Name:BUSHRA SHAHID

CMS ID: 863-2023

Group: B

Subject anatomy

Submitted to: Dr HEMANT KUMAR

ASSIGNMENT # 01
ANATOMY (HISTOLOGY)

QUESTION #01

Classification of joints . Describe different varieties of synovial joints?

Joints :
joint is the part of the body where two or more bones meet to allow movement.

Functions : provide stable union and to permit free movement

Classification of joints:
Depending on absence and presence of joint cavity ,the joints can be further classify into

1. Synarthroses (or solid joints )

2. Diarthroses (or cavitated joints )

SYNARTHROSES :
Immovable fixed joint that are bind together by kind of connective tissues.

Joints between the bones of the skull, excepting those of the mandible.

they can further classified into two categories

• Fibrous joints
• Cartilaginous joints

1) Fibrous joints:
In this joints bones are held together by Fibrous connective tissue they have 3 subtypes

1. Sutures (present in skull bones except mandible )

2. Syndesmoses ( present only in tibiofibular joints )
3. Gomphoses ( present in the roots of the teeth (the pegs) fit into their sockets in the mandible
and maxilla)

2) Cartilaginous joints:
In these joints the articulating bones are jointed to each other by cartilage
They can further divided into

1. Synchrondroses ( between ethmoid &sphenoid ,sphenoid & occipital ,occipital and temporal )
2. Symphyses ( between pubic bones ,manubrium &sternum ,invertebrate)

3) DIARTHROSES / SYNOVIAL JOINTS :

❖ These are freely movable joints .
❖ The dense fibrous connective tissue joint the articulating bones (joints) .
❖ Outer bony surfaces are coated with hyaline cartilage
❖ Inner layer is lined by synovial membrane which is divided into two type
1. Type A cells
2. Type B cells

• Type A cells
They are phagocytic cells .

Function: to remove extra unwanted particles

• Type B cells
They are fibroblast like cells

Function: they involve in the secretion of fluid called synovial fluid which fills the joint cavity .

VARIETIES OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS:

Classification according to the complexity of form :
1. Simple joints :
They consists of two articulating surfaces ( male and female ) the male is convex and usually large and
female concave

Few joints have cavocovex surfaces

E.g : shoulder joints , interphalangeal joints

2. Compound joints :
A joints have more than two articular surfaces called compound joints

Eg: elbow joints in which humerus articulate with ulna and radius

3. Complex joints :
A joints containing meniscus or articular disc is called complex joints

Eg : sternoclavical joints ,acromioclavical joints and knee joints

Classification according to the degree of freedom of movement:

In movement articulating bones maintained fixed position and other bone rotates around axis.

Movement of synovial joints occurs in three principles

1) Vertical axis
 2) Transverse axis
3) Anteroposterior axis

Consider the degree of freedom , the synovial joints are classified into 3 groups

1) Uniaxial : only one degree movement occur

Eg : interphalangeal ( flexion & extension)
2) Biaxial : in this joints two degrees of freedom and movement occur
Eg: wrist joint( abduction & adduction )
3) Multiaxial joints : have 3 degrees of freedom and movements
Eg : shoulder joint

Classification of synovial joints according to the shape of articular surfaces :

Seven types of joints are recognized

I. PLANE JOINTS :
In this joints opposing bony surfaces are almost flat .only gliding movement are occur

Eg : intermetatarsal joints ,between carpals and tarsals , in vertebrae

II. HINGE JOINTS / GINGLYMUS :

These joints resemble the hinge on the lid of box .the convex surface of a bone fits into the concave
surface of another bone

Eg :elbow joints ,interphalangeal joints of hands and foot

III. PIVOT JOINTS / TROCHOID JOINTS :

They belong to uniaxial variety of joints in this a central bony pivot is surrounded by a collar made partly
of a bone and partly of ligaments the only movement allow is rotation around a vertical axis which
passes through the center of pivot

Eg : in pivot joints may rotates within the collar or ring (radioulnar joints ) and ring may rotates around
the central pivot remain stationary ( atlan-toaxial joint)

IV. BICONDYLAR JOINTS :

These bicondylar are biaxial joint in which transverse and rotational axis occur have two condyle
articulate with concave surfaces.

Eg : knee joints

Or condyle may be well apart enclosed in separate capsule

Eg : temporomandibular joints

V. ELLIPSOID JOINTS :
In these biaxial joints an oval ,convex (male ) surface is received into elliptical (female ) concavity .
movement are allowed at two axis which are perpendicular to each other

Eg :wrist joints metacarpophalangeal joints of hands and metatarsophalangeal joints of foot .

 VI. SELLAR JOINTS /SEDDAL JOINTS :
They named because the articulating surfaces are completely curved resemble those of saddle .the
surface of one bone is concave in one direction and convex into other and that of the second is
reciprocally curved so that it’s convexity and concavity fit respectively

Eg : carpometacarpal joint of thumb ,ankle ,calcaneocunoidal joints .

VII. SPHEROIDAL JOINTS / BALL AND SOCKET JOINTS :

Joints a globe-like head (ball) of one fit into cup like concavity of other bone they possess all 3 degrees
of freedom of movement

Eg ;: shoulder joint and hip joints

QUESTION # 02

Briefly describe structure and classificatoon of bones .

BONES :
Bones are living, active tissues that the body is constantly remodeling and provide frame to the body .

STRUCTURE OF BONE :
Bones are composed of two types of tissue

MACROSCOPICALLY :
Compact bone :
Compact (cortical) bone is a hard outer layer that is dense, strong, and durable. It makes up
around 80% of adult bone mass and forms the outer layer of bone .Compact bone functions primarily to
provide strength and protection to bones, and it is one of two types of bone tissue

Spongy bone :
Cancellous (trabecular or spongy) bone makes up the remaining 20% of bone and consists of a network
of trabeculae, or rod-like, structures. It is lighter, less dense, and more flexible than compact bones
.Spongy bone contains red bone marrow, which is responsible for producing blood cells.

Structural classification of bones:

MICROSCOPICALLY:
Lamellar bones :
Laminar bone membranes are made from thin sheets of cortical bone which has been processed to be
flexible without breaking, while still supporting weight. These allografts are perfect for procedures
where a membrane with rigidity is required, in order to maintain space and allow healing of a larger
defect.

Found in long bones of the legs and arms.

Woven bones :
Primary bone (or woven bone) is characterized by the irregular arrangement of collagen fibers, large cell
number, and reduced mineral content it is an immature bone or primitive bone
embryo, the newborn, growing bone ends, and initial bone laid fracture healing.

Fibrous bones:
Fibrous bone, also known as fibrous connective tissue, is a type of tissue that is found in the body’s
joints, where it provides support and stability. It is made up of a dense network of collagen fibers and is
not as mineralized as bone tissue. It plays a critical role in allowing for movement and flexibility in the
body’s joints while also providing strength and stability.

Fibrous bone is found in structures such as the sutures of the skull and the periodontal ligaments that
attach teeth to the jawbone.

Dentine :
Dentin, also spelled dentine, in anatomy, the yellowish tissue that makes up the bulk of all teeth. It is
harder than bone but softer than enamel and consists mainly of apatite crystals of calcium and
phosphate. Main supporting structure of the tooth

the yellowish tissue that makes up the bulk of all teeth

Cement:
Cementum, also called Cement, in anatomy, thin layer of bonelike material covering the roots and
sometimes other parts of the teeth of mammals. Cementum is yellowish and softer than either dentine
or enamel. It is made by a layer of cementum-producing cells (cementoblasts) adjacent to the dentine.

Question #03
Describe different planes of body

PLANES OF THE BODY :

To facilitate description of relations, various imaginary planes have been proposed to be passings
through the human body .

The principal three planes of the body are

• Median plane
• Coronal plane
• Transverse plane

Median plane:
The median plane also called a mid-sagittal plane is used to describe the sagittal plane as it bisects the
body vertically through the midline marked by the navel, dividing the body exactly in left and right side.

The term parasagittal plane is used to refer to any plane parallel to the sagittal and median plane.

Coronal plane:
Coronal plane is a vertical line that divides the human body into anterior and posterior portions.It is
perpendicular to the sagittal and transverse planes the coronal plane also called frontal plane
Transverse plane:
If the body is divided upper and lower sections,we get a transverse plane. Such a plane is at right angles
to the midsagittal ,sagittal and coronal planes . The transverse also consider as horizontal plane .

Question no 4

Define the following term ?

TENDONS:
A flexible but inelastic cord of strong fibrous collagen tissue attaching a muscle to a bone Tendons let us
move our limbs. They also help prevent muscle injury by absorbing some of the impact your muscles
take when you run, jump or do other movements.

LIGAMENTS:
A short band of tough, flexible fibrous connective tissue which connects two bones or cartilages or holds
together a joint. They give your joints support, and limit their movement. ligaments found around
knees, ankles, elbows, shoulders, and other joints.

APONEUROSIS:
Aponeurosis is a thin sheath of connective tissue that helps connect your muscles to your bones. They
are similar to tendons. They support your muscles and give our body strength and stability. They absorb
energy when your muscles move

MUSCLES FASCICLES:
When a group of muscle fibers is “bundled” as a unit within the whole muscle it is called a fascicle. They
are covered by a layer of connective tissue called perimysium.Muscle fascicles typically only contain one
type of muscle cell (either type I fibres or type II fibres), but can contain a mixture of both types.

SARCOMERE:
A sarcomere is the basic contractile unit of muscle fiber. Each sarcomere is composed of two main
protein filaments—actin and myosin—which are the active structures responsible for muscular
contraction. The most popular model that describes muscular contraction is called the sliding filament
theory.

CEPHALIC:
Relating to the head or the head end of the body. Situated on, in, or near the head. Cephalic is
synonymous with cranial, relating to the cranium or head. The word “cephalic” came from the Middle
French “cephalique,” The cephalic phase is the commencement of the digestive process. It involves food
association, visualization or olfaction; hence memory, mood, emotions, associations, and hedonics all
play a part, with a key role played by the vagus nerve, both centrally and peripherally.

ABDUCTION :
Abduction, in the anatomical sense, is classified as the motion of a limb or appendage away from the
midline of the body.The opposite of adduction is abduction
FRACTURE:
A fracture is a break, usually in a bone. If the broken bone punctures the skin, it is called an open or
compound fracture. Fractures commonly happen because of car accidents, falls, or sports injuries. Other
causes are low bone density and osteoporosis, which cause weakening of the bones.

DISLOCATION :
A dislocation is a separation of two bones where they meet at a joint. This injury can be very painful and
can temporarily deform and immobilize the joint. The most common locations for a dislocation are
shoulders and fingers, but can also occur in elbows, knees and hips.

ENDOCHONDRIAL OSSIFICATION:
This process involves the replacement of hyaline cartilage with bone. It begins when mesoderm-derived
mesenchymal cells differentiate into chondrocytes. Chondrocytes proliferate rapidly and secrete an
extracellular matrix to form the cartilage model for bone.