generally described as criminal or
psychopathic personalities.

An addition to Eysenck's personality dimensions is psychoticism, represented in some personalities as

inheritable traits of social withdrawal, impulsivity, hostility, and a general quality of what Eysenck
lermed, "peculiarity." The dimension of psychoticism, as measured by Eysenck, is not identical to the use
of the term in conventional diagnosis, but his derived from his factor analysis of different traits. The
psychoticism dimension, furthermore, implies that neurotic, normal, and psychotic personalities are not
categorically different entities; rather, both normal and neurotic individuals may possess some degree of
Psychoticism without evidencing an overt psychosis.

Eysenck's theoretical strategy allows for concrete predictions and tests of its validity. Furthermore,
Eysenck's theory may eventually provide the basis for more rational and scientifically precise diagnosis
and treatment of disordered behavior. The possibility of altering an individual's position on the
introversion-extroversion dimension by means of depressant and stimulant drugs to alter disordered
behaviors may soon be feasible. Evaluation of Eysenck's theory shows it clearly to be a highly testable,
empirical, and scientific model of personality. Eysenck is fundamentally a biosocial type theorist who
believes that patterns of behavior are determined by biological and psychological factors, so that human
agency is essentially irrelevant. It follows that this theory is almost exclusively nomothetic.

Raymond Cattell and others, using factor analysis alone--without consideration of physiological
underpinnings--arrived at five major factors of personality. These are labeled neuroticism, extroversion,
openness, conscientiousness, and agreeableness. These factors have been confirmed by many empirical
studies and comprise what is termed the "Big Five" model of personality. Extroversion and neuroticism
are comparable to two of Eysenck's factors.