4 INTRODUCTION

constants, not their absolute values, which are needed. If, however,
we wish to find the moments for a definite displacement produced by
shrinkage, by change of temperature, or by movement of abutments,
we need to know the absolute values.
What is the value of E to be used? What is the value of / to be used?
The very definite answer to these questions is that we do not know
enough to assign very definite values. The exact values of /, the exact
values of E are subject to great variation and are to no small extent a
matter of chance. We can only investigate the probable effect on the
design of such variations as may reasonably be expected and choose
such values as will give conservative design. There is nothing unique
in this situation. It occurs in practically all engineering design.
Reference to the elementary geometry presented in Chapter IIIwill
show that what we are dealing with in structures of reinforced concrete,
is not E or /at all; the quantity with which we are dealing is the ro
tation per unit of moment per unit of length which exists in the struc
ture in question under the loading conditions in question and for the
duration of load being considered. Iis simply a myth here.
The whole subject of the values to be used for E and especially for I
is at present highly controversial. Space does not permit a review of
current investigations along these lines, and the discussion here is re
stricted to very brief statements of the problems involved and of what
seem to the authors the most reasonable conclusions.
What is E? At one time it was thought that the modulus of elas
ticity of concrete at rupture varied approximately with the ultimate
compressive strength, and present codes and specifications are based
on this view. There no doubt, some relation between the two val
is,

ues, but by no means consistent. The value of varies in what at

E
is
it

present seems to be an erratic way over range from 2,000,000 lb. per
a

sq. in. to 4,000,000 lb. per sq. in. Occasionally values as low as 1,500,000
and as high as 5,000,000 may be found, but in general we may expect the
variations to be limited to ±33 1/3% from mean value of 3,000,000.*
a

This the value at rupture. But the ratio of stress intensity to

is

strain varies both with the intensity of stress and also with the duration
of the stress. The authors see no reason to think that either variation
affects seriously the moments produced by loads on the structure, but
on this point also there some difference of opinion.
is

See "Reinforced Concrete Columns in Flexure," Hardy Cross, Proc. A.C.I.,

*

Vol. XXVI (1930); also discussion by N. H. Roy and F. E. Richart, and that by
W. M. Dunagan.
See "Flow of Concrete Under the Action of Sustained Loads," Hardy Cross,
t

Jour. A.C.I. December, 1931.

,