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Effects of Turbine Tip Clearance on Gas Turbine Performance

Conference Paper · January 2008

DOI: 10.1115/GT2008-50196

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 Proceedings of ASME Turbo Expo 2008: Power for Land, Sea and Air
EFFECTS OF TURBINE TIP CLEARANCE ON GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE
Cleverson Bringhenti
Instituto Tecnológico de Aeronáutica
Gas Turbine Group
12228-900 - São José dos Campos - SP, Brazil
+55-12-3947-6952
cleverso@ita.br
ABSTRACT
There are many different sources of loss in gas turbines.
The turbine tip clearance loss is the focus of this work. In gas
turbine components such as compressor and turbine the
presence of rotating blades necessitates a small annular tip
clearance between the rotor blade tip and the outer casing. This
clearance, although mechanically necessary, may represent a
source of large loss in a turbine. The gap height can be a
fraction of a millimeter but can have a disproportionately high
influence on the stage efficiency. A large space between the
blades and the outer casing results in detrimental leakages,
while contact between them can damage the blades. Therefore,
the evaluation of the sources of the performance degradation
independently presents useful information that can aid in the
maintenance action. As part of the overall blade loss the
turbine tip clearance loss arises because at the blade tip the gas
does not follow the intended path and therefore does not
contribute to the turbine power output and interacts with the
outer wall boundary layer. Increasing turbine tip clearance
causes performance deterioration of the gas turbine and
therefore increases fuel consumption. The increase in turbine
tip clearance may as a result of rubs during engine transients
and the interaction between the blades and the outer casing.
This work deals with the study of the influence of the turbine
tip clearance on a gas turbine engine, using a turbine tip
clearance model incorporated to an engine deck. Actual data of
an existing engine were used to check the validity of the
procedure. This paper refers to a single shaft turbojet engine
under development, operating under steady state condition.
Different compressor maps were used to study the influence of
the curve shapes on the engine performance. Two cases were
considered for the performance simulation: constant corrected
speed and constant maximum cycle temperature.
INTRODUCTION
The gas turbine performance is strongly dependent on
the performance of individual components, whose major
contributors are the compressor, the combustion chamber and
1 Copyright © 2008 by ASME
GT2008
June 9-13, 2008, Berlin, Germany
GT2008-50196
João Roberto Barbosa
Instituto Tecnológico de Aeronáutica
Gas Turbine Group
12228-900 - São José dos Campos - SP, Brazil
+55-12-3947-6951
barbosa@ita.br
the turbine. At design point all the components usually operate
at best efficiency and are all well matched. It is a natural
process that any turbomachine performance deteriorates along
lifetime. The performance degradation process is accelerated
by external influences such as environmental conditions, type
of fuel flow, maintenance, operation conditions, etc. Basically
performance deterioration can be of two types: recoverable and
non-recoverable. The process used to recover the engine
performance, when possible, is typically a compressor
washing. The compressor washing can be done online or
offline, depending on the operation conditions (Genrup, 2003).
In this work an investigation of engine performance is
carried out imposing non-recoverable engine degradation on
the turbine with focus on tip clearance. Researchers have been
studying tip clearance and trying to minimize their effects on
turbomachines. The concern about tip clearance is not new;
Ainley and Mathieson (1951) described a loss model taking
into account the tip clearance effect. Several works improving
the Ainley and Mathieson method are reported in the literature,
for instance Dunham and Came (1970), Craig and Cox (1971),
Denton (1978) and Kacker and Okapuu (1981). The loss
models suggested by these authors were implemented in a
computer program for the synthesis of turbine performance
maps (Bringhenti et al., 2001; Jesus et al., 2007) for a library of
turbine maps that can be used for gas turbine performance
simulations, including the influence of turbine tip clearance.
The procedure for the tip clearance influence on engine
performance, validated with proprietary data of an existing
engine, is applied to the study of an engine under development.
Additionally, the influence of different types of compressor
maps was verified.
NOMENCLATURE
pcn percentage of corrected speed
etac compressor isentropic efficiency
pwc compressor power
ttmax maximum cycle temperature
etat turbine isentropic efficiency
pwt turbine power
sfc specific fuel consumption
pr pressure ratio
PRINCIPLES OF LOSS MECHANISMS
The importance of the turbine tip clearance and the
mechanisms to reduce the losses caused by that gap can be
inferred from various literature sources, like the few ones
below.
In almost all turbomachinery rotors, the gap between the
blade and the shroud/annulus wall induces leakage flow across
the gap. The leakage flow also occurs in stators with the gap
near a rotating hub. The nature, magnitude, roll-up, and
formation of a leakage vortex depend on the type of machinery,
blade parameters, flow parameters, and type of fluid
(Lakshminarayana, 1996).
Secondary flows and leakage flows lead to complex vortex
structures in the flow field inside the passages of the vanes and
blades in turbomachines. This results in aerodynamic losses
and, thus, reduced efficiency. One of the major vortex
structures is the tip clearance vortex, which is generated on the
airfoil’s suction side due to the leakage flow through the tip
clearance, e.g. between rotating blades and casing (Kusterer et
al., 2007).
TIP LEAKAGE LOSSES
The tip clearance, as can be seen in Figure 1, is a radial
gap allowed between the blade tip and the casing. This finite
radial gap exists to avoid rubbing between the rotor blades and
the casing inner surface. This gap needs to be well designed
because it influences the turbine stage efficiency. The loss due
to this gap is named “tip leakage loss”. The leakage flow is
induced by the pressure difference between the pressure and
the suction side of the blade. In Figure 1 this phenomenon can
be seen for unshrouded rotors (Baskharone, 2006).
The tip leakage flow and the main flow in the tip clearance
region have different angles and velocities. Mixing these two
dissimilar flows results in dissipation account for losses. The
main factors influencing the tip leakage loss are clearance gap
size, incidence and pressure difference between the pressure
and the suction surface (Ning Wei, 2000).
The tip clearance vortex intensity strongly depends on the
amount of tip clearance leakage. Thus, the reduction of this
leakage mass flow increases the aerodynamic efficiency of
turbomachine. In gas turbines, two ways are commonly used to
influence the tip leakage flow: contouring of the radial gap
either at blade tip or endwall, and changing the blade tip
geometry by application of squealers or winglets at the blade
tip (Kusterer et al., 2007).
Tip clearance losses can be reduced by using shrouds with
integral labyrinth seals. The labyrinth seals reduce the pressure
difference across each labyrinth, reducing the clearance mass
flow by using the dissipation of kinetic energy of the leakage
mass flow through the clearance. The flow through the rotor
shroud labyrinth does not contribute to power generation and
but causes additional mixing losses (Schobeiri, 2005).
2 Copyright © 2008 by ASME
Figure 1. Direct and indirect tip-leakage mechanism in
unshrouded turbine rotors
Lakshminarayana (1996) quoted that tip clearance loss
accounts for nearly 20-40% of the total losses, depending on
the machine. Schabowsky and Hodson (2007) quoted that the
clearance gap between the unshrouded blade tips and the
casing of axial flow turbines is usually of the order of 1-2% of
the blade span; Hourmouziadis and Albrecht (1987) showed
that for a shroudless stage an increase of the tip gap size equal
to 1% of the blade span caused around 2% drop in the stage
efficiency, and also showed that the tip clearance varies
considerably during the operation of an engine due to thermal
and mechanical loads.
Mischo et al. ( 2007) made a detailed investigation of flow
physics changes in the tip region for one injection
configuration and quoted that the tip leakage flow may be
responsible for as much as one third of the aerodynamic losses
in the rotor blade row. Furthermore the hot gas of the tip
leakage flow presents the highest thermal load to the blade tip,
which burns away if it is insufficiently cooled. Thus it is a
limiting factor for the blade lifetime.
The leakage flow, which is driven by the large pressure
difference between the pressure side and the suction side of the
blade, will accelerate in the tip gap and impinge on the blade
tip, which results in a high heat transfer region on the tip.
Therefore, heat transfer rates at the blade tip can be the highest
over the entire blade surface. In modern gas turbine engines,
unshrouded blade tip failures caused by the high heat transfer
rates on the tip remain a problem (Yang and Feng, 2007).
Krishnababu et al. (2007) carried out a numerical study to
investigate the effect of tip geometry on the tip leakage flow
and heat transfer characteristics in unshrouded axial flow
turbines. Baseline flat tip geometry and squealer type
geometries, namely, double squealer or cavity and suction side
squealer were considered. Typically a clearance of 1 percent of
the blade span causes 1-2 percent of primary flow to leak and
hence a loss of 1-3 percent on stage efficiency. There are two
distinct aspects of tip leakage flows. Firstly, as the flow passes
through the tip gap without being properly turned, there is a
reduction of work done and secondly, due to mixing, there is
generation of entropy within the gap, in the blade passage and
downstream of the blade row. Apart from these losses, the rapid
acceleration of hot mainstream flows into the tip gap followed
by the separation and reattachment of the hot gas on the tip
results in high heat transfer to the tip. This high heat transfer to
the tip, together with that to the suction and pressure side of the
blade must be removed by the blade internal and external
cooling flows. The compressor supplies this cooling flow,
which imposes a further penalty on the engine performance.
Camci et al. (2005) conducted an experimental
investigation of aerodynamic characteristics of full and partial-
length squealer rims in a turbine stage. Current results indicate
that the use of ‘‘partial squealer rims’’ in axial flow turbines
can positively affect the local aerodynamic field by weakening
the tip leakage vortex. Results also show that the suction side
partial squealers are aerodynamically superior to the pressure
side squealers and the channel arrangement.
The direct tip leakage is the through-flow motion that
occurs in the tip clearance from the higher pressure, upstream
of the blade, to the lower pressure, downstream of the blade, as
can be seen in Figure 1. Direct tip leakage is a secondary flow
stream and does not participate in the shaft work production
mechanism. In order to avoid direct tip leakage there are design
techniques, like “casing recess”, where the casing is shaped
like a local abrupt step. The goal is to place obstacles in the
pathway (Baskharone, 2006; Lakshminarayana, 1996) to
decrease the gap flow.
The indirect tip leakage is due to the pressure differential
between the pressure and the suction sides of the rotor tip
section, as can be seen in Figure 1. Its magnitude is dependent
upon the pressure difference between the two sides of the
blade. The indirect tip leakage can be suppressed using
physical isolation between the two sides of the blade, usually
with tip shrouding. A common tip shrouding is named full-
shroud that uses a thin cylindrical sheet that is wrapped around
all tips of the rotor blades.
In order to reduce the weight, due to full-shroud, partial
shrouding can be used; it uses smaller sheets of metal attached
to each blade tip (Baskharone, 2006).
PROFILE LOSS
Profile loss is the loss due to viscous and turbulent
dissipation caused by blade boundary layers on blade surfaces
and wake, including separated flows. The mechanical energy is
dissipated into heat within the boundary layer. This increases
the entropy and results in stagnation pressure loss, even though
the stagnation enthalpy is constant for adiabatic flows. In
addition, the non-uniform velocity profiles in both the
boundary layer and the wake (bounded and shear flows) are
smoothed out by viscous and turbulence effects. Furthermore,
the trailing vortex systems in the blade wake and its eventual
mixing and dissipation give rise to additional losses. The
magnitude of the profile loss mainly depends on the flow
velocity in free stream, roughness of the blade surfaces,
Reynolds number and the surface areas. The difficulty of
predicting transition of the boundary layer remains a major
limitation to the accurate prediction of this loss. In many
instances, a separate category called “trailing edge loss” is
included to account for losses due to the finite thickness of the
blade trailing edge, which causes flow separation (mixing of
jets) and shock-expansion-wave interactions due to sharp
corners. This loss could be appreciable in transonic and
supersonic turbines. In subsonic turbines, this loss is usually
classified and taken into account together with the profile
losses (Ning Wei, 2000).
3 Copyright © 2008 by ASME
SHOCK LOSSES
Shock losses are due to viscous dissipation across shock
waves and can be a substantial portion of total profile loss,
depending on Mach and Reynolds numbers (Ning Wei, 2000).
ENDWALL LOSSES
The secondary flow and formation of vortex result in
mixing and dissipation of energy similar to those described
under “tip clearance losses”. The losses are caused by the
mixing of the secondary flow with the main flow, formation of
the secondary vortex and the counter vortex and interaction
between the vortices. In addition, indirect effects, such as the
interaction of secondary flows with the wall and the blade
boundary layer and wake, result in additional losses.“Endwall
losses” usually include losses due to annulus wall boundary
layer which are almost invariably three-dimensional in nature.
The three-dimensional boundary layer does account for the
secondary flow. The growth of endwall boundary layer and
mixing, along with the dissipative mechanisms associated with
them, result in additional losses (Ning Wei, 2000).
COOLING LOSSES
Increasing the turbine inlet temperature generally increases
gas turbine performance. The maximum increase in
temperature is restricted due to material mechanical failure. In
order to continue increasing the temperature it is necessary to
cool the vanes and blades. Though cooling imposes loss in
efficiency, a considerable gain in turbine performance offsets
this loss (Lakshminarayana, 1996).
LOSS MODEL USED
The literature reveals several loss models to predict
losses in turbomachines. The loss models, according to
Saravanamuttoo et al. (2001), must account for profile loss,
annulus loss, secondary flow loss and tip clearance loss. In this
work the main interest is the analysis of the effects of turbine
tip clearance on a turbojet engine performance.
Baskharone (2006) suggested the loss model that was
used in this study, although other models were tested. The
model incorporates relevant geometrical parameters, is easy to
implement in a computer deck and correlates well with the
available engine data. The efficiency is calculated by
⎛ ⎛ δ ⎞⎛ r ⎞⎞
η = η ref ⎜1 − k⎜ ⎟⎜⎜ t ⎟⎟ ⎟
⎜ ⎝ h ⎠⎝ rm ⎟
⎝ ⎠⎠
where
(
k = 1 + 0.586 ψ Ztip 3.63 )
η is the rotor efficiency with tip-clearance effects
included
δ is the tip-clearance height
h is the blade span
ψ Ztip is the tip Zweifel loading coefficient.
GAS TURBINE COMPUTER PROGRAM SIMULATION
In order to evaluate the tip clearance effects on the gas
turbine performance a computer program was used to simulate
and analyze the steady state performance of a turbojet. The
program is based on engine functional block build-up that
easily models almost all types of gas turbines configurations
(Bringhenti, 2003; Bringhenti and Barbosa, 2004a).
The gas turbine under study is a turbojet in the thrust range
of 5 kN ISA (Figure 2). The main engine functional blocks
used in this analysis were: ambient, intake, compressor, mass
flow splitter, combustion chamber, turbine, mass flow mixer
and convergent nozzle.
For the sake of simulation simplification bleed air was
considered to join the gas flow after the turbine.
mass flow
mass flow
6
6
Although it can be observed a thrust increase when tip
clearance increases, this is accomplished at the expense of
increased specific fuel consumption and maximum cycle
temperature. The maximum cycle temperature chosen at design
point, as can be seen in Table 1, was 1173 K. This temperature
is in the uncooled limit and was taken into account that no
blade cooling was required. Therefore if the maximum cycle
temperature exceeds the limits the blade life is reduced or
cooling should be provided. When the tip clearance is set at 4%
the maximum cycle temperature calculated was 1285 K; this
value represents more than 110 K increase in temperature and
the lifetime is largely reduced.
1.10
1.09
pcn
1.08
etac

normalized performance parameters

pwc
4 5 7 1.07
ttmax
1 2 3 8 9 10 1.06
splitter combustion etat
chamber 1.05
convergent
pwt
ambient intake turbine 1.04
mixer nozzle thrust
compressor 1.03
sfc
1.02
Figure 2. Sketch of a turbojet configuration 1.01
pr

1.00
The engine design point main characteristics were chosen 0.99
0.98
and the values are shown in Table 1 (Bringhenti and Barbosa,
0.97
2004b, 2004c). 0.96
0.95
Table 1. Reference engine design point characteristics 0.94
-0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
parameters values tip clearance (%)
mass flow (kg/s) 8.20
compressor pressure ratio 5.0 Figure 3. Performance parameters change keeping corrected
maximum cycle temperature (K) 1173 speed constant
thrust (kN) 5
compressor isentropic efficiency 0.82 Figure 4 shows the pressure ratio and compressor
mass flow bleed at station 6 0.05 efficiency as a function of corrected mass flow. In the figure
combustor chamber pressure loss 0.04 the pressure ratio (black) can be read from the left vertical axis,
combustion chamber efficiency 0.99 while the compressor efficiency (red) from the right vertical
turbine isentropic efficiency 0.87 axis. The surge margin (blue) is not compromised when
gas generator shaft mechanical efficiency 0.99 constant corrected speed control type is used, although it
decreases and operation goes towards surge. The surge margin
The maps used in this study were obtained from the axial set at design point was 15% decreasing to 11.7% when tip
flow compressor and turbine design using in-house developed clearance reached 4%, what can impose restrictions for
and validated computer programs. The reader may use their transients.
own procedures for the determination of such parameters,
8.0 1.00
providing it incorporates all the influences inherent to the 7.5
pressure ratio efficiency
surge line running line 0.96
adopted model. 7.0 running line 0.92
6.5 0.88

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 6.0 0.84

5.5 0.80
Using the reference engine design point characteristics of
pressure ratio

5.0 0.76
efficiency

Table 1 and the gas turbine computer program described above 4.5 0.72
the turbojet performance data were generated and shown in 4.0 0.68
3.5 0.64
Figures 3 to Figure 10. The performance simulation data were 3.0 0.60
generated using two types of control in the gas turbine 2.5 0.56
performance computer program, the first one keeping corrected 2.0 0.52
1.5 0.48
speed constant and changing the maximum cycle temperature
1.0 0.44
and the second one changing corrected speed and keeping 0.5 0.40
maximum cycle temperature constant. Other engine controls 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1/2
would result in different influences. corrected mass flow (kg K )/(Pa s)
The results shown in Figure 3 and Figure 4 were generated
keeping corrected speed constant and allowing maximum cycle Figure 4. Compressor map and running line keeping corrected
temperature to change. Figure 3 shows normalized speed constant
performance parameters as a function of tip clearance.

4 Copyright © 2008 by ASME

 Figure 5 and Figure 6 show the performance results of the observed a thrust increase when increasing tip clearance, this is
turbojet if maximum cycle temperature is constant. With the accomplished at the expense of increase in specific fuel
aim of not exceeding the temperature limits and therefore consumption and maximum cycle temperature. The maximum
maintaining blade life this control restricts the operation mode cycle temperature chosen at design point, as can be seen in
of the engine, limiting the maximum cycle temperature while Table 2, was 1173 K. When the tip clearance is set to 4%, the
varying corrected speed. Increase of the tip clearance causes maximum cycle temperature is 1240 K, representing an
the power of the turbine to fall, as well as a decrease of increase of 67 K above the design point temperature and of 45
corrected speed and thrust, while the specific fuel consumption K above the maximum cycle temperature shown in Figure 3;
increases. these values reduce the blade lifetime.

1.05 1.10
1.04 1.09 pcn
1.08 etac

normalized performance parameters

normalized performance parameters

1.03
1.07
pwc
1.02 ttmax
1.06
1.01 etat
1.05
1.00 pwt
1.04
0.99 thrust
1.03
0.98 sfc
pcn 1.02
0.97 pr
etac 1.01
0.96 pwc 1.00
0.95 ttmax 0.99
0.94 etat 0.98
0.93 pwt 0.97
0.92 thrust 0.96
sfc 0.95
0.91
pr 0.94
0.90
-0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
-0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
tip clearance (%)
tip clearance (%)
Figure 5. Performance parameters change keeping maximum Figure 7. Performance parameters change keeping corrected
cycle temperature constant speed constant

Figure 6 also shows the pressure ratio and compressor Figure 8 also shows the pressure ratio and compressor
efficiency as a function of corrected mass flow when maximum efficiency as a function of corrected mass flow, as in Figure 4.
cycle temperature is kept constant. The surge margin (blue) is The surge margin (blue) shown in Figure 8 is not compromised
not compromised when this type of control is used. The surge when this type of control is used, although engine operating
margin varied slightly from 15% at design point down to point goes towards surge. The surge margin decreased to 12.4%
14.7% when tip clearance was 4%. It must be highlighted that a for tip clearance of 4%.
different compressor map would give a different influence.
8.0 1.00
pressure ratio efficiency
7.5 surge line running line 0.96
8.0 1.00 7.0 running line 0.92
pressure ratio efficiency
7.5 surge line running line 0.96 6.5 0.88
7.0 running line 0.92 6.0 0.84
6.5 0.88 5.5 0.80
6.0
pressure ratio

0.84 5.0 0.76

efficiency
5.5
0.80 4.5 0.72
5.0
pressure ratio

0.76 4.0 0.68

efficiency

4.5
0.72 3.5 0.64
4.0
0.68 3.0 0.60
3.5
0.64 2.5 0.56
3.0
0.60 2.0 0.52
2.5
0.56 1.5 0.48
2.0
0.52 1.0 0.44
1.5
1.0 0.48 0.5 0.40
4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0
0.5 0.44
1/2
0.0 0.40 corrected mass flow (kg K )/(Pa s)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1/2
Figure 8. Compressor map and running line keeping corrected
corrected mass flow (kg K )/(Pa s)
speed constant
Figure 6. Compressor map and running line keeping maximum
cycle temperature constant Figure 9 and Figure 10 report the turbojet performance
simulation keeping maximum cycle temperature constant,
The results shown in Figure 7 and Figure 8 are generated similarly to Figure 5 and Figure 6, but using a different
keeping corrected speed constant and allowing maximum cycle compressor map. As shown in Figure 9, increase in the tip
temperature to change. The results shown in Figure 7 and clearance causes fall in the turbine power as well as decrease of
Figure 8 can be compared with the ones shown in Figure 3 and corrected speed and thrust while specific fuel consumption is
Figure 4. Figure 7 and Figure 8 were produced to assess the increased.
influence of compressor map characteristics. Although it can be

5 Copyright © 2008 by ASME

 1.05 implemented in an engine deck and the results correlated well
1.04 with an existing engine. The procedure has been extended to
normalized performance parameters

1.03
the study of a turbojet under development. Two different
1.02
1.01
compressor maps were used and their influence reflected their
1.00
major performance characteristics on the engine performance.
0.99 Although a specific tip clearance loss model has been used,
0.98
pcn others were tested with similar results. This study refers to a
0.97 etac simple turbojet engine, but more complex engines were also
0.96 pwc analyzed and the results compared with actual data, not shown
0.95 ttmax
0.94 etat
in this paper due to proprietary restrictions.
0.93 pwt The influence of engine control and turbine tip clearance
0.92 thrust on engine performance was also shown, so that the designer
sfc
0.91
pr
may find ways to overcome excessive performance penalties.
0.90
-0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
It has also been shown that the compressor characteristics
tip clearance (%)
influence the engine performance due to turbine tip clearance,
information that may be used during the early design phase to
Figure 9. Performance parameters change keeping maximum take into account of turbine tip clearance losses.
cycle temperature constant For both compressors, when the control is for constant
corrected speed, increased tip clearance results in increased
Figure 10 shows the pressure ratio and compressor thrust, while when the control is for constant maximum
efficiency as function of corrected mass flow when maximum temperature the thrust falls.
cycle temperature is kept constant, as in Figure 6. The surge Increase of the thrust at constant corrected speed is
margin (blue) is not compromised when this type of control is explained by the necessity to increase the maximum cycle
used. The surge margin goes down to 10.7% when tip clearance temperature. Thrust decrease at constant maximum cycle
is 4%. temperature is explained due to the decrease of engine speed
caused by the decrease of the turbine power.
8.0 1.00
pressure ratio efficiency
7.5 surge line running line 0.96
7.0 running line 0.92
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
6.5 0.88 The authors thank CNPq (Conselho Nacional de
6.0
5.5
0.84 Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico), El Paso Rio Claro
0.80
5.0 Ltd./Petrobrás and ANEEL (Agência Nacional de Energia
pressure ratio

0.76
Elétrica) for the support to this research developed at the
efficiency

4.5
0.72
4.0
3.5
0.68 Center for Reference on Gas Turbine, ITA.
0.64
3.0
2.5 0.60

2.0 0.56
1.5 0.52 REFERENCES
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0.5 0.44
Performance Estimation for Axial Flow Turbines”. British
0.0 0.40
4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0 ARC, R&M 2974, 1951.
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6 Copyright © 2008 by ASME

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