Proceedings of ASME Turbo Expo 2009: Power for Land, Sea and Air
GT2009
OFF-DESIGN PERFORMANCE INVESTIGATION OF A LOW CALORIFIC GAS FIRED
TWO-SHAFT GAS TURBINE
Pontus Eriksson1
Klas Jonshagen2
1
Volvo Aero Corporation, Sweden, pontus.eriksson@volvo.com
2
Department of Energy Sciences, Lund University, Sweden
ABSTRACT
Gas turbine systems are predominantly designed to be fuelled
with gaseous fuels within a limited Wobbe index range
(typically HHV=45-55 MJ/Nm3 or 1200-1480 Btu/scf). When
low calorific fuel gases are fired, the engine will be forced to
operate outside its design envelope. The added mass flow will
typically raise the cycle pressure ratio and in two-shaft designs
also raise the gas generator shaft speed. Typical constraints to
be considered due to the altered fuel composition are pressure
loads, shaft torques, shaft overspeeds, centrifugal overloading
of disks and blades, combustor flameout, surge and flutter
limits for the turbomachinery. This poses limitations to usable
fuel choices.
In this study, the response of a natural gas fired simple
cycle two-shaft gas turbine is investigated. A lean premixed
combustor is also included in the model. Emphasis has been put
on predicting the turbomachinery and combustor behavior as
different amounts of N2 or CO2 are added to the fuel path.
These two inerts are typically found in large quantities in
medium and low calorific fuels. The fuels lower heating value
is thus gradually changed from 50 MJ/kg (21.5 kBtu/lb) to
5MJ/kg (2.15 kBtu/lb). A model, based on the Volvo Aero Corp.
VT4400 gas turbine (originally Dresser Rand DR990)
characterized by one compressor and two expander maps is
considered. The free turbine is operated at fixed physical speed.
The operating point is plotted in the compressor map and
the turbine maps at three distinct firing temperatures
representing turndown from full load to bleed opening point.
Gas generator speed and shaft power are shown. Surge margin
and power turbine power is plotted. Overall efficiency is
computed. The behavior of the Volvo lean premixed combustor
is also discussed. Air split, primary zone equivalence ratio and
temperature is plotted. Combustor loading, combustion
intensity and pressure drop is graphed. Results are, as far as
possible, given as non-dimensional parameter groups for easy
comparison with other machines.
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June 8-12, 2009, Orlando, Florida, USA
Proceedings of GT2009
ASME Turbo Expo 2009: Power for Land, Sea and Air
June 8-12, 2009, Orlando, Florida USA
GT2009-59067
GT2009-59067
Magnus Genrup2
Jens Klingmann2
INTRODUCTION
This paper is the first of two dealing with Low Calorific (LCV)
fuelling of a two-shaft gas turbine. This paper details fixed size
turbomachinery response. The second paper [1] explores
different re-sizing/re-matching scenarios for the engine.
For several decades NOX emission abatement techniques
have been the main topic with regard to gas turbine emissions.
CO, NOX and particulate emissions from modern gas turbines
with dry low NOX combustors operating on Natural Gas (NG)
are now generally very low. Rising concerns for climate change
has recently shifted focus somewhat from NOX abatement
issues to rising atmospheric CO2 levels. The available avenues
for CO2 control with regards to gas turbines may be
summarized as:
• Carbon Capture and storage (CCS)
• Cycle efficiency improvements
• Fuels containing less carbon (e.g. H2)
• Use of waste fuels (e.g. flare-gas recovery)
• Renewable energy firing (e.g. use of fermentation
or gasification gases)
CCS has recently attracted much attention. Two strategies
are principally available: pre-combustion carbon capture, where
the fuel is modified to contain less carbon, or post combustion
CO2 removal. In order to facilitate post-treatment oxy-fuel
combustion may provide a more concentrated flue stream to
handle. It will take time for CCS to penetrate the markets. In
the meantime cycle efficiency improvements will continue to
be important, but not have a decisive impact on the CO2
balance. Flare gas recovery usually involves natural gas and as
such poses few new challenges to gas turbines. The last
category is sometimes labeled bio-gas combustion. Many
different sources for such fuels have been suggested and used.
1 Copyright © 2009 by ASME
 Commonly seen traits of these gases include: Combustor Loading [kg/(s·atm1.8·m3)]
. · · .

• Medium to low heating value through presence of Density ρ [kg/m3]

CO2 and/or N2 inerts Efficiency η [-]
• Different combustible species (CnHm, H2, CO) Equivalence ratio [-]
• Presence of various impurities ·√
Flow Function 1
·
Current gas turbine systems fuelled with gaseous fuels are [kg·K0.5/(m2·kPa·s)]
mostly designed for operation on fuels within a limited Wobbe · ·
Flow Parameter [-]
index range (typically HHV=45-55 MJ/Nm3 or 1200-1480 ·√
Btu/scf). Large amounts of CO2 or N2 or a combination thereof Scaled Flow Parameter [-]
will upset the flow balance in the gas turbine. In the case of a
two-shaft turbine the fuel is introduced between the compressor Flow split · 100 [%]
and High Pressure Turbine (HPT). This means in general that Gas Constant [kJ/(kg·K)]
the compressor will become too large and the downstream
Isentropic Exponent [-]
components, i.e. HPT and Low Pressure Turbine (LPT) will be
too small. The added inerts will also affect the performance of Mach Number [-]
· ·
the combustor.
Mass Flow [kg/s]
Modifications of the gas turbine may be needed in order to
Molar concentration, Range, Enumeration, Units […]
restore operational stability and mechanical integrity. These
Molar Mass M [g/mole]
modifications may be fairly simple, such as increasing fuel
flow cross sectional areas, or more complicated such as Overall Efficiency [-]
·
redesigning components in order to assure flame stability, cope Pressure p [Pa]
with elevated pressure stresses, avoid surge or deleterious Power [W]
frequencies due to increased Gas Generator (GG) shaft speeds.
Pressure Ratio for compressor [-]
Previous work in this field has been done by Orbay et al.
[2], wherein a single shaft engine designed for NG operation for combustor & turbines [-]
was modeled and investigated under varying amounts of CO2 or
N2 dilution. Ferreira et al. [3] investigated single-shaft and two- Pressure Ratio Parameter [-]
shaft engines subjected to LCV syngas operation. The influence
on the turbomachinery from changes to the ratio of specific Scaled Pressure Ratio Parameter [-]
heats (γ) is discussed by Roberts et al. in [4]. It has been Speed [rpm]
suggested that the LCV gas is introduced at the compressor
Speed Parameter [-]
inlet in order to avoid component mismatching problems [5]. · ·
Engines suitable for conversion to LCV firing may be STIG Scaled Speed Parameter [-]
engines where the High Calorific Value (HCV) fuel+steam
mass flow supplied to the combustor is replaced with Medium Surge Margin 100 · 1 [%]
Calorific Value (MCV) or LCV fuel. The General Electric
LM2500PH is an example of a candidate for such an Temperature T [K]
application [6]. The advantage here would be that downstream Velocity/Speed u [m/s]
components already have been matched to higher mass flows. Volume V [m3]
“Zero staged” and “high flowed” machines may also be Wobbe Index [MJ/kg]
candidates. In this case, the original compressor design would
be revived. Several Solar machines exist that could be Superscripts
candidates for this scheme [7]. Several programs have been
devised to test Integrated Gasification Combined-Cycle (IGCC) * Scaled parameter (i.e. divided by corresponding
systems fed with biomass. Some examples are ARBRE [8], [9], quantity formed from values according to Table 1)
THERMIE [10] and Värnamo [11].
Subscripts
NOMENCLATURE 1 Compressor inlet
Area [m2] 3 Combustor inlet
Characteristic stress parameter AN2 [m2/s2] 4 HPT inlet
Specific heat at constant pressure Cp [J/(kg·K)] 5 Inter turbine
Specific heat at constantvolume Cv [J/(kg·K)] 7 Exhaust
Combustion Intensity
· ·
[kW/(atm·m3)] comb Combustor
·

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 comp Compressor power to the gearbox and generator. The turbine design
in Inlet parameters are according to Table 1.
out Outlet
pz Primary zone
ref Design point value (see Table 1)
s Specific
surge Surge line value

Abbreviations and acronyms

Compr Compressor
CCS Carbon Capture and Storage
CI Combustion Intensity
CL Combustor Loading
FBN Fuel Bound Nitrogen
GB Gearbox Figure 1: Volvo Aero VT4400 two-shaft engine
Gen Electric Generator
GG Gas Generator
Table 1 Volvo VT4400 design point*
HCV High Calorific Value fuel Gas Generator speed NGG 18011 rpm
HHV Higher Heating Value [MJ/kg] Gas Generator shaft power PGG 7836 kW
HPT High Pressure Turbine Compressor pressure ratio πcomp (t/t) 12.560 -
IGCC Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle Compressor mass flow mcomp 20.01 kg/s
ISO International Organization for Standardization Compressor isentropic efficiency ηcomp 0.782 -
LBO Lean Blow Out Natural Gas Fuel flow (50 MJ/kg) 0.296 kg/s
LCV Low Calorific Value fuel Firing temperature T4 1353 K
LHV Lower Heating Value [MJ/kg] HPT pressure ratio πHPT (t/t) 4.245 -
LP Lean Premixed (combustor) HPT inlet mass flow 17.25 kg/s
LPT Low Pressure Turbine HPT isentropic efficiency ηHPT 0.876 -
MCV Medium Calorific Value fuel T5 944.4 K
NG Natural Gas LPT speed NPT 7200 rpm
NGV Nozzle Guide Vane LPT pressure ratio πLPT (t/t) 2.744 -
ppm Parts Per Million LPT inlet mass flow 19.81 kg/s
RH Relative Humidity LPT isentropic efficiency ηLPT 0.909 -
LPT shaft power PLPT 4463 kW
TID Turbine Inlet Duct
Generator power PGen 4321 kW
Overall efficiency (before gearbox) η 30.5 %
MATERIALS AND METHODS *
Some component inlet state variables, needed to compute FNref, SPref
Gas turbine off-design performance is typically modeled with a and Nref, such as γ, R and pressures are omitted for brevity.
performance deck or engine matching program. The matching
calculation is highly recursive and hence not suited for hand Combustor
calculation. The calculation procedure is based, to a first order, Bellmouth
Diffuser
Diffuser
on matching the compressor, combustion section and turbines 5
into a system that operates as a unit. The performance deck 4
used for this paper is developed at Lund University. It is based 3 7
1
on the commercially available heat- and mass balance program GB Gen
suite IPSEpro®. Using this tool, the Volvo VT4400 4.4 MW NG Compr HPT LPT
fired gas turbine (Figure 1) was modeled in accordance with
[12], [13] and [14].
A simplified model schematic is shown in Figure 2. The Figure 2: Performance deck (simplified) schematics of gas
actual model also included secondary air flows (cooling and turbine
buffer air). Station numbering is also shown in Figure 2. Component maps are shown in Figure 3 to Figure 5. In the
The compressor and HPT form the GG. Both are connected compressor map the equilibrium running line is shown for
with a shaft such that the HPT can provide the necessary power operation on methane. All calculations in this paper are
to drive the compressor. On a separate shaft the LPT is performed at ISO inlet conditions (101325 Pa, 15°C, 60% RH).
connected to a gearbox which reduces the speed to suit the
consumer, in this case a 50 Hz generator. The LPT extracts the
remaining gas enthalpy available to do work and provides it as

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 Three firing temperatures are shown in Figure 3. These are:
• T*4=0.9187 (T4=1243 K)
• T*4=0.9594 (T4=1298 K)
• T*4=1 (T4=1353 K, design point)

Corresponding LPT shaft outputs are [3002 3729 4463]

kW. The three selected firing temperatures represent the GG
speed range between compressor bleed closing at NGG=16800
rpm (operating with closed bleed valve) and design point speed
NGG=18011 rpm. GG speed lines and the surge line are shown
as dashed lines. The HPT map in Figure 4 is typical for a
turbine which chokes in the Nozzle Guide Vane (NGV),
whereas the LPT map (Figure 5) behavior is typical for a
turbine choking in a rotor.

Figure 4: High Pressure Turbine map

Figure 3: Compressor map when operating on methane

(LHV=50 MJ/kg)
It should be noted that the maps have been normalized with
the quantities given in Table 1, viz. FN*=FN/FNref where FNref
is calculated with design condition values according to Table 1.
This scaling occurs throughout the paper wherever a quantity is
superscripted with a star such that results may be more readily
compared with those of other engines or gas compositions.
Dimensionless flow-, pressure ratio- and speed parameters are
in accordance with [15].
A detailed Lean Premixed (LP) combustor model was Figure 5: Low Pressure Turbine map
implemented such that the impact of LCV firing on the
combustor itself could be assessed. A typical LP combustor is Following the air path the compressor air first encounters
shown in Figure 6. The associated model schematic is shown in the cooling jacket restriction. This pressure drop is used to
Figure 7. drive impingement cooling flow of the Turbine Inlet Duct
(TID) connecting the combustor and HPT.

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 duct. The fuel passes through a separate restriction,
Fuel Primary representing a set of metering orifices, prior to mixing with air.
Injectors Zone After the premix duct the mixture enters the primary zone
where combustion takes place. Combustion efficiency is set to
100% for all conditions. Hot loss is modeled according to
NACA TR-1300 [16]. The inert compressor is modeled with a
constant 70% efficiency. Inerts are assumed to be made
Dilution
available to the compressor at atmospheric pressure and 25°C.
Holes
With reduced LHV, fuel volume flow will increase and compete
with the air flow within the premix duct. This will change the
air split and therefore change primary zone stoichiometry and
temperature.

RESULTS
Premix Liner Figure 9 shows the compressor map for the gas turbine when
Duct operating on methane with various amounts of CO2 and N2
Figure 6: Typical Lean Premixed combustor dilution. Six curves are shown. Each represents the variation of
inert content as the firing temperature (T*4) is held constant.
Inert compr.
Heat exchanger The three firing temperatures are identical to those of Figure 3.
Two fuel types are investigated:
Restriction
Inert • CH4/CO2-mixtures with LHV ranging from 5 to 50
Injectors MJ/kg (2.1 to 21.5 kBtu/lb)
CH4 Premix duct • CH4/N2-mixtures with LHV ranging from 5 to 50
MJ/kg (2.1 to 21.5 kBtu/lb)
Liner annulus
C
Each curve shows data points for the following sequence
Primary zone
of LHVs:
Liner heat transfer
[5 6.25 7.5 10 15 20 30 50] MJ/kg
Cooling jacket [2.1 2.7 3.2 4.3 6.4 8.6 12.9 21.5] kBtu/lb
Air Dilution

Flue The legend shown in Figure 8 applies to all plots unless

Figure 7: Performance deck combustor schematics
Pressure losses in the combustion section are typically only
a few percent of compressor delivery pressure. Compressibility
effects may therefore be neglected. Pressure losses are thus
calculated as follows:
2
⎛ m& ⎞⎟
Δp = ⎜⎜ ⎟ 2ρin (1)
⎝ Ae ⎠
The air will pick up some heat from the TID and pass
through the liner passage external to the combustor primary
zone to cool the liner convectively. In the process more heat is
picked up. The heat transfer is modeled as a heat exchanger. A
somewhat simplified approach is used in which a constant 200
kW of heat is assumed to be transferred to the annulus. This
approximates to a 20 K temperature rise at full load conditions
and a corresponding change of air density. Omitting this heat
transfer all together will change the flow split between primary
zone and dilution flow from 56.7 to 57.0. Turndown or addition
of inerts will only have a secondary effect on the heat transfer.
Liner passage pressure drop is modeled as another restriction.
The air and fuel is combined in the upstream end of the premix
otherwise specified:
Figure 8: Legend
Turbomachinery response to inerts
It is immediately apparent from Figure 9 that addition of inerts
will shift the compressor operating point towards higher
pressure ratios. In the case of N2 dilution, mass flow will also
raise monotonically. For CO2 dilution on part load the mass
flow will first increase and then decrease as more inerts are
added. At full load, air flow is monotonically reduced when
CO2 is added. As a side note, values above the surge line are
extrapolations in IPSEpro®. In reality these points will never be
reached since the engine will surge before.
Looking at Figure 9 and Figure 10 we see that referred, as
well as mechanical speeds are increasing as inerts are added.

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Figure 9: Compressor map with CO2 and N2 dilution (for
legend see Figure 8)
This may have severe implications for the integrity of the
machine. At full firing temperature the compressor may
experience flutter instability, especially when operating on
heavily N2-diluted fuels. The elevated mechanical speed is
likely to necessitate revisions to shaft and bearing design unless
sufficient scope is built in. In particular rotor dynamics and
bearing loads will need re-evaluation. Compressor and HPT
stresses and clearances must also be checked. Centrifugal
loading, which scales with AN2 will exacerbate creep problems
in blades and disks. The “A” in AN2 is defined as the annulus
area and the AN2 expression itself is found when integrating the
blade centrifugal stress. The elevated cycle pressure ratios
associated with fuel dilution will also increase thrust bearing
loads.
Figure 10: Gas Generator (scaled) physical speed
(NGG/NGG ref) vs. Lower Heating Value LHV (for legend see
Figure 8)
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The two investigated inerts have different molar masses
with MCO2=44 g/mole and MN2=28 g/mole. This will directly
impact the gas constant of the flue gases. The ratio of specific
heats is also dependent on composition. The swallowing
capacities of the downstream turbomachinery will therefore be
different for the two inerts. Figure 11 shows HPT and LPT
NGV Mach 1 Q-curves for the two fuel types and three firing
temperatures. These may be used to gage the swallowing
capacity of different compositions and may be computed from
[15]:
1 (2)
Figure 11: Q curves for Ma=1 at HPT (Q4) and LPT (Q5)
inlet vs. Lower Heating Value (LHV) (for additional legend
see Figure 8)
The swallowing capacity of the HPT goes up with the
addition of CO2 to the fuel. At LHV=5 MJ/kg HPT capacity has
risen ~2.0%. The swallowing capacity of the LPT does not rise
at the same rate. At LHV=5 MJ/kg LPT capacity has risen
~1.6%. For a given compressor pressure ratio the inter-turbine
pressure will therefore rise and HPT expansion will reduce.
LPT expansion will increase accordingly. Power delivered to
the compressor will due to this effect reduce and the
compressor will provide less air. Q curves for N2 dilution on the
other hand are reducing slightly as N2 is added, so the
swallowing capacities of the two turbines reduce in concert.
There is therefore little redistribution of pressure ratios for the
two turbines with N2 dilution. Overall cycle pressure ratio will
however be somewhat elevated (above that which is dictated by
added mass flow) for a given firing temperature (T*4). As a
consequence of the changing swallowing capacities, Figure 9
shows the CO2-curves having less flow for a given pressure
when compared with the N2-curves. The effect of higher flow
function (Q) with CO2 dilution can also be gauged in Figure 12
where the N2-curves are seen to approach choke condition on
part load with less diluents cf. the CO2-curves. CO2 dilution
6 Copyright © 2009 by ASME
 will also result in lower GG physical and referred speeds
compared with N2 dilution.
Figure 9 also shows that the CO2 and N2 curves initially
follow the methane operating line (Figure 3) on part load. Prior
to HPT choking, HPT mass flow may still rise and so the GG
power and compressor mass flow will rise. When the HPT
approaches choke condition the added inert flow will be at the
expense of compressor flow, so the compressor flow will veer
off sharply from the operating line and in the case of CO2 even
start to reduce. The CO2-curves will start to veer off earlier (at
higher LHV) since the swallowing capacity of the HPT is also
affected, as discussed in the previous paragraph.
With reference to Figure 12, the HPT is seen to operate
very close to choke condition for the investigated ranges of
dilution and firing temperatures. For π*HPT>1 the flow reduces
slightly in the plot, whereas a more reasonable response would
be flat curves corresponding to choked NGVs. The behavior is
due to a modeling error for the HPT N*GG=1.2 curve in Figure 4
Figure 13: Flow Number (FN*HPT) vs. pressure ratio (π*HPT)
at choke condition. As N*GG goes from 1 to 1.2 the flow
for the low pressure turbine (for legend see Figure 8)
(FN*HPT) reduces slightly at π*HPT=1 in the modeled map. The
reduction is however too small to be visible in Figure 4. The Figure 14 shows the GG shaft power being supplied to the
error in Figure 12 is less than 0.1% in FN*HPT. It is thus deemed compressor. More power will be supplied with N2 dilution cf.
inconsequential to the overall response of the machine. CO2 dilution for a given LHV. The elevated power may be of
concern for the shaft integrity as more torque is applied.
Kinks are observed in the part load curves. This is due to
the HPT choking. The kinks can also be observed in many of
the following plots.

Figure 12: Flow number (FN*HPT) vs. pressure ratio (π*HPT)

for the high pressure turbine (for legend see Figure 8)
The LPT (Figure 13) operates over a much wider range
than the HPT. The choking response seen in the HPT is not seen
in the LPT. Indeed, Figure 5 shows that the LPT is not choking Figure 14: Gas Generator shaft power (P*GG shaft) vs. Lower
completely at the design point. Heating Value (LHV) (for legend see Figure 8)
Figure 15 shows the surge margin when operating at
various levels of heating value.

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Figure 15: Surge margin (SM) vs. Lower Heating Value
(LHV) (for legend see Figure 8)
Despite the fact that the CO2 and N2 curves take different paths
in the compressor map at T*4=1 (Figure 9), surge margins
appear quite similar all the way down to LHV=5 MJ/kg. On
part load the CO2-curves however take a more direct path
towards the surge line after parting with the N2-curves. CO2
dilution is here seen to be somewhat more detrimental to surge
stability. Looking at Figure 15 it may also be concluded that it
is only below LHV=15 MJ/kg that the surge margin starts to
drop rapidly. This is regardless of whether CO2 or N2 is used to
dilute the fuel. Surge margin behavior is very dependent on
compressor design. Conclusions for the VT4400 may therefore
not necessarily be generalized.
Figure 16: LPT shaft power (P*LPT) vs. Lower Heating Value
(LHV) (for legend see Figure 8)
Figure 16 and Figure 17 show LPT shaft power and overall
efficiency vs. LHV. Mass flow through the LPT will rise
slightly as diluents are added, especially on part load. The
elevated cycle pressure ratio, especially with N2 dilution is
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however the dominating cause for the rise of both power and
efficiency. Just as with the GG, mechanical loads on PT and
gearbox will rise as a consequence. The generator may also not
be able cope with increased demands.
Figure 17: Overall efficiency (η*) (including gearbox and
generator losses and inert compressor power consumption)
vs. Lower Heating Value (LHV) (for legend see Figure 8)
Combustor response to inerts
Figure 18 shows inert mass flow scaled with compressor mass
flow. In this respect it serves to show the relative importance of
the inert component on the overall flow through the
turbomachinery. The fuel heating value is based on mass ratios,
so for a given LHV the inert mass flow is essentially the same
for the two diluents.
Figure 18: Inert mass flow scaled with compressor mass
flow (minert/mcompr) vs. Lower Heating Value (LHV) (for
legend see Figure 8)
8 Copyright © 2009 by ASME
 The lower compressor flow associated with CO2 dilution will
however make CO2 dilution slightly more significant in relation
to compressor flow compared with N2 dilution. At LHV=5
MJ/kg the inert fraction is 12-15% of compressor mass flow,
with CO2 being slightly higher than N2.
For the investigated combustor design, fuel and primary
zone air enter at the upstream end of the premix duct. As more
diluents are added, it will be at the expense of primary zone air.
The flow split will therefore change. The design air split is
56.7% to reach 1800 K on NG. This will drop according to
Figure 19 as inerts are added.
Primary zone equivalence ratios (Figure 20) and
temperatures (Figure 21) will change accordingly. CO2
addition, being denser than N2 is seen to have less impact on
flow split-, primary zone equivalence ratio- and temperature
change. Air split is seen to be fairly constant when the engine is
turned down on NG. With added dilution however, air split
drops slightly less on part load compared with full load. Figure 20: Primary zone equivalence ratio (Φpz) vs. Lower
There are two competing mechanisms for CO formation. Heating Value (LHV) (for additional legend see Figure 8)
On the lean (cold) side of optimum, CO is caused by
incomplete combustion due to insufficient reaction rates. On There must also be scope for turndown. From a CO2
the rich (hot) side CO2 dissociation will raise CO perspective it seems that the combustor will produce little CO
concentrations. Hermann et al. [17] have studied LP in the LHV range [8.2 50] MJ/kg even if T*4 is reduced to
combustion with CO2 dilution and heated inlet air. They 0.9594. At lower T*4, piloting or a switchover to complete
concluded that minimum CO concentrations is achieved for diffusion combustion will be required. With N2 dilution, less
Φpz=0.51 at Tair=670 K when operating on methane. CO is expected since [CO] [CO2][O2]-0.5. The formation rate
of thermal NOX on the other hand is proportional to [N2][O2]0.5.
N2 dilution is therefore detrimental to NOX formation.

Figure 19: Combustor air split vs. Lower Heating Value

(LHV) (for legend see Figure 8)
With LHV=8.2 MJ/kg, CO2 dilution will shift minimum CO
stoichiometry to Φpz=0.61 at Tair=700 K. These air temperatures
are similar to VT4400 T3 at corresponding levels of CO2
dilution. Results for Figure 20 indicate that full load Φpz goes
from 0.53 to ~0.7 for these two conditions. This would indicate
little CO emissions and high combustion efficiency. It is
however safer to operate slightly richer than optimum because
on the lean side CO rises rapidly.
Figure 21: Primary zone temperature (Tpz) vs. Lower
Heating Value (LHV) (for legend see Figure 8)
It is also exponentially dependent on primary zone
temperature, being negligible at 1800 K and rising rapidly
thereafter. As Φpz approaches 1, freely available oxygen in the
post combustion zone will however approach zero. Thermal
NOX emissions, which form relatively slowly, will thus be
suppressed in the less oxidizing environment. CO emissions
will however rise due to dissociation as outlined previously.

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 In [18] Alfaro et al. tries N2 and CO2 dilution of propane
down to LHV=5 MJ/kg in a premix combustor. The results are
reproduced in Figure 20. The constant NOX=25 ppm
(uncorrected) curves were found at much richer conditions cf.
calculations of operating lines performed here. The VT4400
combustor is known to produce approximately 25 ppm NOX (@
15% O2) in the exhaust stack at full load condition on NG.
Based on the shape of the constant NOX trends in [18] it can be
expected that the VT4400 combustor’s NOX emissions will not
change dramatically as LHV is reduced, but be slightly higher
with N2 dilution cf. CO2 dilution. The Lean Blow Out (LBO)
curves from [18] indicate problems below ~10 MJ/kg at full
load conditions. When operating on methane (50 MJ/kg), LBO
is expected at T*4≈0.9187. It should however be noted that tests
in [18] were performed at ambient pressures and inlet
temperatures. With compressed and therefore heated inlet air
LBO is expected to occur at lower Φpz for a given LHV and
NOX emissions are expected to rise due to higher flame Figure 22: Combustor Loading (CL) vs. Lower Heating
temperatures. The constant NOX curves from [18] would as a Value (LHV) (for legend see Figure 8)
consequence move down toward the calculated operating lines.
LBO limits are expected to be improved by adding up to Fuel feeds and injection orifices would certainly need
15% hydrogen to the fuel [19]. Other studies show LBO revisions at some point. This is likely to be one of the first
improvements over a wider range of H2 concentrations [20]. H2 obstacles as inerts are added. Pressure drop is seen to depend
and CO rich combustion is however problematic in premixed very little on firing temperature (T*4).
combustors owing to flashback and deflagration-to-detonation Firm conclusions on combustor LBO and emission
transitions [21]. Finally it should be mentioned that propane behavior are difficult to draw without testing with actual
flame temperatures are some 35-40K higher than methane hardware at correct conditions. Calculations suggest however
flames for a given equivalence ratio. This, on its own, would that there is ample scope for dilution with minor modifications
allow somewhat leaner mixtures in [18] before LBO and yield since primary zone stoichiometry changes favorably.
more thermal NOX for a given stoichiometry.
One major problem with some LHV gases is Fuel Bound
Nitrogen (FBN). This is typically the case with wood
gasification gases. In the presence of HC molecules the FBN
will form NOX, especially in oxidizing environments such as
lean combustors. NOX emissions at the GT exhaust can easily
reach several hundred ppm in this case [22], [23], [24]. If this is
the case, diffusion type or even RQL combustors are preferred.
Two further parameters which are routinely checked are
Combustor Loading (CL) and Combustion Intensity (CI) [15].
These are plotted in Figure 22 and Figure 23. Low values
indicate conditions favorable for complete combustion over a
wide range of primary zone equivalence ratios. CL less than 50
kg/s·atm1.8·m3 is considered acceptable. Industrial units
however may go as low as 1 kg/s·atm1.8·m3. CI should stay
below 60 MW/atm·m3. CL is seen to drop with added dilution,
the reason being that cycle pressure ratio rises. CI drops for N2
dilution but stays fairly flat for CO2 dilution.
Combustor pressure drop may be of concern. Figure 24
Figure 23: Combustion Intensity (CI) vs. Lower Heating
shows the trends assuming a full load pressure drop for
Value (LHV) (for legend see Figure 8)
methane operation of 3.8%. The denser CO2 dilution obviously
fares better. At LHV=5 MJ/kg combustor pressure drop rises to
5% with CO2 dilution and 5.9% with N2 dilution.

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Figure 24: Combustor pressure drop (Δpcomb) vs. Lower
Heating Value (LHV) (for legend see Figure 8)
In [1] the authors of this paper go into more details about
the effects of compressor and turbine re-sizing and steam
injection between the two turbines. A re-optimized flow path is
also computed to show the potential of an “uncompromised”
design.
CONCLUSIONS
The Volvo VT4400 2-shaft gas turbine has been modeled in
IPSEpro®. The turbines response to methane diluted with CO2
and N2 in the range 5 to 50 MJ/kg (2.15 to 21.5 kBtu/lb) has
been investigated.
The following conclusions may be drawn (diluents are
compared on gravimetric LHV basis):
• With more dilution cycle pressure ratio will rise.
• With CO2 dilution the VT4400 compressor flow
will reduce on full load.
• With N2 dilution the VT4400 compressor flow
will increase on full load.
• With CO2 dilution the VT4400 compressor flow
will initially rise and then decrease on part load.
• With N2 dilution the VT4400 compressor flow
will increase on part load.
• CO2 dilution results in less compressor speed,
mass flow and pressure ratio cf. N2 dilution.
• The reason why CO2 and N2 dilution produces
different responses in the compressor map lies
mainly in the changes to swallowing capacity of
the HPT and the LPT.
• N2 dilution will produce more LPT power and
higher cycle efficiencies cf. CO2 dilution.
• At full inter-turbine temperature (T*5=1)
compressor speed will remain fairly constant as
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CO2 inerts are added to the combustor. N2 dilution
will however still produce increased N*comp.
• Surge margin will stay above 10% down to
LHV=15 MJ/kg regardless of diluents. For lower
LHV surge margin drops rapidly.
• Surge margin will be slightly worse for highly
CO2 diluted fuels cf. N2 dilution.
• The LPP combustor is seen to react favorable to
inert dilution injected at the upstream end of the
premix duct. Primary zone equivalence ratio (Φpz)
and temperature (Tpz) will rise due to the drop in
flow split.
• For a given LHV the combustor primary zone will
respond more in terms of flow split, Φpz and Tpz to
N2 dilution cf. CO2 dilution due to the lower
molar mass of N2.
• At some point of dilution the combustor will blow
out. The exact tolerance to blowout can only be
established through testing. It is suggested here
that the VT4400 LPP combustor may work in
premix mode down to 10 MJ/kg on full load.
• On part load piloting or changeover to diffusion
combustion is required. This is true even for NG
operation without dilution. With dilution,
problems are compounded.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge Volvo Aero Corp. and E·ON
for supplying background material and funding for this
research.
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