Beams and frames

• Beams are slender members used for

supporting transverse loading.
• Beams with cross sections symmetric with
respect to loading are considered.
M
σ =− y
I
∈= σ / E
d 2 v / dx 2 = M / EI
 Potential energy approach

Strain energy in an element of length dx is

1
dU =
2A∫ σεdAdx

1⎛ M2 ⎞
= ⎜⎜ 2 ∫ y dA ⎟⎟dx
2

2 ⎝ EI A ⎠
∫ dA is the moment of inertia I
2
y
A

The total strain energy for the beam is given by-

( )
L
1
U = ∫ EI d v / dx dx
2 2

20
 Potential energy of the beam is then given by-

( )
L L
1
Π = ∫ EI d v / dx dx − ∫ pvdx − ∑ pm vm − ∑ M k vk
2 2 '

20 0 m k

Where-
-p is the distributed load per unit length
-pm is the point load at point m.
-Mk is the moment of couple applied at point k
-vm is the deflection at point m
-v’k is the slope at point k.
Galerkin’s Approach
p •Here we start from equilibrium
V+dV of an elemental length.
M M+dM dV/dx = p
V dM/dx =V
dx d 2 v / dx 2 = M / EI

d2
dx 2
EI(d 2
)
v 2 − p=0
dx
For approximate solution by Galerkin’s approach-

∫
0
L ⎡ d
(
⎢⎣ dx 2 EI
d 2
v
dx
) ⎤
2 − p ⎥ Φ dx = 0
⎦
Φ is an arbitrary function using same basic functions as v
Integrating the first term by parts and splitting the interval 0 to L
to (0 to xm), (xm to xk) and (xk to L) we get-

xm
d vd Φ
2 2
d ⎛ d v⎞ 2
L l

∫0 EI dx 2 dx 2 dx − ∫0 pΦdx + dx ⎜⎜⎝ EI dx 2 ⎟⎟⎠Φ

0
L xk L
d ⎛ d v⎞ 2
d v dΦ 2
d v dΦ 2
+ ⎜⎜ EI 2 ⎟⎟Φ − EI 2 − EI 2 =0
dx ⎝ dx ⎠ x dx dx 0 dx dx xk
m

Further simplifying-

d 2v d 2Φ
L L

∫0 dx 2 dx 2
EI dx − ∫0 pΦ dx − ∑m m m ∑k k k = 0
p Φ − M Φ '

Φ and M are zero at support..at xm shear force is pm and at xk

Bending moment is -Mk
 FINITE ELEMENT FORMULATION

•Beam is divided in to elements…each node has two degrees of

freedom.
•Degree of freedom of node j are Q2j-1 and Q2j
• Q2j-1 is transverse displacement and Q2j is slope or rotation.

Q1 Q3 Q5 Q7 Q9
e1 e2 e3 e4
Q2 Q4 Q6 Q8 Q10

Q = [Q1, Q2 , Q3 KQ10 ]
T

Q is the global displacement vector.

Local coordinates-
q1 q3
e q4
q2

q = [q1 , q2 , q3 , q4 ] T

= [v1 , v , v2 , v ]
'
1
'
2

•The shape functions for interpolating v on an element are defined

in terms of ζ from –1 to 1.
•The shape functions for beam elements differ from those defined
earlier. Therefore, we define ‘Hermite Shape Functions’
Slope=0
H1 H2
1 Slope=0
Slope=0

Slope=1

Slope=0

H3 1 Slope=1
Slope=0

Slope=0 H4
Each Hermite shape function is of cubic order represented by-

H i = ai + biζ + ciζ 2 + d iζ 3 K i = 1,2,3,4

The condition given in following table must be satisfied.

H1 H’1 H2 H’2 H3 H’3 H4 H’4

ζ=-1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
ζ=1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
Finding out values of coefficients and simplifying,

1
H1 = (1 − ζ ) (2 + ζ )
2

4
1
H 2 = (1 − ζ ) (ζ + 1)
2

4
1
H 3 = (1 + ζ ) (2 + ζ )
2

4
1
H 4 = (1 + ζ ) (ζ − 1)
2

4
Hermite functions can be used to write v in the form-
⎛ dv ⎞ ⎛ dv ⎞
v(ζ ) = H1v1 + H 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + H 3v3 + H 4 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ dζ ⎠1 ⎝ dζ ⎠2

The coordinates transform by relationship-

1− ζ 1+ ζ
x= x1 + x2
2 2
x1 + x2 x2 − x1
= + ζ
2 2

le (x2-x1) is the length of

dx = dζ element le
2
dv le dv
=
dζ 2 dx
Therefore,
le le
v(ζ ) = H1q1 + H 2 q2 + H 3 q3 + H 4 q4
2 2

v = Hq
where
⎡ le le ⎤
H = ⎢ H1 , H 2 , H 3 , H 4 ⎥
⎣ 2 2 ⎦
 1
(
U e = ∫ EI d v / dx dx
2e
2 2
)
2 2
dv 2 dv d v 4 d v
= and =
dx le dζ dx 2
le dζ 2
substituting in above equation
T
T 16 ⎛ d H ⎞ ⎛ d 2H ⎞
2 2
d v
= q 4 ⎜⎜ ⎟
2 ⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟q
2 ⎟
dx 2
le ⎝ dζ ⎠ ⎝ dζ ⎠
Where-

⎛ d 2H ⎞ ⎡ 3 − 1 + 3ζ le − 3 1 + 3ζ le ⎤
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎢ ζ , , ζ, ⎥
⎝ dζ 2
⎠ ⎣ 2 2 2 2 2 2 ⎦
 ⎡9 4 ζ 2 3 8 ζ (−1 + 3ζ )le − 9 4 ζ 2 3 8 ζ (1 + 3ζ )le ⎤
⎢ 2
⎥
⎛ − 1 + 3ζ ⎞ 2 − 3 − 1 + 9ζ 2 ⎥
2
⎢
1 ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ l e ζ ( −1 + 3ζ )l e le ⎥
1 T 8 EI ⎢ ⎝ 4 ⎠ 8 16
3 ∫
Ue = q ⎥ dζ q
2 le −1 ⎢ symmetric 9 4ζ 2
− 3 8 ζ (1 + 3ζ )le ⎥
⎢ 2
⎥
⎢ ⎛ 1 + 3ζ ⎞ 2 ⎥
⎢ ⎜ ⎟ e l ⎥
⎣ ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎦
Note that-
1 1 1
2
∫−1ζ dζ = 3 ∫ ζdζ = 0 ∫ dζ = 2
2

−1 −1

This result can be written as-

1 T
U e = q ke q
2
Where Ke is element stiffness matrix given by

⎡12 6le − 12 6le ⎤

⎢ 2 ⎥
EI ⎢6le 4le − 6le 2le ⎥
2

ke = 3
le ⎢− 12 − 6le 12 − 6le ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣6le 2le − 6le 4le ⎥⎦
2 2

It can be seen that it is a symmetric matrix.

Load vector-
•We assume the uniformly distributed load p over the element.

⎛ ple 1 ⎞
∫l pvdx = ⎜⎜⎝ 2 −∫1 Hdζ ⎟⎟⎠q
e

Substituting the value of H we get-

∫ pvdx = f
eT
q
le

where
T
⎡ ple pl ple pl ⎤
2 2
f =⎢e
, , ,− e
⎥
e

⎣ 2 12 2 12 ⎦
This is equivalent to the element shown below-
p

1 2
le

Ple/2 Ple/2
Ple 2/12 -Ple2/12
e
1 2

The point loads Pm and Mk are readily taken care of by

introducing the nodes at the point of application.
Introducing local-global correspondence from potential energy
approach we get-

1 T
Π = Q KQ − QF
2
And from Galerkin’s approach we get-

Ψ KQ − Ψ F = 0
T T

where Ψ = admissible virtual displacement

vector.
BOUNDARY CONSIDERATIONS
•Let Qr = a…….single point BC

•Following Penalty approach, add 1/2C(Qr-a)2 to Π

•C represents stiffness which is large in comparison

with beam stiffness terms.
•C is added to Krr and Ca is added to Fr to get-

KQ = F
•These equations are solved to get nodal displacements.

Ca C
C Ca
Dof =(2i-1) Dof = 2i
Shear Force and Bending Moment-
We have,
d 2v dM
M = EI 2 V = and v = Hq
dx dx

⎧ R1 ⎫ ⎡12 6le − 12 6le ⎤ ⎧q1 ⎫ ⎧− ple 2 ⎫

⎪R ⎪ ⎢ 2 ⎥⎪ ⎪ ⎪− pl 2 12⎪
⎪ 2 ⎪ EI ⎢ e 6l 4l 2
− 6l 2l ⎥⎪ 2 ⎪ + ⎪
q ⎪
=
e e e e
⎨ ⎬ 3 ⎢ ⎥ ⎨ ⎬ ⎨ ⎬
R
⎪ 3⎪ l − 12 − 6l 12 − 6 l q
e ⎪ 3⎪ ⎪ − pl 2 ⎪
e
⎢ e
⎥ e
⎪⎩ R4 ⎪⎭ ⎢⎣6le 2le2 − 6le 4le2 ⎥⎦ ⎪⎩q4 ⎪⎭ ⎪⎩ ple2 12 ⎪⎭

V1 = R1 V2 = -R3 M1 = -R2 M 2 = R4
Beams on elastic support
•Shafts supported on ball, roller, journal bearings
•Large beams supported on elastic walls.
•Beam supported on soil (Winkler foundation).

•Stiffness of support contributes towards PE.

•Let ‘s’ be the stiffness of support per unit length.
1 l 2
additional term = ∫
2 0
sv dx

v = Hq
1
= ∑ q T s ∫ H T H dx q
2 e e
 1
= ∑ q T kes
2 e
where kes is stiffness matrix for
elastic foundation
⎡156 22le 54 − 13le ⎤
⎢ ⎥
sle ⎢22le 4le 13le − 3le
2 2

ke =
s ⎥
420 ⎢54 13le 156 22le ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣− 13le − 3le2 − 22le 4le2 ⎥⎦
 PLANE FRAMES
•Plane structure with rigidly connected members.

•Similar to beams except that axial loads and deformations

are present.

•We have 2 displacements and 1 rotation at each node.

•3 dof at each node.

q =[q1, q2, q3, q4, q5, q6]T

 Global and local coordinate systems
q5 q’4
q’5 2
q4

q6 (q’6)

Y’ X’
q2
q’1
q’2
1 θ
q1 Y
q3 (q’3)
X
 q’ =[q’1, q’2, q’3, q’4, q’5, q’6]

l,m are the direction cosines of local coordinate system. X’Y’

• l = cos(θ)
• m =sin(θ)

We can see from the figure that-

•q3 = q’3
•q3 = q’6
which are rotations with respect to body.
 q’ = Lq

Where-
⎡l m 0 0 0 0 ⎤
⎢− m l 0 0 0 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢0 0 1 0 0 0 ⎥
L=⎢ ⎥
⎢0 0 0 l m 0 ⎥
⎢0 0 0 − m l 0⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣0 0 0 0 0 1 ⎥⎦

q’2, q’3,q’5 and q’6 are beam element dof while q’1andq’4
are like rod element dof.
Combining two stiffness and rearranging at proper locations we
get element stiffness matrix as-

⎡ EA EA ⎤
⎢l 0 0 − 0 0 ⎥
le
⎢ e ⎥
⎢ 12 EI 6 EI 12 EI 6 EI ⎥
⎢0 0 − 3 ⎥
le3 le2 le le2
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 6 EI 4 EI 6 EI 2 EI ⎥
⎢0 0 − 2 ⎥
le2 le le le ⎥
k 'e = ⎢
⎢ EA EA ⎥
⎢− 0 0 0 0 ⎥
⎢ le le ⎥
⎢ 12 EI 6 EI 12 EI 6 EI ⎥
⎢0 − − 0 − 2 ⎥
⎢ le3 le2 3
le le ⎥
⎢ 6 EI 2 EI 6 EI 4 EI ⎥
⎢0 0 − 2 ⎥
⎣ le2 le le le ⎦
Strain energy of an element is given by-
1 T 'e
Ue = q' k q'
2
1
= q T LT k 'e Lq
2
by Galerkin ' s approach ,
W e = Ψ 'T k 'e q '
= Ψ T LT k 'e Lq

Element stiffness matrix in global form can be written as-

K e = LT k 'e L
 X’

If there is distributed load on

p
member, we have-

q 'T f ' = q T LT f '

Y
where
Y’ T
⎡ ple pl ple pl ⎤
2 2

X f ' = ⎢0, , ,0, ,−

e e
⎥
⎣ 2 12 2 12 ⎦
f = LT f '
In global form,
KQ = F