University of Zakho

College of Engineering
Petroleum Engineering Department

Saturation
10/9/2019
Prepared by:Lulav saeed Sadiq

Supervisor: MR.ALLA

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 Saturation
Definition Saturation is defined as that fraction, or percent, of the pore volume occupied
by a particular fluid (oil, gas, or water).

Fluid Saturation
Fluid saturation is how much each fluid is present in pore spaces of a rock. This will affect
the ability of each fluid flow through porous media. This is one of critical values for
reservoir engineering since many engineering calculations need fluid saturation values

Fluid Saturation in Rock

Fluid Saturations is also defined as that fraction, or percent, of the pore volume occupied
by a particular fluid (oil, gas, or water). Where the saturation is an intensive property. This
property is expressed mathematically by the following relationship:

total volum of fluid

Fluid saturation= pore volum
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Applying the above mathematical concept of saturation to each reservoir fluid gives

Vo
So =
Vp

Vw
Sw =
Vp

Vg
S g=
Vp

Average Saturation Proper averaging of saturation data requires that the saturation values
be weighted by both the interval thickness hi and interval porosity f. The average
saturation of each reservoir fluid is calculated from the following equations:

where the subscript i refers to any individual measurement and hi represents the depth
interval to which fi , Soi, Sgi, and Swi apply.

Importantly, the fluid saturation (So, Sg and Sw) in a reservoir varies in space, most
notably from the water-oil contact to the reservoir top (see figures in previous chapter),
and also in time during the production. In short, different parts of the reservoir may have
quite different fluid saturations, and also the saturation in any elementary volume of the
reservoir changes progressively during the production.

–
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 –
– Fundamental Relationships

Pore volume is occupied by fluids (water, oil, and/or gas)

• For the two phase case, only one of the two saturations is independent, the other must
make the sum of the saturations equal to unity (1).

So + S g +S w =1

Example 1/ A sandstone core sample 4” long, 1” in diameter with an absolute porosity of

23% was cleaned in an extraction unit. The reduction in the sample’s mass was 7.4 g, and
3.2 ml of water were collected. If the oil and water densities are 0.88 and 1.02 g/cm 3 ,
respectively, compute the fluid saturations.

Example-2/ A core sample was brought into the laboratory for analysis. 70 gm of the core
sample were placed in a mercury pump and found to have 0.71 cc of gas volume. 80 gm of
the core sample was placed in a retort and found to contain 4.5 cc of oil and 2.8 cc of
water. A piece of the original sample weighing 105 gm was placed in a pycnometer and
found to have a bulk volume of 45.7 cc. (Assume ρw = 1.0 gm/cc and 35o API oil)

calculate: (1) porosity (2) water saturation (3) oil saturation (4) gas saturation (5) lithology

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 Reservoir Fluid Saturations

Water Saturation
The water saturation is the fraction of the pore space occupied by water. Most reservoirs
are water wet and contain connate water. Water saturation may range from 10% to 50%
for an oil or gas reservoir and is 100% for an aquifer. The water saturation obviously
affects the oil and gas reserves, and is also used in the calculation of total compressibility.

Oil Saturation
The oil saturation is the fraction of the pore space occupied by oil. Most oil reservoirs also
contain some connate water (non-movable). Thus the oil saturation is rarely 100% and
usually ranges from 10% to 90% (in the oil / water transition zones). The oil saturation
affects the oil and gas reserves, and is also used in the calculation of total compressibility.

Gas Saturation
The gas saturation is the fraction of the pore space occupied by gas. Most gas reservoirs
also contain some connate (non-movable) water. If the gas reservoir is part of a gas cap in
a saturated oil reservoir, the space may contain gas, oil, and water. Thus the gas saturation
is rarely 100% but varies from 30% to 90%.
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Gas saturation is used directly in the calculation of the reserves and also in the calculation
of total compressibility.

Note that the gas saturation has a significant effect on the total compressibility since the
gas compressibility is much higher than the fluid compressibility of oil and water.

The major saturation types of interest in a reservoir are:

Irreducible water saturation (Swi):

The fraction of pore volume occupied by water in a reservoir at maximum

hydrocarbon saturation. In water-wet rock, it represents the layer of
adsorbed water coating solid surfaces and the pendular grain contacts and
at pore throats. The irreducible saturation of a fluid is the minimum
saturation of that fluid attainable when that fluid is displaced from a porous
medium by another fluid immiscible with the first.

Residual oil saturation (Sor):

Oil remaining in the reservoir rock after the flushing or invasion process, or
at the end of a specific recovery process or escape process.

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Critical gas saturation (Sgc)

Is the minimum saturation for continuous gas flow through a porous medium.
This value depends on the process, rate, and nucleation characteristics of
the fluid-rock system. It is a very significant parameter for estimating
solution gas drive recovery, especially for naturally fractured reservoirs, and
has been the subject of much recent work.
Critical oil saturation, Soc

For the oil phase to flow, the saturation of the oil must exceed a certain
value which is termed critical oil saturation. At this particular saturation, the
oil remains in the pores and, for all practical purposes, will not flow.

How To Measure Fluid Saturation

 Two methods to determine fluid saturation are

1) core sample and

2) wire line logging.

Core sample is a direct method because it is a physical measurement. However, wireline

logging is an indirect method because the values are derived from mathematical models.

Determination of Fluid Saturation from core Sample by some methods:

The methods that are used to measure values of original rock saturation can be classified
to two classes: Evaporation of the fluids in the rock and Leaching out the fluids in the rock
by extraction with a solvent.

Direct methods

Direct measurement methods rely simply on the removal of all liquids – by evaporation or
extraction - from a core sample and determining their individual volumes. Dividing each
fluid volume by the pore volume of the sample yields the saturation of that fluid. One
device used commonly for this purpose is the Modified ASTM Extraction Unit ( below
Fig.).
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Retort method:
This method takes a sample and heats as to vaporize water and oil, which is condensed and
collected in a small receiving vessel. This method has some disadvantage. First to vaporize
all the in situ oil the core sample should reached to a high temperature around 1100oF. At
this high temperature the water of crystallization within the rock is driven off, causing the
water recovery values to be greater than just interstitial water. The second error is that the
oil at this high temperature range tends to cock and crack. This change in the molecule
type causes decreasing in the liquid volume and coats the internal walls of the core sample.
Before using of the retort test calibration curves should be used to correct the errors
resulted from the cocking and cracking at different temperature.

Dean-Stark Distillation-Extraction
This method is based on the extracting with a solvent during a distillation process. The
core is placed and a vapor of toluene, gasoline, or naphtha rises through the core and is
condensed to reflux back over the core. This process leaches out oil and water in the core.
The water and extracting fluid are condensed and collect in a graduated receiving tube
(Figure –a-). The water settles to the bottom of graduated tube because of its higher
density. The process continues until no more water is collected in the graduated vessel.
After the process the water saturation can be determined directly. The oil saturation is an
indirect determination. By knowing the weight of core sample before the test, the weight
of the dried sample after the test, and the weight of extracted water we can determine the
oil saturation.
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 Figure –a-: ASTM
Extraction Apparatus

Centrifugal method:
The water and oil are extracted from the
sample core with solvent as the ASTM
method. The difference is that the
extraction force is applied by a centrifugal
force. The solvent removes all the water
and oil in the sample under the centrifugal
force and the extracted fluid collected in
a container to determine the oil and water
saturation in the same way of ASTM
method. The use of centrifuge provides a
very rapid method.

Also (Soxhlet Extraction and vacuum distillation)

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Soxhlet method Vacuum distillation Apparatus

Reference

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 http://www.drillingformulas.com/fluid-saturation/
 http://www.uomisan.edu.iq/eng/ar/admin/pdf/41688502579.pdf
 http://www.fekete.com/SAN/WebHelp/FeketeHarmony/Harmo
ny_WebHelp/Content/HTML_Files/Reference_Material/Gener
al_Concepts/Reservoir_Properties.htm
 http://perminc.com/resources/fundamentals-of-fluid-flow-in-
porous-media/chapter-2-the-porous-
medium/saturation/determination-fluid-saturation-rock-sample
 http://www.ipt.ntnu.no/~oletor/kompendium4015.pdf
 https://www.google.com/url?
sa=i&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwj
d18zNjI3lAhU_ThUIHcWRAPwQMwhzKCEwIQ&url=https
%3A%2F%2Fwww.slideshare.net%2Fnarendrakumard
%2Freservoir-rock-
fluid&psig=AOvVaw2AKiK652ZCfxstImpmQZlo&ust=1570
639065417552&ictx=3&uact=3

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