LOCOMOTOR SYSTEM

Locomotor system is formed by two components:

1. Bones and joints (these are the passive part of this system)
2. Skeletal muscles: they act on bones like levers, moving different parts of the body; they represent the
active part of the locomotor system.

BONES

The bones from the entire body form the skeleton. There are 208 bones inside the adult human body.

The skeleton of the body is formed by an axial part and the skeleton of the limbs.

The axial part, for an increased flexibility, is divided into many segments: vertebrae and ribs.

The superior extremity of the body is dilated and is named skull; it sheltered the brain and the viscera of the
face.

The skeleton of the limbs: the skeleton of the upper limb (thoracic limb) and the skeleton of the lower
limb (pelvic limb).

Each limb has:

- A girdle (pectoral girdle, pelvic girdle), which is the connection between axial part and the free limb.
- The free limb: formed by three segments (upper arm, forearm, hand; thigh, leg, foot).

The roles of the bones:

- Determine the form and the size of the body

- Assure the support for the soft tissues
- Are passive organs (parts) of the movement
- Form protective cavities for the vital organs
- Represent the phosphor-calcium deposit of the body
- Shelter the red bone marrow.

The morphology of the bones

The bones are compared with geometrical figures, for this reason there are described surfaces, borders and
angles, the bones have three dimensions: length, width and thickness.

According to this, the bones are : long, wide, short, irregular (sesamoid, pneumatic, wormian/sutural).

The long bones present a central part with an important length named diaphysis (body). At its
extremities, the long bone is more voluminous, forming the two epiphyses (extremities). At children, between
diaphysis and epiphysis there is a zone with a different morphology, the growth cartilage. At adults, after
puberty, influenced by the sexual hormones, the growth cartilage is transformed into bone tissue and become the
metaphysis of the long bone. At the long bones, the greatest dimension is the length; they are situated
predominantly in the limbs.

The wide bones have the length comparable (approximately equal) with the width; they are situated in
the girdles (to allow insertion of a large number of muscles) and in the skull.

The short bones have the three dimensions approximately equal. e.g.: carpal bones, tarsal bones,
vertebrae.

The irregular bones:

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 -pneumatic bones: present cavities filled with air (sinuses), lined with a respiratory mucosa. Those
bones form the skull: sphenoid bone, ethmoid, maxilla, frontal bones.

- sesamoid bones: are developed at the level of the joints ( e.g.: patella)

- wormian/sutural bones are developed at the level of the sutures of skull.

From structural point of view, the bones are classified into:

- Compact bones: have a homogeneous aspect, being formed by joined bony blades with spaces that
interfere.
- Spongy bones: have the aspect of a sponge, with bony blades orientated in different directions (bone
trabeculae). These trabeculae delimited between them spaces, cavities with diameters from 1mm to 3-4
mm.
At the adults, inside the bone spongy cavities is situated the red bone marrow.

There are three types of bone marrow:

- The red marrow, hematopoietic: contains the stem blood cells. This red marrow also has a role in
differentiation of the osteoblasts (young cells of the bone system) and osteoclasts (specific cells,
related with macrophages, which perform continuously the resorption and remodelling of the bone
tissue).
- The yellow marrow: is situated inside the diaphysis of the long bones; this type appears after a fat load
inside the red marrow.
- The grey marrow (gelatinous): is characteristic to elders; it is formed by loose connective tissue.

JOINTS

The joints represent anatomical structures that connect adjacent bones and have the role to transmit the
mechanical forces and the movements; all the joints have some degree of movement.

Classification of the joints:

1. Synarthrosis:  is a type of joint which permits very little or no movement under normal conditions, it
has no space inside.
2. Diarthrosis (Synovial joint): is a type of joint which contains between the bony surfaces a narrow
cavity but with a large area and a liquid content. The cavity is named synovial cavity and the liquid is
named synovial fluid. These joints have a great mobility.

The synarthrosis

Depending on the material between the bony surfaces these joints are divided into cartilaginous joints and
fibrous joints.

The cartilaginous joints are two types:

- Primary, named synchondrosis: between the bones that form the base of the skull, the hip bone.
- Symphysis: pubic symphysis (between the two pubic bones)

The fibrous joints are three types:

- Syndesmosis: the articular surfaces are linked through an interosseous ligament (e.g. the coraco-
acromial ligament)
- Suture: this type of joint is present on skull. The skull bones are united, but separated from one another
through a fibrous tissue.
- Gomphosis: is the joint between a conical bony extremity and a cavity (e.g. dento-alveolar joint).

The diarthrosis (synovial joint)

This joint is formed by:

- Articular surfaces covered by cartilage

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- Elements that assure the contact between the articular surfaces: articular disk, meniscus
- Elements of connection: the articular capsule (a membrane formed by two layers: a fibrous external
layer and a synovial internal layer; the external layer has a sleeve form, that covers and limits the joint,
being a continuation of the periosteum); the articular ligaments which are intracapsular (the ligament
of the head of femur) or extracapsular (at distance).
Other elements that help to maintain the contact between the articular surfaces are: the atmospheric
pressure, synovial fluid and the muscles tonicity.