2.biological Classification Resonance PDF

BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
Introduction :
At present time, about 1.7 million species of animals and plants (about 0.5 million plants and 1.2
million animals) have been reported. All living beings are linked to each other by the sharing of the
common genetic material. The study of these living beings is not possible without their proper classification.
Classification : Organisms are divided into different groups on the basis of their similiarities & dissimiliarities
that is called classification.
Taxonomy : It is branch of science that deals with identification, nomenclature and classification of living
beings. The term Taxonomy used by A.P. de Candolle in his book ‘Theory of elementary de la
botanqui’.
Systematics : It is the study of diversity and differentiation of organisms based on their phenotypic, genetic
and phylogenetic relationships. The term systematics coined by Carolus Linnaeus. The latter is known
as ‘Father of Taxonomy’. Systematics is of two parts.
(i) Classical Systematics : Only Morphological characters are used to classify organisms. It is also called
taxonomy.
(ii) New systematics or biosytematics : It involves study of all types of characters from morphology,
physiology, cytology, ecology, genetics, biochemistry. Turril used the term -Taxonomy. New systematics
used phylogenetic classification that is based on evolutionary relationships or lineages of organisms. It is
called Cladistics.
Number of new branches of systematics are as follows:
(a) Cytotaxonomy : It is based on cytological information of cell. karyotaxonomy is used to develop
taxonomic interrelations based on the study of chromosome number, chromosome structure and chromosome
behaviour during meiosis.
(b) Numerical Taxonomy (Phenetics or Taximetrics) or Adansonian Taxonomy : It is based on the

analysis of various types of taxonomic data by mathematical or computerised methods. In this branch,
statistical methods based on as many morphological characters as possible are used for evaluating
similarities and differences between species. It was developed by Adanson.
(c) Chemotaxonomy or Biochemical taxonomy : It is based on the study of biomolecules particularly
secondary metabolites of the cell like betacyanin pigment in beet roots, raphides and cystolith crystals,
sequencing of DNA and chemical nature of proteins.
(d) Experimental Taxonomy : It is based on study of experimental determination of the genetic

interrelationship, identification of evolutionary units within a species.
Point of Remember
Turril (1938) divided taxonomy into three types.

(i) taxonomy : Gross morphology, compilation of flora and monographs are used for the collection
and identification of organisms.
(ii) taxonomy : It is based on morphology and evidences from genetics, cytology, anatomy, physi-
ology etc.
(iii) taxonomy : It involves study of all microscopic and biochemical evidences alongwith evolution-
ary relationship of organisms.
Nomenclature :
It is giving distinct and proper scientific name to living organisms for their easy identification in all parts of
world. It is of two types–vernacular and scientific.
(i) Vernacular names or local names : These are common names given to organisms that are different
from place to place. but the problem is that vernacular name of one region will not be understood in other
places. So that these are useless for biological references.
NEET_BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION # 1
(ii) Scientific Names : These are specific & distinct in which only one name is given to an organism based
on definite rules and criteria. Various practices have been used for giving scientific name.
(A) Polynomial Nomenclature :

In this type each name being formed of several latin words Therefore such names were difficult to remember
and use. Ex: On the basis of polynomial Nomenclature, the name of Caryophyllum was Caryophyllum
saxatilis folis gramneus umbellatis corymbis.
(B) Binomial Nomenclature :

It is definite system to provide proper scientific names to the organisms in which the name of organism is
composed of two words–first name is of genera name and second name is of species name.
Although it was firstly proposed by Gaspard Bauhin in his book PINAX 1623 but it was established and
used by Carolus Linnaeus (He gave certain principles called Linnaean principles) in his book
Philosophica Botanica 1751.
Linnaeus used Binomial Nomenclature for plants and described 5900 species of plants in his book
Species Plantarum (1753). Later on he used Binomial Nomenclature for animals and described 4326
species of animal in his book Systema Naturae (1758). Ex: According to binomial nomenclature the
name of Mango is Mangifera indica.
Scientific names have been recognized by following institutions.

Table
(i) ICBN – International Code of Botanical Nomenclature - for plants.

(ii) ICZN – International Code of Zoological Nomenclature - for animals.
(iii) ICNB – International Code for Nomenclature of Bacteria - for Bacteria.
(iv) ICVN – International Code of Viral Nomenclature- for Virus.
(v) ICTV – International committee for the taxonomy of viruses
(vi) ICNCP – International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants.
Rules for Binomial nomenclature :
(i) Only one scientific name should be recognized for an organism. scientific name consists of two words
– a generic and a specific name in the Latin language. They should not have less than three letters and
more than twelve letters.
(ii) The Generic name is written first and its first latter is always capital. The specific name is written
after the generic name and its first latter is small. It should be short, but can be compound Ex: Hibis-
cus rosa-sinensis.
(iii) The scientific names are printed in Italics, Each name is underlined separately in handwritten or typed
description.
(iv) The generic name should not be repeated as specific name (tautonyms). Tautonyms are avoided in
botany.
(v) The name of the author is printed after name of species in abbreviated form. It is written in Roman and
never underlined.
(vi) No two genera in plants or animals can have the same name.
(C) Trinomial nomenclature :

It was given by Lamarck. In this system, the name of organism is composed of three words – First
being genus, the second one is species and the third word represents variety in botanical literature
or subspecies in zoological literature. Ex : Corvus splendens splendens – Indian crow, Homo
sapiens sapiens–man.
Systems of Biological Classification :
Initially, habit or morphological features were used as basis of classification, later on organisms classified
by scientists on the basis of their natural affinities. After Darwin’s work, they classified on the basis of
evolutionary tendencies or phylogeny.
Three types of systems of classification have been recognized.
(I) Artificial systems of classification (II) Natural systems of Classification
(III) Phylogenetic Systems of Classification
(I) Artificial systems of classification :

It was based on few morphologicial characters for grouping of organisms.
Theophrastus firstly proposed artificial system of classification. On the basis of habit, He classified 480
plants into four groups herbs, undershrubs, shrub and trees.
Aristotle classified animals into two groups – Anaima (Invertebrates with no red blood) and Enaima
(vertebrates with red blood). Enaima further classified into ovipara and vivipara.
Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778, father of taxonomy) proposed an artificial system of classification (Also
called sexual system of classification) on the basis of few sexual characters like number of stamens,
and carpel in his book Genera Plantarum. He classified plants into 24 classes. Out of them, 23 were of
phanerogams and 24th class was of cryptogams. these classes are as follow.
(1) Monandria, (2) Diandria, (3) Triandria, (4) Tetrandria, (5) Pentandria, (6) Hexandria, (7) Heptandria, (8)
Octandria, (9) Enneandria, (10) Decandria, (11) Dodecandria, (12) Icosandria, (13) Polyandria, (14) Didynamia,
(15) Tetradynamia, (16) Monadelphia,(17) Diadelphia, (18) Polyadelphia, (19) Syngenesia, (20) Gynandria,
(21) Monoecia, (22) Dioecia, (23) Polygamia (24) Cryptogamia.
Drawbacks :
(i) Natural or phylogenetic relationships were not followed.
(ii) Only few characters, used in this system therefore, diverse animals & plants were placed into limited
number of groups.
(II) Natural systems of Classification :
This system is based on natural affinities among organisms. These systems used as many taxonomic
characters as possible to group organisms. In these systems organisms are classified on the basis of mainly
morphological, reproductive, anatomical but cytological, physiological, embryological features, biochemistry
etc.
John Ray, first to propose a natural system of classification. These were also proposed by Jussiaeu, de
Candolle, Bentham and Hooker.
Bentham and Hooker’s Classification :
George Bentham and JD Hooker (1862–83) proposed a natural system of classification of angiosperms
that was published in ‘Genera Plantarum’ in 3 volumes. It is based on A.P. de Candolle’s system. They
described 97205 species of seed plants and classified them into 7569 genera and 202 families.
They classified plant kingdom into two subkingdoms–Cryptogamia and Phanerogamia. The
phanerogamia classified in to three classes–Dicotyledons, Gymnosperms and Monocotyledons.
Merits :
(i) It is practically important, most of the herbaria of the world are based on this system.
(ii) They placed Ranales (most primitive) in the beginning of classification that is phylogenetically true.
(iii) They placed monocots after dicots that is similar to phylogentic systems.
Demerits :
(i) They did not use phylogenetic trends in their classification.
(ii) Gymnosperms placed between dicots and monocots that is not acceptable.
(iii) Subclass monochlamydeae is an artificial group.
(iv) Cucurbitaceae has fused petals but it was placed in polypetalae.
(v) Advanced family Orchidaceae have been shown as primitive group.
(III) Phylogenetic Systems of Classification :
Evolutionary history of the organism is called Phylogeny (this term coined the by Lamarck). These
systems are based on Phylogenetic relationships of organisms. Phylogenetic systems are also called
Cladistics (Systematic classification based on evolutionary relationships of organisms in order of their
assumed divergence from ancestral forms) and the graphic representation of evolutionary relationships is
called family tree or Cladogram.
Eichler and Endlicher firstly proposed a phylogenetic classification system.
Engler and Prantl published his classification in their book “Die Naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien” in 23
volumes.
Later on well developed phylogenetic systems of classification were created by Hutchinson, Tippo,
Takhtajan and Cronquist.
KINGDOMS OF LIFE :
1. Two kingdom system–Plant and animal :

Linnaeus classified all organisms into two kingdoms – Kingdom plantae and kingdom Animalia.
Kingdom plantae involves autotrophic, fixed organisms while kingdom Animalia includes motile heterotrophic
organisms. Microorganisms involved in both the kingdoms.
Shortcomings of Two-Kingdom System :

(i) Unicellular and multicellular forms have been placed in both the kingdoms though they have different
organisation.
(ii) Bacteria and cyanobacteria are included under plants but the formers are prokaryotes.
(iii) Viruses are neither plants nor animals and placed at the border line of living and non living.
(iv) Tunicates are chordate animals that have cellulose, branching pattern as plant.
(v) Fungi of kingdom plantae are nonphotosynthetic, have chitin cell wall and glycogen as reserve food.
Thus two kingdom system of classifiaction is inappropriate and inadequate.
2. Three kingdom system :

Ernst Haeckel proposed it. He separated all one celled eukaryotes into separate kingdom protista.
These three kingdoms are Protista, Plantae, Animalia. Kingdom protista includes algae, slime moulds,
Protozoans, Fungi, bacteria.
Drawbacks :
(i) Bacteria and fungi are placed with algae and protozoan.
(ii) in this kingdom, Acellular and multicellular organisms were kept together.
3. Four kingdom system :

It was proposed by Copeland (1956). He established a new kingdom Monera for all acellular
prokaryotes containing incipient nucleus like bacteria, blue green algae. The four kingdoms are monera,
protista, plantae (metaphyta) and animalia (metazoa).
Copeland used the term Mycota for monerans. Dougherty used the term Monera.
The protista classified into lower protista called monera and higher protista including all eukaryotic protists.
Drawbacks :
(i) Protozoans, red and brown algae and fungi were placed in protoctista that is not acceptable.
4. Five kingdom system :

It was proposed by Whittaker (1969). It is a phylogenetic system that is based on following criteria.
(i) Complexity of cell structure : Prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
(ii) Complexity of organisms : i.e., thallus organisation (unicellular or multicellular organisms).
(iii) Mode of nutrition : Autotrophic (holophytic) or heterotrophic [absorptive parasitic or saprozoic inges-
tive (holozoic)]. It is major criteria of classification in this system.
(iv) Ecological role of organism.
(v) Phylogenetic relationship.
The five kingdoms are Monera – Protista – Fungi – Plantae – Animalia.

Merits :
(i) Fungi are separated from plants or protista and established as kingdom.
(ii) Prokaryotes and eukaryotes are separately recognised in this system.
Demerits :
(i) The position of Viruses is not clear.
(ii) Algae is placed into monera, protista and Plantae.
(iii) Protista is an artificial group.
S.
Chara cte rs Mone ra Protista Fungi Planta e Anim a lia
No.
1 Com ple xity Uni or Unice llular . Uni or M ultice llular. M ultice llular.
of organis m s M ultice llular . M ultice llular .
2 Type of ce ll. Prok aryotic. Euk aryotic. Euk aryotic. Euk aryotic. Euk aryotic.
3 Ce ll w all Nonce llulos ic, Pre s e nt/abs e nt. Chitin Ce llulos e . Abs e nt.
has (Fungal
polys accharide s ce llulos e ).
and am ino
acids .
4 Nucle us Ince pie nt. Dis tinct & w e ll Dis tinct & w e ll Dis tinct & w e ll Dis tinct & w e ll
organis e d. organis e d. organis e d. organis e d.
5 Nutrition Auto or Auto or He te rotr ophic Autotrophic He te rotr ophic
he te rotr ophic. he te rotr ophic. (abs or ptive ). (Photos ynthe tic). (inge s tive ).
6 True tis s ue Abs e nt. Abs e nt. Abs e nt. Pre s e nt. Pre s e nt.
s ys te m
7 M otility Pre s e nt/abs e nt, Pre s e nt, Flage lla Pre s e nt/abs e nt, Pre s e nt/abs e nt, Pre s e nt,
9+2 s how 9 + 2 Flage lla s how Flage lla s how Flage lla
or ganis ation ar range m e nt. 9+2 9+2 s how 9 + 2
is abs e nt in ar range m e nt. ar range m e nt. ar range m e nt.
flage lla .
8 Re pr oduction s e xual Se xual Se xual Se xual Se xual
re production re pr oduction r e production r e pr oduction re pr oduction
abs e nt. tak e s place , tak e s place , tak e s place , tak e s place ,
M e ios is is M e ios is is M e ios is is M e ios is is
zygotic zygotic. zygotic gam e tic.
or gam e tic. or s poric.
9 Ecological role Pr oduce rs / Produce rs / De com pos e r s . Produce r s . Cons um e r s .
de com pos e r s . de com pos e r s /
cons um e r s .
Six Kingdom System :
On the basis of gene sequences, six kingdom system proposed by Gray and Doolittle (1982).
Domain System :
On the basis of genetic characters particularly genetic analysis of 16S rRNA, Carl woese proposed three
domains system–Archaea, Bacteria and Eukarya.
KINGDOM MONERA
Introduction :
Copeland (1956) established kingdom monera in which all prokaryotes were included.
General Characters :
(i) It involves unicellular / conlonial / multicellular with prokaryotic organisms. Ex: Archaebacteria, Bacte-
ria, Actinomycetes, Mycoplasma, Rickettsiae, Spirochaetes, Chlamydiae, Cyanobacteria.
(ii) Cell wall bears peptidoglycan except archaebacteria and mycoplasma.
(iii) Genetic material is naked DNA (Histone is absent) that is called nucleoid or Prochromosome or
genophore. nuclear envelope, nucleoplasm, nucleolus and chromatin are absent.
(iv) All membrane bound organelles are absent thus they bear one envelope system.
(v) If Photosynthetic pigments present, they are distributed in thylakoid membranes or chromatophores.
(vi) 70 S type of Ribosomes are present.

(vii) Respiratory enzymes are associated with plasma membrane.
(viii) Nutrition is autotrophic/heterotrophic.

(ix) Reproduction takes place by asexual methods only.
(x) Mitosis, meiosis, sexual reproduction are absent.
Note: Cyclosis (streaming movement of cytoplasm) is absent in monerans.
(I) Archaebacteria :
Archaebacteria are most primitive form of life that are found in most extreme environmental conditions like
high salt concentration, high temperature etc. These are oldest of the ‘living fossils’.
They show following features.
(i) The cell wall of archaebacteria is composed of noncellulosic polysaccharides or/pseudomurein /
or glycoproteins / proteins. Peptidoglycan and muramic acid are absent in cell wall.
(ii) Plasma membrane has long chain branched lipids (phytanols). The latter decrease membrane
fluidity and help to increase tolerance against extremes of heat, low pH.
(iii) 16 s rRNA is present.
Types of Archaebacteria :
These are of three types

(i) Methanogens (ii) Halophiles (iii) Thermoacidophiles
(i) Methanogens :
They are Gram negative, obligate anaerobes found in marshy habitats, swamps, ruminants, sewage
treatment plants.
Cell wall of these bacteria possesses protein (Ex: Methanogenium) or nonecellulosic polysaccharides
(Ex: Methanosarcina) or Pseudomurein (Ex: Methanobacterium). It contains N-acetly talosaminuronic
acids instead of NAM.
They form methane in biogas plant.
(ii) Halophiles :
They are Gram negative, facultative anaerobes, found in salt lakes, dead sea, industrial plants that form
salt by solar evaporation of sea water and salted proteinaceous materials like salted fish, salted hides.
They require17–23% NaCl for better growth.
NEET_ KINGDOM MONERA # 9

They have reddish pigment bacteriorhodopsin in their membrane to trap sun light and form ATP directly.
but ATP donot use for the synthesis of food.
They survive in salty water due to presence of branched chain lipids in their cell mambrane, ab-
sence of sap vacuoles, maintenance of high osmotic concentration. Ex: Halobacterium, Halococcus.
(iii) Thermoacidophiles :
They are Gram negative, facultative anaerobe, found in hot water springs at temperature as high as 80ºC
and pH as low as 2. They tolerate high temperature due to homopolar bonds in their proteins. They
oxidize sulphur to H2SO4 under aerobic conditions and pH 2. This acid makes medium acidic. Sulphur is
reduced to H2S in anaerobic conditions. Ex: Thermoplasma, Sulfolobus.
(II) Eubacteria :
Bacteria are smallest, microscopic, unicellular, most primitive prokaryotic microorganisms.
History :
Bacteria were first discovered by Anton van Leeuwanhoek in 1676 in stored rain water and in scum
(tartar) scrapped from teeth & used the term ‘little animalcules’ for them. He was considered as discoverer
of the microbial world / wonder world of microbes and used the term ‘dierkens’.
Ehrenberg (1838) coined the term bacteria. Louis pasteur (father of modern microbiology) worked
on fermentation and reported that it takes place by bacteria. He used the term microorganism. He
discovered antirabies vaccine and bacteria causing chicken cholera.
Joseph Lister (1867) gave the concept of antiseptic surgery.
Robert Koch gave a set of rules, known as Koch’s Postulates. He proved “The Germ Theory of Disease”.
He stated that the bacteria are the cause of diseases and a particular microorganism causes a particular
disease he found that the diseases, like anthrax in cattle, tuberculosis and cholera in man are due to
bacteria and also the first of all cultured bacteria. Se dillot (1878) used the term microbe for animalcules.
Habitat :
They show cosmopolitan distribution. They are found in everywhere-air, water, soil and in plants and animals.
Forms of Bacteria :
Size :
The average size of length is 0.5–10 m and width 0.5–2 m.
Epulopscium fishelsoni found in intestine of brown surgeon fish is 600 m in length and 80 m in
width and Thiormargarita ramibiensis (750 m length) are among the largest of unicellular bacteria
while Beggiatoa mirabilis (filmentous form) is the largest bacterium – 16-45 m diameter and length
is several milimeters.
Smallest bacterium is Dialister pneumonsintes (0.15 – 0.3 m long) present in nasal chamber of human
causing cold.
Shape :
On the basis of shape, Cohn (1972) recognised 4 basic forms of Eubacteria.
(i) Coccus (Pl. Cocci) : These are always nomotile / nonflagellated. Spherical or oval shaped.
(1) Monococcus : Occurs singly Ex: Micrococcus roseus, M. luteus.

(2) Diplococci : Present in pairs Ex: Diplococcus pneumoniae.
(3) Streptococci : Occur in chains Ex: Streptococcus lactis.
(4) Staphylococci : They occur in grape like irregular clusters/bunches Ex : Staphyloccus aureus.
(5) Sarcinae : They are divided in three planes and form cubical packet of 8–64 cocci Ex : Sarcinae lutea.
(ii) Bacillus (Pl. Bacilli) : Rod shaped/cigarette shaped with blunt ends and motile/nonmotile. It is most
common shape.
(1) Monobacillus : Occurs singly.
(2) Diplobacilli : Occur in pair.
(3) Streptobacilli : Occur in chains.
(iii) Spiral : They are elongated, spiral shaped, flagellated and cork screw like. A spirillum contains one or
more turns 10–50 m length. Ex: Spirillum volutans.
(iv) Vibrio :
It is look like sign of comma ( , ) and slightly curved rod of less than half turn Ex: Vibrio cholerae.
Other shapes of bacteria are as follow
(i) Pleomorphic : Bacterium is found in more than one form Ex: Azotobacter, Rhizobium.
(ii) Stalked bacterium : Bacterium has a stalk Ex: Caulobacter.
(iii) Budded bacteria : Its body is swollen at places Ex: Rhodomicrobium.
(iv) Mycelial bacteria : They bear aseptate branched filamentous body like a fungal mycelium
Ex: Beggiatoa, Actinomycetes.

Flagellation :
On the basis of presence or absence of flagella, bacteria are classified into following forms.
(a) Atrichous : Flagella is absent. Ex: Pasteurella.
(b) Monotrichous : Single flagellum is found near one end of bacterium Ex: Vibrio, Thiobacillus.
(c) Cephalotrichous : A group or tuft of flagella occurs at one end. Ex: Pseudomonas fluorescens.
(d) Amphitrichous : A Flagellum at each of the two ends. Ex: Nitrosomonas.
(e) Lophotrichous : A tuft or group of flagella ocurs at each of the two ends. Ex: Spirillum volutans.
(f) Peritrichous Number of flagella are uniformly distributed all over the surface. Ex: Clostridium tetani,
E.coli.
Gram Staining Technique :

Hans Christian Gram (1884) developed this technique to stain bacteria.
In this technique, Bacteria are firstly stained by weak alkaline solution of crystal violet (Gram stain)resulting
the former up blue colour. Now they are treated with 0.5% iodine solution and washed with water and then
absolute alcohol or acetone. Bacteria that retain blue or purple colour are called Gram +ve bacteria
Ex: Bacillus subtilis. Bacteria that become colourless are called Gram–ve bacteria. Ex: E.coli. This
difference due to differentiation in the lipid contents and thickness of cell wall in these bacteria.
Diffe rence s be tw e en Gra m Positive and Gra m Ne gative Bacteria
S.
Gra m Positive Ba cte ria Gra m Ne ga tive Ba cte ria
No.
1 Ce ll w a ll is single la ye re d. Ce ll w all consists of tw o laye rs oute r
w a ll is of lipopolysaccharide and inne r
of pe ptidoglyca n.
2 Mure in or m ucopeptide It is 10-20%.
is 70-80% in cell w a ll.
3 The dia m ete r of ce ll w a ll It is 8-12 nm.
is 15-20nm a nd some time
upto 80 nm .
4 Lipid conte nts a re 2-4% in cell w a ll. Lipid contents a re 20-30% in ce ll w a ll.
5 Te ichoic a cids a re prese nt in w a ll. Te ichoic acids are a bse nt in w a ll.
6 Ba sal body of the flage llum conta ins Four rings of sw e llings occurs
tw o rings of sw e llings. in the ba sa l body.
7 Porins a re a bse nt. Hydrophilic channe ls or porins a re
found in oute r la ye r of ce ll w a ll.
8 The se a re more susce ptible The y show more re sistance to
to a ntibiotics. a nitibiotics.
9 Dia m inopim e lic a cid (DAP) a bse nt. DAP pre sent.
10 Ca psule is m ostly a bse nt. Ca psule is usua lly pre se nt.
11 Mesosom e is quite comm on. Me sosom e is le ss com m on.
12 The m a inly form e x otox ins. The ma inly form e ndotox ins.

Structure of Bacteria :
Bacteria represent prokaryotic organisation. Its cell shows following structures in different forms.
(A) Cell Envelope : It consists of three layers–outer glycocalyx, middle cell wall and innermost cell mem-
brane.
(1) Glycocalyx : It consists of only polysaccharides and protects cell from loss of water, nutrients and viral
attack. It is found either as loose gelatinous thin sheath (loose slime layer) or as persistent layer around
cell wall. Ex: Bacillus anthracis, Diplococcus pneumoniae. The latter also have D-glutamic acid alongwith
polysaccharides in cell wall resulting thick slime layer is formed called capsule which provides protection
against phagocytosis and antibiotics.
(2) Cell wall :
It is thick, rigid and forms 10–40% part of bacteria.
The cell wall of Gram positive bacteria is single layered and composed of peptidogylcan or murein or
mucopeptide.
The glycan part forms backbone of cell wall and composed of alternating units of two amino sugars NAG
(N-acetyl glucosamine) and NAM (N-acetyl muramic acid) that are linked with , 1-4 glycosidic
bonds.
Four amino acids form short peptide chain that is attached to NAM only.
Gram +ve bacteria have teichoic acids (these are acid polymers containing glucose, phosphate and alcohol)
that act as receptor sites and surface antigens. They also attract chemicals which provide protection from
pH and thermal changes.
Gram–ve bacteria possess double layered cell wall. Inner layer of these bacteria is composed of peptidoglycan
while outer layer contains lipopolysaccharides, proteins and phospholipids. Lipids having antigenic
properties.
Porins are found as channels in the outer layer of Gram–ve bacteria. the former take part in entry and exit
of hydrophilic low molecular weight substances.
Periplasmic space is found between plasma membrane and cell wall.

(3) Cell membrane :
It is selective permeable, consists of lipoporotein (20–30% phospholipids and 60–70% proteins) and some
oligosaccharides.
Sterols like cholesterol are absent in bacterial cell membrane but in some bacteria pentacyclic sterol
like molecules are found to stabilise bacterial cell membrane. these are called hopanoids.
Plasma membrane has respiratory enzymes and electron transport chain to generate ATP.
(B) Cytoplasm and Cytoplasmic Inclusion Bodies :

Cytoplasm is complex, colloidal fluid containing ribosomes, enzymes, tRNA, inorganic, organic matter.
Cyclosis, sap vacuoles and all membrane bound organelle are absent.
(1) Ribosomes :
Ribosomes are of 70 S type. Its size is150 ×200 Aº. They are found either singly or in small groups of
4–6 ribosomes with mRNA to form polysomes or polyribosomes.
(4) Mesosome or chondrioid :

It is infoldings of plasma membrane found in particularly gram +ve bacteria. The term mesosome coind by
Fitz james. They are of two types
(i) Central mesosome (ii) Peripheral mesosome
(i) Central mesosome : It holds the nucleoid and helps in the separation of nucleoid and septa formation.
(ii) Peripheral mesosome: It helps in the storage of certain respiratory enzymes like succinic
dehydrogenase, cytochrome oxidase.
(5) Flagella :
These are long filamentous structures that are found in spiral forms, some bacilli but absent in cocci.
The length of each flagellum is 4–5 m while diameter is 15–20 nm.

Bacterial flagellum is single stranded (it does not show 9 + 2 fibrillar organisation) & composed of
flagellin protein only.
Structurally, each flagellum consists of three parts – basal body, hook and shaft or filament.
The basal body is composed of two sets of rings, proximal and distal. Proximal set of ring has two rings
M and S rings while distal set also has two rings– P and L rings. Distal set is absent in Gram +ve
bacteria.
(6) Pili and Fimbriae :
Pili are found in Gram–ve bacteria as hair like hollow, nonhellical, short projections on the surface of cell,
few in number & composed of pilin protein. Pili are genetically determined by F factor in plasmid. Pili are
helpful in the transfer of DNA from donor to recipient bacterium during conjugation by the formation of
conjugation canal between these two. The former is called sex pili.
Fimbriae are short thin (0.1–1.5 m in length and 4–8 nm in diameter) more in number (300–400 per cell) and
function as organ of adhesion.
(7) Chromatophores :
In some bacteria like purple bacteria, green sulphur bacteria, Photosynthetic pigments
(Bacteriochlorophyll and bacterioviridin and carotenoids) are found in chromatophores or thylakoids
(lamellae). Ex: Rhodospirillum, Rhodopseudomonas.
(8) Nucleoid :
True nucleus with nuclear envelope, nucleolus, and histone basic protein is absent.
DNA is naked, double stranded, circular.
Bacterial genome is haploid. It does not follow Chargaff’s rule.
(9) Plasmids :
Plasmid (discovered by Lederberg and Hayes) is extrachromosomal, self replicating double stranded,
circular DNA. plasmids are also called minichromosomes due to carrying few (5–100) genes. They exist
either independently or attached with bacterial nucleoid called episome.

Types of plasmids :
(i) Col plasmid : Bears colicinogenic factor that forms colicins proteins for killing other bacteria.
(ii) Sex plasmid : It carries sex fertility factor (F) that helps in transfer of genetic material from donor to
recipient bacterial cell during conjugation .
(iii) R-Plasmid : It contains resistance transfer factor (RTF) for resistance to antibiotics, heavy metals etc.
(iv) Ti (Tumor inducing) plasmids : It is large sized plasmid (having about 200 kbp) of Agrobacterium
tumefaciens causing crown gall disease in dicot plants.
(v) Degradative plasmid : They decompose hydrocarbons in petroleum.
(10) Inclusion bodies (storage granules) :
(i) Gas Vacuoles : It provides buoyancy to the bacteria. These are organic inclusion bodies found in green
and purple sulphur photosynthetic bacteria, and some cyanobacteria.
(ii) Volutin Granules (polymetaphosphate granules or metachromatin) : Inorganic inclusion bodies,
store reserve phosphate alongwith protein, lipids and RNA.
(iii) Sulphur granules : Ex: purple sulphur bacteria and nonphotosynthetic bacteria like Beggiatoa,
Thiothrix.
Nutrition in bacteria :
Reproduction :
Bacteria perform reproduction by following methods.
(i) By Binary Fission :

It takes place during favourable conditions. The transverse binary
fission is quite common in which nucleoid divides amitotically
without spindle formation. Replication of DNA is bidirectional in
entire genome resulting two circular (theta) shaped chromo-
somes are formed (Theta model of replication of cairns
1963).

(ii) By endospore :
It takes place in adverse conditions. Endospore is thick walled highly refractile resistant spore and sur-
rounded by four layers.
(a) Exosporium : outer most lipoproteinaceous layer.
(b) Spore coat : disulfide rich protein, impervious and tough, resistant.
(c) Cortex : very thick and composed of peptidoglycan.
(d) Core wall or spore wall : thick delicate proteinaceous innermost layer.
The central core of endospore bears cytoplasm. The latter has anticoagulant dipicolinic acid (DPA) and
calcium in the form of calcium dipicolinate. Both of them make endospore highly temperature resis-
tant.
Note :
(1) Ca- dipicolinic acid complex is also found in cortex.
(2) Endospore acts as perennating body during adverse conditions Ex: Bacillus, Clostridium.
(iii) Genetic Recombination / Parasexuality :
True sexual repoduction is absent. Genetic recombination takes place without formation of gametes, their
fusion and meiosis that is called parasexuality. The former occurs by three methods.
(1) Transformation :
It was discovered by Griffith in Diplococcus pneumoniae (it causes pneumonia). In this method, a
piece of DNA of donor cell is obtained by living mature recipient cell in the surrounding medium after death/
decay of the donor cell without involving any vector. It does not involve any contact/ conjugation of two
bacterial cells.
(2) Transduction :
It was discovered by Lederberg and Zinder (1952) in Salmonella typhimurium.
It is a transfer of DNA / genes from donor bacterium to recipient by bacteriophages. It involves following
methods.

(i) General transduction : Any gene of the donor bacterium can transfer by bacteriophage during this
proccess. Ex: T4 – Bacteriophage.
(ii) Restricted or Specialized transduction : In this process, bacteriophage is able to transfer only one
or few genes of the donor bacterium as non virulent or temperate phase to recipient Ex : Lembda bacte-
riophage.
(iii) Abortive transduction :

DNA of segment of donor bacterium is not integrated in the genome of recipient bacterium and is lost after
one or few generations.
(3) Conjugation :
It was first reported by Lederberg and Tatum in K12 strain of E.coli.
It is a incomplete one way transfer of DNA of donor cell (Exogenote) to the recipient cell (endogenote) by
conjugation tube. The donor cell as plasmid with fertility (F) factor and sex pili while recipient lacks F factor.
The F factor determines the formation of sex pili in donor cells.
If the F factor is free in the cytoplasm, the donor cell is called F+ strain. If it is attached to nucleoid, the
donor bacterial cell is called Hfr (high frequency of recombination) strain or super male or metamale or
fertile male. The bacterial cell without F factor is called F–strain. The frequency of formation of recom-
binants in F+ ×F– is low (1 : 10000–1 : 100000) and the frequency of recombination is very high in Hfr
×F– conjugation (1 : 100).
Economic importance of bacteria :
(A) Useful Activities :
(1) Saprophytic bacteria : These are major decomposers or mineralizers of earth for regulating bio-
geochemical cycles.
(2) Ammonifying bacteria : They convert nitrogeneous compounds / proteins of dead plants and animals
or their excretory products into ammonia Ex: Bacillus ramosus, B. mycoides, B. vulgaricus.
(3) Nitrifying bacteria : They convert ammonia into nitrates.
(i)
(ii)

(4) Symbiotic nitrogen fixers : Ex: Rhizobium in root nodules of leguminous plants; Frankia in root
nodules of Casuarina, Alnus; Nostoc in Trifolium alexandrium; Xanthomonas in leaf of Ardisia and
Pavatta.
(5) Retting of fibres : Some bacteria dissolve pectin of middle lamella to separate individual fibres in flax,
jute, hemp Ex: Clostridium perfringens, Pseudomonas fluorescence.
(6) Vinegar : Ex: Acetobacter aceti, A. schizenbachi.
(7) Single cell protein (SCP) : Dried biomass of microorganism obtained after culturing, harvesting and
drying is called SCP. The latter is used as protein source in animal feeds and food supplement of man.
Ex: Methylophilus methylotropus, Rhodopseudomonas capsulata.
(8) Curing of Leaves : Bacillus megatherium is used for curing of tobacco leaves while Micrococcus
candisans is used for curing of tea leaves.
(9) Production of Lactic acid : It is performed by the acitvity of Lactobacillus bulgaricus and L. delbrueckii.
(10) Antibiotics :- Many types of antibiotics are obtained by eu bacteria and actinomycetes. The term
antibiotics is coined by waksman, (1942).
S.No. Antibiotics Source (Name of bacteria)

1 Streptomycin Streptomyces griseus
2 Neomycin Streptomyces fradiae
3 Terramycin/oxytetracycline Streptomyces rimosus
4 Chloramphenicol/chlormycetin Streptomyces venezuelae
5 Aureomycin/chlorotetracycline Streptomyces aureofaciens
6 Erythromycin Streptomyces erythreus
7 Viomycin Streptomyces puniceus
8 kanamycin Streptomyces kanamyceticus
9 Nystatin Streptomyces noursei
10 Polymyxin Bacillus polymyxa
11 Subtilin Bacillus subtilis
12 Bacitracin Bacillus licheniformis
(11) Decomposition of petroleum/hydrocarbons : Genetically engineered superbug (Pseudomonas putida)

is used to clear hydrocarbons during oil spillage in oceans. The former developed by Anand Mohan
Chakravorty.
(12) Vitamins : Clostridium butylicum is used to prepare Riboflavin similarly Cobalamin (B12) is formed
by Bacillus megatherium.
(13) Enzymes : Many enzymes are extracted commercially by bacterial activities Ex: streptokinase from
Streptococcus pyrogens, Protease from Bacillus subtilis, pectinase from Clostridium perfringens.
Harmful Activities :
(i) Food poisoning : It occurs due to toxins produced by some bacteria (Ex: Clostridium botulinum,
Streptococcus) in food. The eating of such toxic food may cause even death.
(ii) Spoilage of food : Spoilage of curd by Clostridium, spoilage of milk/milk products by Lactoba-
cillus, spoilage of protein rich food by Pseudomonas, meat by Salmonella and Lactobacillus,
rotting of egg by Proteus, Pseudomonas, Leuconostoc, souring of wine by Acetobacter aceti.
(iii) Denitrification : Some bacteria convert nitrates and ammonia into nitrogen Ex: Thiobacillus
denitrificans, Pseudomonas denitrificans.
(iv) Diseases :

Bacterial diseases in human
S.No. Disease Agent
1 Typhoid Salmonella typhi

2 Anthrax Bacillus anthracis
3 Leprosy (Hansen's disease) Mycobacterium leprae
4 Diphtheria Corynebacterium diphteriae
5 Tetanus Clostridium tetani
6 Meningitis Neisseria meningitidis

7 Plague (Black death) Yersinia (=Pasteurella) Pestis
8 Botulism (Food poisoning) Clostridium botulinum
9 Lyme disease Borrelia burgdorferi
10 Syphilis (STD) Treponema pallidum

11 Whooping cough (Pertussis) Bordetella (=Haemophilous pertussis)
12 Gas Gangrene Clostridium perfringens

13 Cholera Vibrio cholerae
14 Diarrhoeal disease Enteritis E. Coli , Shigella, Salmonella, Campylobacter
15 Tuberculosis (TB) Mycobactertium tuherculosis
Male sterility and female

16 Mycoplasma hominis
abortion in humans
17 Pneumonia Streptococcus pneumoniae
18 Pimples Staphylococcus aureus
Bacterial diseases in plants
S.No. Plant diseases Causal organism

1 Red stripe of sugarcane Pseudomonas rubrilineans
2 Citus canker Xanthomonas citri

3 Crown gall Agrobacterium tumefaciens
4 Tundu (Bacterial rot) of wheat Corynebacterium tritici
5 Bacterial blight of rice Xanthomonas oryzae

6 Angular laef spot of Gossypium Xanthomonas malvacearum
7 Bean blight of Phaseolus Xanthomonas phaseoli
8 Potato wilt Pseudomonas solnacearum

9 Soft rot of carrot Erwinia cartovora
10 Fire blight of apple Erwinian amylovora
11 Potato scab Streptomyces scabies
12 Wild fire of tobacco Pseudomonas tabaci
13 Black rot of cabbage Xanthomonas campestris

Bacterial Diseases in Animals
S.No. Name of Disease Causal organism
1 Anthrax Bacillus anthracis
2 Black leg Clostridium chanvei
3 Brucellosis Brucella abortus
(III) Blue Green Algae (Cyanobacteria) :

They are aerobic photoautotrophic, nitrogen fixing Gram negative
prokaryotes included into separate class Cyanophyceae or
Myxophyceae. They occured in precambrian period around 3.2
billion years ago.
They can be unicellular–Ex: Spirulina or colonial–Ex:
Gloeocapsa, Microcystis or filamentous – Ex: Anabaena,
Nostoc, Oscillatoria.
Each BGA cell is covered by a gelatinous sheath therefore called
Myxophyceae.
Its cell wall consists of pepti-

doglycan and lipopolysaccha-
rides and has fours layers L1,
L2, L3, L4. Out of them L2 is rich
in NAG, NAM and amino acids
like DAP.
Sterol is absent in cell mem-
brane and the latter contains
protein and phospholipid in
2 : 1 ratio.
Protoplast of cell is differentiated
into outer peripheral coloured
chromoplasm and central
colourless region centroplasm.
The chromoplasm has photo-
synthetic lamellae or thylakoids,
70 S ribosomes.
Thylakoids are unilamellated, have chl a, carotenes and xanthophyll and three types of phycobilin
pigments c-phycocyanin, c- phycoerythrin and allophycocyanin.
Lamellasome connects nucleoid to cell membrane and help in respiratory activities, septum formation
and separation of replicated DNA.
Nitrogen filled gas vacuoles are found instead of sap vacuoles and they help in buoyancy and protection
from UV rays.
Reserve food material is mainly cyanophycean starch. Proteinaceous granules, granules are also
found in some forms.
Definite nucleus and definite plastid with grana are absent. Motile forms, mesosome, chlorophyll b,
meiosis, and all membrane bounded organelle are absent.
BGA is able to fix atmospheric nitrogen in to ammonium compounds. for this purspose some of their cells
become pale yellow and thick walled structure called heterocysts. The latter has nitrogenase enzyme
that performs nitrogen fixation in anaerobic conditions Ex: Anabaena, Nostoc, Aulosira.

They were first to oxygenic photosynthesis to evolve O2 in photosynthesis
Sexual reproduction is absent in BGA but gene recombination occurs by conjugation, transformation,
and transduction.
The most common method of reproduction is by binary fission in unicellular forms. Other methods are
fragmentation, Hormogones (short segments of the filament that form new filament after separation in the
region of heterocysts), Akinetes.
Economic Importance of BGA :
(i) BGA can fix atmospheric nitrogen Ex: Aulosira fertilissima is most active nitrogen fixer in rice
fields enriching (upto 20%) rice fields with nitrogen, Anabaena azollae is found in the leaves of
Azolla (an aquatic fern) and fix nitrogen hence Azolla is introduced in rice fields as biofertilizer.
Nostoc, Tolypothrix, Cylindrospermum, are other major nitrogen fixers.
(ii) Spirulina maxima is rich in protein (71%) and vitamins. It is used as SCP for human consumption,
poultry, fisheries and feeding for cattles.
(iii) Nitrogen fixing BGA like Nostoc, Anabaena are used as a green manure that help in retaining soil
moisture along with supply of nitrogen salts.
(iv) Exessive growth of blue green algae (like Microcystis) is responsible for the formation of Algal bloom
in NO3 and PO4 rich water and cause deficiency of oxygen in water that is responsible for death of fishes.
(v) Colonies of Nostoc (called Yuyucho) are consumed as food in china.
Note: Symbiotic association of BGA for N2 fixation with many plants.
(a) Nostoc - Anthoceros (thallus), Gunnera (stem) and Trifolium (root)
(b) Anabaena - Azolla (leaf)
(c) Nostoc + Anabaena - Cycas (coralloid root)
(IV) Mycoplasma (PPLO) :

Nocard and Roux (1898) discovered PPLO (Pleuropneumonia like organisms) or MLBs
(Mycoplasma like bodies) from pleural fluids of bovine cattles suffering from pleuropneumonia.
The term mycoplasma coined by Nowak (1929).
They are Gram–ve, smallest (0.1–0.3 m in size–Ex: Mycoplasma gallisepticum), unicellular, aerobic,
heterotrophic, walls less prokayotes and pleomorpic organisms. They can change their shape hence called
jokers of the plant kingdom or mollicutes. They can pass through bacteria proof filters.
Cell membrane is trilaminar, highly flexible and composed of lipoprotein. DNA is linear note circular, but
coiled and double stranded. 70 S type of ribosomes, RNA, protein, fat particles are found in cytoplasm.
They perform reproduction by binary fission and elementary bodies.
In culture medium their colonies shows fried egg appearance.
They are either saprophytic or cause diseases in plants and animals.

Point of Remember
1. The red colour of red sea is due to BGA–Trichodesmium erythreum.

2. Some BGA like Oscillatoria brevies, live in hot water springs at 70 –85ºC temperature due to
presence of homopolar bonds in their thermal shock proteins of cell membrane.
3. Protoplast : A cell without cell wall is called protoplast. It can be formed by the removal of cell wall
of Gram +ve bacteria through the action of lysozyme.
4. Bacterial respiration : On the basis of respiration, pasteur classified bacteria in to aerobic and
anaerobic forms. Each of them is of two types.
(i) Obligate anaerobes : They live in the absence of O2. If oxygen is given to them, they die
Ex: Clostridium botulinum.
(ii) Facultative anaerobes : They respire aerobically but can live anaerobically also Ex: Aerobacter,
Pseudomonas.
(iii) Obligate aerobes : They grow in oxygen rich environment only. They die in the absence of oxygen
Ex: Azotobacter, Bacillus subtilis.
(iv) Facultative aerobes : They are anaerobic bacteria but they can live in the presence of oxygen
Ex: chlorobium.

KINGDOM PROTISTA
Ernst Heackel coined the term protista.
(i) They are unicellular or colonial, eukaryotic organisms mostly found in aquatic habitat.
(ii) They bear well defined nucleus. Protists can be uninucleate, binucleate or multinucleate.
(iii) Locomotion takes place by flagella or cilia, pseudopodia, contractions and mucilage extrusion.
(iv) Cyclosis or cytoplasmic streaming is found in cytoplasm.
(v) Cell wall, if present, contains cellulose.
(vi) Mode of nutrition is of various types – Holophytic (Photosynthetic), ingestive (=Holozoic), absorp
tive (parasitic, saprobic).
(vii) 80% of the photosynthesis on earth is performed by photosynthetic protists.
(viii) Reserve food is starch, glycogen, paramylon, chrsolaminarin and fat.
(ix) Flagella and cilia, when present, have 9 + 2 pattern of microtubular strands.
(x) The common mode of reproduction is Asexual reproduction. The latter occurs through binary fission,
budding, plasmotomy, sporulation, cyst formation etc.
(xi) Sexual reproduction involves meiosis and karyogamy. Meiosis is zygotic in some forms and gametic
in others.
(xii) Some forms are parasitic, some are found symbiotically in the gut of animals and few are decompos-
ers.
Types of Protista :
(I) Photosynthetic protists :
It involves three types
(1) Diatoms (2) Dinoflagellates (3) Euglenoids
(1) Diatoms :
These are commonly called Jewels of plants world. 200 genera and more than 6000 species of Diatom
have been reported.Diatoms involve in Division Chrysophyta & class Bacillariophyaceae.
(i) Diatoms are found in all aquatic (including ocean, brakish and fresh water) and moist terrestrial habitats.
(ii) Diatoms are Golden brown photosynthetic protists. Most of the diatoms are phytoplanktons.
(iii) The body is covered by a transparent siliceous shell (silica deposited in cellulosic cell wall)
called frustule. The latter is composed of two halves upper larger older half or epitheca and a lower
smaller younger half or hypotheca. Both halves fit together like two parts of a soap box or pair of
petridishes.
(iv) On the basis of symmetry, diatoms are of two types–(a) pennate–bilateral symmetry Ex: Navicula,
Pinnularia (b) Centric–radial symmetry Ex: Melosira.
(v) There is a single large nucleus is commonly suspended in the central vacuole by means of cytoplasmic
strands.
(vi) They bear plate like or discoid chromatophore having Chl a, Chl c, carotenes, fucoxanthin,
diadinoxanthin diatoxanthin pigments. Due to the presence of different types of pigments, the
colour of diatoms may be yellow, brown or green. Hence these are called golden brown algae.
(vii) The reserved food is oil and chrysolaminarin or leucosin (a polysaccharide). Proteinaceous volutin
globules are also present.
(viii) Flagella are absent. They perform floating on the surface of water due to stored fat.
(ix) The most common mode of multiplication is binary fission (cell division). In this process, each
daughter cell retains one half of the parent cell (epitheca) and the other half is synthesized (Hypotheca)
NEET_KINGDOM PROTISTA # 24
(xi) Binary fission reduces the size of most daughters due to retention of one valve of the parent. It is
corrected by the development of rejuvenescent cells or auxospores.
(xii) Sexual Reproduction varies from isogamy to oogamy & is connected to a reduction in diatom cell
size in order to restore them to their original size. It takes place by the fusion of gametes and auxospore
formation.
(xiii) Since the diatonms are diploid in nature so they participate in ganetic meiosis.
Economic importance :
(i) Siliceous shells of diatoms do not deccay, pile up and forms heaps called diatomaceous earth or
diatomite or kiselgurh. The latter is employed as insulation material in refrigerators, boilers and
furnaces.
(ii) Diatomite is also used as cleaning agent in tooth pastes and metal polishes.
(iii) Diatomite is porous and chemically inert. Therefore, it is used in filtration of sugar, alcohols and antibi-
otics.
(iv) Diatoms are important producer in the form of phytoplanktons and they are major sources of food
to aquatic animals.
(v) Diatomaceous earth is used to make sound proof rooms.
(vi) The oils extracted from some fishes and whales are actually the ones produced by diatoms.
(2) Dinoflagellates :
These are motile golden brown photosynthetic protists they belong to the phylum Pyrrophyta and class
Dinophyceae.
Some forms called zooxanthellae occur as symbionts in other protists and invertebrates.
(i) Mostly aquatic, unicellular, eukaryotic organisms. Some indviduals form colonies without cellular
differentiation.
(ii) Periplast my occur instead of theca.
Because of the presence of sculptured plates of
cellulose, the protists are called armoured
dinoflagellates.
(iii) They bear two grooves. Out of them one is

transverse cingulum or annulus or girdle and
other is longitudinal sulcus. The two flagella
are different or heterokont. Smooth flagellum lies
posteriorly in a longitudinal groove while ribbon
like transverse flagellum lies in a transverse groove
thus in dinoflagellatges two flagella lie at right
angles to each other and show peculiar spinning
movement. Hence, they are called whirling
whips.
(iv) Nucleus is large, mesokaryon (term coined

by Dodge) & has condensed chromosomes
even in the interphase. Histone is absent.
(v) Pigments involve chl a, chl c, fucoxanthin rich carotenoids in chromatophores.
(vi) Noncontractile vacuole is present for osmoregulation called pusule.
(vii) In dinoflagellates division occurs through dinomitosis in which nuclear envelope and nucleolus persists.
Spindle is not formed. and it is replaced by cytoplasmic microtubules.
(viii) Marine shell fishes (sea–mussels) eat large number of dinoflagellates. The neurotoxin (saxitoxin)
accumulates in shell fishes, consumption of these shell fishes by man causes Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning
(PSP) Ex: Gonyaulax.
(ix) Some dinoflagellates show bioluminescence and called fire algae Ex: Noctiluca (Night light),
Pyrocystis. Some dinoflagellates bear trichocysts. Cnidoblasts have been reported in some dinoflagellates.
(x) Some dinoflagellates grow profusely in the sea causing the water to look red and so called as “red
tide” Ex: Gonyaulax, Gymnodinium.
(xi) Nutritionally they are autotrophic except some forms.
(xii) Reserve food is starch and oil.
(xiii) Reproduction takes place by asexual method only. The latter take place by zoospores, cysts formation.
Sexual reproduction has been observed in some dinoflagellates. Zygotic meiosis is observed in them
Ex: Life cycle of Ceratium is haplontic but exceptionally cell of Noctiluca is diploid thus gametic meiosis
takes place in Noctiluca during reproduction and life cycle is diplontic.
Point of Remember
Noctiluca (Night light) : It shows features of both dinoflagellate and protozoans. Presence of cell wall and
two flagella are the features of dinoflagellates while protozoan features are–body colourless, absence of
chloroplast, absence of photosynthesis, holozoic nutrition.
(3) Euglenoids :
General characters
(i) They are unicellular protists found in fresh water habitats and damp soils.
(ii) Cell wall is absent arround unicellular body.
The latter is surrounded by lipoproteinaceous
membrane which is covered by pellicle.
(iii) The apical end has invagination containing

three parts–Cytostome (mouth), Cytopharynx
(canal) and reservoir.
(iv) It has two tinsel flagella. out of them one is

reduced while second flagellum is long and seems
to have two branches at the base with each of
which having its own basal granule. Flagellated
Euglenoids perform movements by flagella while
non Flagellated Euglenoids perform wriggling
movement with the help of pellicle. It is called
euglenoid movement or metaboly.
(v) The flagellum bears a swelling at the area of

union of two branches, called paraflagellar
body or photoreceptor. Stigma or eye spot lies
on the membrane of resevoir at the level of
paraflagellar body. The former and the latter are
the sites receiving light
stimulus.
(vi) Single large nucleus is found in the middle part. Chloroplast contains pigments like Chl. a, Chl. b, and
xanthophyll (zeaxanthin).
(vii) On the basis of nutrition they are mixotrophic. Ex: Euglena, They show both holophytic and
holozoic nutrition.
(viii) Contractile vacuole is found in the anterior part of the cell below the reservoir for osmoregulation.
(ix) The reserve food is paramylum as paramylum granules that is stored in the cytoplasm instead of
chloroplasts.
(x) They performs multiplication by longtiudinal binary fission in favourable conditions and by cyst formation
in unfavourable conditions. Sexual reproduction has not yet been definitely proved.
Point of Remember
Euglena is considered as connecting link between Plant kingdom & Animal kingdom because it
shows features of both plants and animals.
Euglena
S.No. Plant like characters S.No. Animal like characters
Presence of chloroplasts
1 1 Presence of proteinaceous pellicle.
with chlorophyll.
2 Holophytic nutrition. 2 Presence of paraflagellar body and stigma.
3 Presence of contractile vacuole.

4 Reproduction by longitudinal binary fission.
(II) Slime Moulds :

Initially some biologists placed the slime moulds in mycetazoa alongwith animals. However, many
mycologists placed them under fungi in the sub-division Myxomycotina and the class Myxomycetes.
Modern biologists keep them in class Gymnomycota of kingdom protista due to their protistan nature.
General characters :
(i) Cell wall is absent around somatic cell but it is formed during reproduction.
(ii) The protoplasts are covered by plasmalemma.
(iii) Chloroplasts absent. They show phagotrophic nutrition.
(iv) The reserve food is Glycogen and oil.
(v) Reproduction takes place through both asexual and sexual methods.
On the basis of structure, they are of two types.
(1) Acellular Slime Moulds (Plasmodial slime moulds) :
(i) They are found as slime masses on decaying leaves and lumber.
(ii) They bear wall less mass of multinucleate protoplasm in free living diploid somatic phase called
plasmodium.
(iii)They perform movement by pseudopodia like amoebae. These are holocarpic and Polycentric.
(iv) Asexual reproduction takes place by spore formation. Sporangium also develops a system of threads
called capillitium. The latter expands and contracts to rupture the sporangium and liberates the spores.
(v) Sexual reproduction is isogamous.
Ex : Physarum, Fuligo, Dictydium, Physarella, Lycogala.
(2) Cellular Slime Moulds (communal slime moulds) :
(i) They are wall less uninucleate myxamoebae, in which myxamoebae secrete acrasin (cAMP) and
show chemotactic movements. They come together but do not fuse and form pseudoplasmodium.
Each cell has haploid nucleus.
(ii) These are holocarpic and monocentric.

(iii) Sporangia are naked but spores are covered by cellulosic wall.
(iv) Sexual reproduction is Anisogamous. The myxamoebae form cluster. The central myxamoeba of the
cluster becomes large and engulfs surrounding myxamoeba. Karyogamy occurs inside the large
myxamoeba, and now called macrocyst. After some time macrocyst under goes meiosis and release
haploid myxamoebae Ex: Dictyostelium, Protostelium, Acytostelium.
Point of Remember
The cellular slime moulds bear features of both plants and animals. absence of cell wall in vegetative
phase and feeding like amoeba are animal like characters while the reproductive phase is plant-like as the
spores have a cell wall composed of cellulose.
KINGDOM FUNGI (MYCOTA)
Introduction :
Fungi are eukaryotic, achlorophyllous, heterotrophic, non vascular, non flowering, gametophytic, haploid
(n), multicellular organisms.
The term fungus is derived from a Latin word ‘Fungour’ which means ‘to flourish’. Term fungus was
used by Gaspard Bauhin. The study of fungi is called Mycology.
Pier Antonio micheli described fungi in his book ‘Nova Plantarum genera’. He is called ‘Father of
Mycology.’ E.J. Butler is known as ‘Father of Inidan Mycology’.
R.H. Whittaker (1969) established it as kingdom Fungi.
(1) These are found in all habitat like soil, water, air, mouth, skin, hair, eye, on decaying matter etc. and the
distribution is cosmopolitan (ubiquitous). Most of the fungi are terrestrial and found in soil, some are aquatic,
parasitic or saporophytic or symobiont. Saporphytic fungi are called vegetable vultures because they act as
natural scavenger in decomposing and removing the organic wastes.
(2) Thallus organization :
(A) The main body is thallus that is called mycelium which is composed of interwoven mass of thread like
hyphae except some forms. hyphae are branched aseptate or septate.
(B) Mycelium are of following types.
(i) Coenocytic mycelium : It is aseptate and multinucleated Ex : Albugo, Rhizopus.
(ii) Primary mycelium : It is septate and uninucleate Ex : Ascomycetes.
(iii) Secondary mycelium : These are also septate but binucleate (Dikaryotic) Ex : Ustilago.
Note: The septa in fungi are of two types, namely simple pore septa and dolipore septa.
In dolipore septa, the eall around the pores become swollen in a collar like manner so two pores
are formed. These pores are covered by a perforated cap of ER. called parenthosome.
Aggregation of mycelium :
Fungi are modified in various forms for performing particular function.

(i) Plectenchyma : In which mycelium forms loosely or compactly woven tissue like structure called
plectenchyma. The latter is of two types.
(a) Prosenchyma : Loosely woven hyphae that lie parallel to each other and cell.
(b) Pseudoparenchyma : Compact mass of parencyma like tissue in which hyphae are very closely
packed and interwoven.
(ii) Rhizomorph : It is root like structure formed by aggregation of hyphae and the latter lose their
individuality. It has growing tip and is subterrenean Ex : Agaricus.
(iii) Sclerotium : It is a hard pseudoparenchymatous structure formed by aggregation and adhesion of
hyphae with out any growing point Ex: Claviceps, Polyporus.
(iv) Stromata : Hyphae are arranged loosely and parallely forming flat mat like structure in which fruiting
bodies formed Ex: Daldinia.
(v) Haustoria : They are terminal knob like or button like structures in hyphae that help in the absorption
of food.
(vi) Appresoria : Terminal part of hypha forms a flat or spherical structure on coming in contact with the
host. It is called appressorium. From this many infection threads are formed for penetration and
attachment.
(vii) Traps : Hyphae of predatory fungi form loops to trap nematodes, eelworms etc. Ex: Dactylella,
Arthrabotrys.
(3) Structure of Fungal cell :
(i) Cell wall is composed of chitin or fungal cellulose (C22H54N4O21) that is nitrogen containing
polyhsaccharide and heteropolymer of NAG (N-acetyl glucosamine). In oomycetes, cell wall is
composed of cellulose. Ex: Phytopthora.
NEET_KINGDOM FUNGI (MYCOTA) # 29

(ii) Dictyosomes are unicisternal.
(iii) Moore and Mclear discovered globular outgrowths of cell membrane in between cell wall and cell
membrane for the synthesis of cell wall. These are called Lomasomes.
(iv) Nuclear division is intranuclear in which spindle is formed inside the nucleus and nuclear membrane
persists. It is called karyochorisis.
(v) Reserve food material is glycogen and oil.
(4) Nutrition in fungi :

Fungi show heterotrophic & absorptive nutrition on the basis of mode of nutrition they can be grouped into
following types.
(i) parasites (ii) Saprophytes (iii) Symbionts (iv) Predacious
(5) Reproduction :
(A) Vegetative Reproduction (B) Asexual Reproduction (C) Sexual Reproduction
(A) Vegetative Reproduction : It takes place through fragementation, budding, fission, rhizomorphs,
sclerotia.
(B) Asexual Reproduction : It occurs by spores.
(i) By Zoospore : They are naked, motile, flagellated spores formed inside zoosporangium. It may be
uniflagellate Ex: Snychytrium or Biflagellate (pear shaped or kidney shaped) Ex: Pythium,
Saprolegnia.
(ii) Conidia : They are non motile spores that are formed exogenously at the tip or lateral side of special
hyphal branches called conidiophores. They are borne singly or in chains. Their arrangment is either
basipetal Ex: Albugo or acropetal Ex: Cruvularia.
In some fungi various fructification are formed by conidiophores.
(a) Pycnidium – Ex : Puccinia (b) Acervulus – Ex : Colletotrichum

(c) Sporodochium – Ex : Fusarium (d) Coremium – Ex: Graphium
(iii) Sporangiospores : Non-motile spores that are formed inside sporangium Ex: Rhizopus, Mucor.
(iv) Chlamydospores : They are highly resistant, thick walled, single-celled spores formed during unfavourable
conditions Ex : Mucor, Fusarium. In case of Mucor, they are found in chains and represent torula stage.
(v) Oidia : Rounded or oval shaped, thin walled structures. The hyphae undergo segementation and forms
yeast like cells called oidia. Ex: Erysiphae.
(C) Sexual Reproduction :

There is increasing simplicity in sex organs from lower to higher fungi. It takes place during unfavourable
conditions.
Fungi bear unicellular, nonjacketed sex organs called gametangium.
On the basis of sex, fungi are of three types.

(i) Monoecious fungi : Bisexual, homothallic, in which mycelium has both sex organs.
(ii) Dioecious fungi : Fungi bear female and male sex organs on different thalli (heterothallic).
(iii) Sexually undifferentiated : Differentiation of sex organs is absent. somatic hyphae of (+) and (–)
strain act as sex organs.
In higher fungi sex organs are either degenerative or absent but they show plasmogamy, karyogamy and
meiosis.
(i) Plasmogamy : Cytoplasm of two gametes fuse with each other in the first stage of sexual reproduction.
plasmogamy takes place by one of the following methods.

(a) Plannogametic Copulation : It includes fusion of two compatible flagellated gametes of opposite
strain. It may be isogamy Ex: Synchytrium or anisogamy Ex: Allomyces or oogamy.
(b) Gametangial contact : Two unicellular nonjacketed gametangia of opposite strain come in contact but
do not fuse. The entire contents of one (male gametangium or antheridium) transfers into the female gamet-
angium (oogonium or ascogonium) by fertilisation tube and form oospore or zygote. Ex: Albugo,
Phytophthora.
(c) Gametangial Copulation : Direct fusion of two gametangia of opposite strain produce Zygospore
Ex: Mucor, Rhizopus.
(d) Spermatisation : In case of Basidiomycetes, sex organs are absent. The minute uninucleate, nonmo-
tile gametes or spermatia are produced in pycnidia. These are transferred to receptive hyphae of female
gametangia by various agencies. The common wall dissolves and the receptive hypha becomes dikaryotic.
Ex: Puccinia.
(e) Somatogamy : In some advanced fungi, sex organs are not formed but to vegetative hyphae mutually
fuse to form dikaryon that forms dikaryotic mycelium and perform the process of sexual reproduction.
Ex: Morchella, Peziza, Ustilago.
Gradual reduction in sexuality from lower to higher fungi.
Oogamy anisogamy isogamy gametangial copulation spermatization somatogamy
(ii) Karyogamy : After plasmogamy, two compatible nuclei are fused resulting diploid nucleus is formed
called synkaryon.
(iii) Meiosis : Synkaryon undergoes meiosis and form four haploid nuclei. In lower fungi plasmogamy is
immediately followed by karyogamy and meiosis. But in higher fungi there is a gap between plasmogamy
and karyogamy, so the fungus remian dikaryotic. Ex: basidiomycetes.
Sexual Spores :
They are formed during sexual reproduction. They are of following types.
(i) Oospore : It is formed by the fertilization of the egg present in the oogonium Ex: Albugo.
(ii) Zygospore : It is thick walled spore formed by fusion of similar motile or non-motile gametes
Ex: Synchytrium or complete gametangia Ex: Mucor.
(iii) Ascospores : Single celled haploid spores formed endogenosusly in sac like structure -ascus, gener-
ally eight in number Ex: Members of Ascomycetes.
(iv) Basidiospores : These are haploid spores formed exogenously on specieal cells or basidium
Ex: Members of Basidiomycetes.
Fructification :
It is special protective covering for enclosing asexual & sexual spores. The fructification of ascomycetes is
called Ascocarp while in basidiomycetes it is called Basidiocarp.
Classification of fungi :
Fungi are classified on the basis of some characters – Nature of somatic phase, Kinds of sporangia, Kinds
of asexual spores, Nature of the life cycle, presence or absence of perfect or sexual stage.
Modern scientists have been classified true fungi or Eumycota into 5 classes.
(1) Phycomycetes/Oomycetes (2) Zygomycetes

(3) Ascomycetes (4) Basidiomycetes
(5) Deuteromycetes
(1) Phycomycetes / Oomycetes (algal fungi) :

(i) The mycelium is Multinucleate (coenocytic) and aseptate.
(ii) Wall of hyphae is composed of cellulose.

(iii) Asexual reproduction takes place through sporangia. They function as conidia. Sporangia produce
zoospores in aquatic forms. Zoospores are biflagellate and have heterokont flagellation (one is a smooth
and other is tinsel type).
(iv) Sexual reproduction takes place by gametangial contact in which the male sex organs or antheridium
passes its product into the female sex organ or oogonium through a fertilization tube.
(v) After fertilization, oospore is formed hence the phycomycetes are also called oomycetes
Ex: Phytophthora, Pythium, Saprolegnia, Albugo, Sclerospora.
Deseases caused by the members of oomycetes

S.No. Name of disease Causal organism
Green ear disease of
1 Sclerospora graminicola
Bajra (Pearl millet)
2 Late blight of potato Phytophthora infestans
3 White rust of crucifers Albugo candida
4 damping off of seedlings Pythium debaryanum
5 Black wart disease of potato Synchytrium endobioticum
(2) Zygomycetes (conjugation fungi) :
(i) Mostly saprotrophic and rarely parasitic.

(ii) The mycelium is coenocytic.
(iii) Wall of Hyphae contains chitin or fungal cellulose.

(iv) Spore are borne inside sporangia. The former are non motile and called sporangiospores and form at
the tip of special hyphae called sporangiophores.
(v) Sexual reproduction takes place by gametangial copulation or conjugation hence these are
called conjugation fungi.
(vi) Multinucleate gametes are called coenogametes that fuse to form zygospore. The name
zygomycetes is based on the presence of zygospore.
(vii) Zygospore forms germsporangium at the tip of a hypha called promycelium. The latter forms germ
spores or meiospores. Which develop into new mycelia Ex: Mucor, Rhizopus.
(i) Citric acid is obtained from Mucor and Fumaric acid by Rhizopus stolonifer.
(ii) Ramysin antibiotic is produced by Mucor ramannianus.
(iii) Heavy metal contamination of water is removed by Mucor arrhizus.
(iv) Rhizopus species produce soft rot or leak disease in Apple, sweet potato and Strawberry.
(v) Mucormycosis is due to Mucor pusillus and M. ramosissimus.
(vi) Spoilage of Food like bread and other food articles is due to Rhizopus and Mucor species.
(3) Ascomycetes (Sac fungi) :
(i) Its mycelium is sepatate,branched except yeast (unicellular) and it is

monokaryotic Ex: Penicillium, or dikaryotic (temperary phase). Septa
possess central pores called septal pores that help in exchange between
adjacent cells.
(ii) The cell wall contains chitin or fungal cellulose.
(iii) Flagella absent.
(iv) Asexual reproduction takes place by conidia that are formed exog-
enously on branched or unbranched conidiophore.
(v) Sexual reproduction occurs by following agencies. Fig : Fugni (a) Mucor
(b) Aspergillus

(a) Gametangial contact – Ex: Pyronema.
(b) Gametangial copulation – Ex: Yeast.
(c) Spermatization – Ex: Ascobolus.
(d) Somatogamy – Ex: Peziza.
(e) Autogamy
(vi) There is gap between plasmogamy and karyogamy. At this time a new transitional phase appears
in the life cycle that is called dikaryophase. The latter has two types nuclei (n + n).
(vii) Some dikaryotic cells act as ascus mother cells in which karyogamy and meiosis occur. Now they
are converted into sac like structures called asci (singular–ascus).
(viii) Each ascus has 4–8 endogenously formed ascospores that arrange either in linear sequence
Ex: Neurospora or unorderly Ex: Yeast. Out of them half of the ascospores are of one type and the
remaining half to the second type.
(ix) Asci are aggregated into fruiting bodies or fructifications called ascocarps which are of following types
(a) Perithecium – Flask shaped ascocarp Ex: Claviceps.
(b) Apothecium – Cup shaped ascocarp Ex: Peziza.
(c) Cleistothecium – Spherical Ascocarp closed from all sides Ex: Penicillium.
(d) Ascostroma – Cushion like Ex: Pleospora.
The fruiting bodies of ascomycetes are edible, Ex: Morels, truffles.
1. Aspergillus (Black or green smoky mould) :
(i) Facultative parasite, that contaminates cultures in the laboratory hence called weed of laboratory.
(ii) It causes pulmonary disease–Aspergillosis in human beings.
(iii) Aspergillus flavus (formerly called Guinea Pig of plant Kingdom) produces a carcinogenic toxin
called aflatoxin.
(iv) Aspergillus niger produces citric acid & oxalic acid while gallic acid by Aspergillus gallomyces.
(v) Fumingallin and flavicin or aspergillic acid antbiotics are extracted form Aspergillus fumigatus.
2. Claviceps : Ergot of rye is due to Claviceps purpurea while ergot of bajra is due to C. microcephalla
Sclerotia produces ergot. Lysergic acid obtains from it and gives a hellucinogen LSD (lysergic
acid diethylamide).
3. Neurospora (Pink bread mould) : Neurospora crassa (Drosophila of Plant kingdom) is used in
study of experimental genetics.
4. Morels and Truffles : Fleshy sponge-like conical cap or pileus of ascocarp is called morel that is
edible Ex: Morchella esculenta. Tuber-like subterranean ascocarps are called Truffles that are edible
Ex: Tuber aestivum.
5. Penicillium (blue-green mould) :
(i) A. Fleming (1929) discovered antibiotic penicillin from Penicillium notatum. Penicillin is
commercially extracted from P. chrysogenum.
(ii) Griseofulvin antibiotic is obtained from P. griseofulvum while Brefeldin antibiotic from P. brefeldianum.
(iii) Ripening of Camembert and Roquefort cheese is performed by P. camemberti and P. roqueforti
respectively.
6. Brewing Industry : Beer yeast–Saccharomyces cerevisiae and wine Yeast – Saccharomyces
ellipsoidens perform alcoholic fermentation.
7. Erysiphe graminicola–It causes powdery mildew disease of cereals like wheat, barley.
(4) Basidiomycetes (Club Fungi) :

(i) These are most advanced fungi and best decomposers of wood. Their fruiting bodies are large and visible
such as Mushrooms, Puff ball, toad stools.

(ii) Mycelium is septate and branched. Septa has dolipore except in rusts and smuts. Mycelium is of two
types – Primary mycelium is monokaryotic, short lived, haploid and formed by basidiospores. Secondary
mycelium is dikaryotic, long lived and containing binucleated cells (n + n) formed from primary mycelium by
somatogamy.
(iii) Flagella are absent.

(iv) Dikaryophase may multiply by spores like uredospores, aecidiospores and teleutosores.
(v) Hook shaped outgrowths or Clamp connections are found on the side of septa. These connections
are used for proper distribution of dikaryons at the time of cell division.
(vi) Secondary mycelium can perennate in the soil or wood as sclerotia (rounded or ellipsoid firm masses
of hyphae) or rhizomorph (root-like aggregation of hyphae).
(vii) Fruiting bodies are called basidiocarp. In the basidiocarp, club shaped basidia develop,
basidium is a site of karyogamy and meiosis by which it forms 4 haploid basidiospores exogenously on
sterigmata. In Agaricus bisporus, only 2 basidiospores are formed by each basidium. Each basidiospore
forms monokaryotic mycelium of (+) or (–) strain on germination.
Life cycle of Agaricus :-
(i) The most common mushroom is Agaricus campestris (fairy ring fungus/snake umbrella/gill
fungus). Its basidiocarp is edible. It is found in fields lawns, logs, manure heaps as saprophytic fungus.
(ii) Mycelium is of two types - primary and secondary. Primary mycelium is monokaryotic, haploid, short
lived. (+) and (–) mating types of primary mycelia fused to form dikaryotic mycelium (n + n) by somatogamy.
(iii) Sex organs and gametes are absent. Dikaryotic mycelium has clamp conections and dolipore
septa.
(iv) Hyphae of dikaryotic mycelium accumulate at places and form pseudoparenchymatous rounded button
like body above the ground, it is called button stage. It grows in size and form reproductive body called
fruiting body-basidiocarp or mushroom.
(v) Each basidiocarp is composed of two parts-fleshy stalk or stipe and umbrella like circular cap
pileus. The lower side of the pileus as 300-600 radially arranged rows of gills (lamellae). stipe is
connected with fertile layer of pileus by a partial veil called velum. After breaking, the latter is attached to
stipe as a ring called annulus.
(vi) Thousands of club shaped basidia alongwith sterile paraphyses are found at the two sides of lining of
vertically placed gills. Both together form the fertile layer or hymenium that is subtended by compact
subhymenium. Interwoven hyphae in the centre part represent trama.

(vii) Basidia and paraphyses are developed by hymenium. Both nuclei of dikaryon in each club shaped
basidium fuse to form synkaryon that immediately undergoes zygotic meiosis and form 4 haploid nuclei-
2 of (+) and 2 of (–). The free end of the basidium gives rise to peg like outgrowths called sterigmata. On
its tip, ovoid pinkish purple meiopore forms that is called basidiospore.
(viii) Basidiospore are thrown out violently by water drop spore dispersal mechanism and are disseminated
by air. On germination, each basidiospore develop into haploid monokaryotic mycelium of (+) or (–) strain.
(I) Rusts :
(i) Puccinia graminis tritici is responsible for black rust of wheat. It completes its life cycle on two
hosts (heteroecious)–wheat and barberry (Barberis).
(ii) 5 types of spores are formed in its life cycle. Uredospores (n + n) and teleutospores are found on
leaves and stem of wheat. Basidiospores (n) are found in soil. Pycniospores and aeciospores
(n + n) are found on barberry leaves.

Spore formed by Puccinia in its life cycle
S.No. Spore Formed on Cell Nucleus

1 Uredospore Wheat Unicelled Dikaryotic
2 Telio or Telutospores Wheat Bicelled Dikaryotic
3 Basidiospores Soil Unicelled Monkaryotic
Pycniospores or Pycnidiospores or Upper surface of

4 Unicelled Monokaryotic
Spermatiospores Barberry of Barberry leaf
Lower surface of
5 Aeciospores Unicelled Dikaryotic
Barberry of Barberry leaf
Note : Uredospore are capable to germinate on wheat again to form more uredospores. But other spores
can not do this.

1 Black rust of wheat Puccinia graminis tritici
2 Brown rust of wheat P. reconidita
3 Yellow stripe rust of wheat P. striformis
4 Brown leaf rust of barley P. hordei
Point of Remember
1. K.C. Mehta (1931) studied annual recurrence of wheat rust in Indian plains.
2. The collateral hosts of Puccinia are Briza, Bromus, Hordeum.
(II) Smuts :
They are pathogenic fungi and cause smut diseases. They bear thick walled black coloured resting spores
called chlamydospores, smut spores. Smuts involve two types.
(a) Loose smut : In this type spores are exposed from the beginning Ex: Loose smut of wheat (caused
by Ustilago tritici), Loose smut of oat (caused by Ustilago avenae).
(b) covered smut : The spore mass remains with the sorus till before liberation Ex: smut of corn (caused
by Ustilago maydis). Covered smut of barley (caused by Ustilago jensenii), whip smut of sugar-
cane (caused by Ustilago scitaminae).
(5) Deuteromycetes (fungi imperfecti) :
(i) The perfect stage or sexual stage is either absent or not reported therefore these are called fungi
imperfecti.
(ii) It is considered as artificial group without any common relationship. These are actually sac fungi that
have lost the ability to reproduce sexually.
(iii) Mycelium is septate, branched.
(iv) Asexual reproduction takes place through conidia formed on conidiophores.
(v) Its some members produce diseases.

Table
1 Early Blight of potato Alternaria solani.
2 Red Rot of Sugarcane Colletotrichum falcatum.
3 Tikka Disease of Groundnut Cercospora arachidicola, C. personatum.

4 Brown Leaf spot of rice Helminthosporium oryzae.
5 Blast of Rice Pyricularia oryzae.
6 Wilt of pigeon pea Fusarium udum.
7 Ringworm of Foot/ Athlete's foot Trichophyton interdigitate/Tinia pedis.

8 Ringworm of Scalp/Head Microsporum lanosum
Point of Remember
1. Irish Famine (1845-1847) : Phytophthora infestans causes Late Blight of potato. The former
destroyed potato crop in Ireland during1845 that was called Irish Famine.
2. Bengal Famine(1942–1943) : Helminthosporium oryzae is responsible for Sesame or Brown

leaf spot of Rice that destroyed Rice crop of Bengal in 1942–1943 which was called bengal famine.
3. Autoecious & Heteroecious : A fungus that requires only one host to complete its life cycle is
called autoecious fungus Ex : Albugo, Hemileia. A fungus that requires two hosts to complete
its life cycle is called heteroecious fungus Ex : Puccinia.
4. Some common Fungicides :
(i) Bordeaux mixture : It was first fungicide discoverd by RMA millardet of Brodeaux university
(France). Its composition 4 : 4 : 50 (4 Ibs CuSO4 + 4 Ibs Ca (OH)2 + 50 gallon water) or (40g +
40g + 5 litre).
(ii) Burgandy mixture (Soda Bordeaux) : It was discovered by Mass. It is mixture of CuSO4 +
Na2CO3 + H2O.
(iii) False yeast : There are some unicellular fungi in which sexual reproduciton in not reported are
called false yeast. There placed in class deuteromycetes Ex: Candida, Torula.
Lichens :
These are formed by symbiotic association between algae (blue green algae or green algae) –
Phycobiont or photobiont and fungi (mostly ascomycetes like Parmelia, Graphis, Cladonia, Usnea
– called ascolichen, some times basidiomycetes like Cora, Corella – called Basidiolichens) –
mycobiont.
The term Lichens coined by Theophrastus. The study of Lichens is called Lichenology.
Tulsane (1852) first studied Lichens. Acharius is known as “father of lichenology”.
On the basis of external appearance Hue (1899) described its five types.
(i) Crustose Lichens : These are crust like closely attached to the substratum at many points.
Ex: Graphis, Lecanora, Rhizocarpon.

(ii) Foliose Lichens : These are flat, Leaf like, and attached to the substratum by rhizoid like structures
called rhizines Ex: Parmelia, Peltigera, Lobaria.
(iii) Fruticose Lichens : These are much branched giving a bushy appearance. They are either erect and
filamentous or pendent. Ex: Cladonia, Usnea, Ramalina.
(iv) Leprose : It is found as minute scales Ex: Lepraria.
(v) Filamentous : Some fungal hyphae cover
filamentous algae Ex: Racodium.
In the Lichens, Phycobiont or Algal partner
synthesizes organic food material by
photosynthesis while mycobiont or fungal
partner provides structural covering and helps in
anchorage absorption of water & minerals.
Some special structures of thallus are as follow.
(i) Cyphellae : Small concave pits in the the
lower cortex that open into medulla and help in
exchange of gases.
(ii) Cephalodia : Gall like / warty dark swellings that is found on the upper side of thallus enclosing algal
cells mixed with fungal hyphae. They help to retain moisture and its algal partner fix nitrogen also.
(iii) Breathing pores : These are formed by loosely arranged hyphae in upper cortex of foliose lichens for
aeration.
Reproduction in Lichens :
(i) Vegetative reproduction : It is performed by fragmentation, Soredia, Isidia etc.

The accidental fragmentation of older parts causes separation of lichen into two or more fragments, each
growing into mature lichen.
Soredia : These are powdery bodies in which both algal and fungal components present and formed on the
upper surface of the thallus. Each Soredium is surrounded incompletely by loose fungal hyphae. They get
disseminated by wind or other agencies and each of them gives rise to lichen after falling on suitable
substrate.
Isidia : Each Isidium contains core of many algal cells surrounded by cortex of fungal hyphae they in-
crease surface area for more photosynthesis. At times they are broken off and may grow into new thallus.
(ii) Sexual Reproduction : Only fungal part of lichen performs sexual reproduction. In Ascolichens male
sex organ–spermogonium produces male gametes or spermatia. Female sex organ – carpogonium has a
coiled basal part – ascogonium and a tube like trichogyne. After fertilization fruiting body is formed that is
either flask shaped perithecium or saucer shaped apothecium. Fruiting body contains asci. Each ascus
has 1 – 8 or more ascospores. Each ascospore forms new thallus when it comes in contact with compat-
ible algal cells.

Economic Importance of Lichens:
(i) These are sensitive to SO2 and don’t grow in such polluted and smoky environment thus these are
indicators of SO2 pollution.
(ii) These are firstly established on barren rocks thus these are pioneers of xerarch type of ecological
succession where they form soil by corroding rocks through secreting carbonic acid and oxalic acid.
(iii) Reindeer moss or Cladonia rangiferina is used as food by Reindeer, Caribou. lceland moss or
Cetraria islandica is used as food in iceland.
(iv) Blue dye orchil is obtained from Rocella tinctoria and Lecanora. Litmus is composed from
Rocella tinctroria and Lasallia pustulata.
(v) Usnic acid is obtained from Usnea (old man’s beard) and used as antibiotic. Peltigera is used in
the treatment of hydrophobia, Cladonia for whooping cough, Cetraria in diabetes, Lobaria in
the treatment of lung cancer and Tuberculosis.
(vi) Some lichens are used in making perfumes such as Evernia prunastri yields excellent perfume.
Scented essence is obtained from Ramalina and Evernia.
(vii) Lichens are good absorbers of radioactivity.
Point of Remember
1. Helotism : According to Crombie (1885), the relationship between Algal partner and fungal partner
is actually master and slave relationship that is called Helotism in which fungal partner dominates
over the algal partner and the latter lives as prisoner or subordinate. According to Ahmadjian (1963)
described fungal partner as a controlled parasite over the alga.
2. Trebouxia is most common unicellular green algae in Lichens.

3. Schwendener established dual nature of lichens.

Mycorrhiza :
It is a symbiotic relationship between a saprophytic fungus and roots of higher plants. Usually myc-
orrhizae are commonly found in oligotrophic soils. It was first reported by Frank (1885).
Mycorrhizae help in absorption of minerals specially phosphorus. They also help in absorption of water and
allow plant to grow better. In contrast, mycorrhizae obtain shelter and nutrients (simple carbohydrates and
vitamins) from roots of host plant.
Mycorrhizae are of two types.
(i) Ectomycorrhizae (ii) Endomycorrhizae
(i) Ectomycorrhizae : Fungal hyphae mainly lie on the outside as thick wooly sheath or mantle and some
part lie between the intercellular spaces of cells of cortex. It never enters into the cells. Fungal partner is
usually member of basidiomycetes. Ex : Pinus, Eucalyptus, Ficus, Oak.
(ii) Endomycorrhizae : In this type, tips of fungal hyphae pass into cortical cells forming swollen vesicles
or finely branched masses called arbuscules therefore, it is also called VAM (vesicular-arbuscular mycor-
rhiza). The fungal partner belongs to Zygomycetes / Phycomycetes. Vesicles store phosphorus while
Arbuscules function as haustoria that help in transfer nutrients from fungus to roots. Ex: Orchids, Black
papper, cardamom, walnut.

Type (I) : Very Short Answer Type Questions : [01 Mark Each]
1. Define taxonomy?
2 What is ‘red tide’. Give its example.
3. What is heterocyst write its function.
4. Name the transparent siliceous cell wall of Diatoms.
5. What do the terms phycobiont and mycobiont signify?
Type (II) : Short Answer Type Questions : [02 Marks Each]
6. Differentiate between n, 2n and n+n conditions in fungi.
7. Name two international code of bilogical nomenclature?
8. Enlist various types of Archaebacteria.
9. What is diatomaceous earth ?
Type (III) : Long Answer Type Questions: [03 Marks Each]
10. Explain the following terms
(i) Fungi Imperfecti
(ii) Mixotrophic nutrition
11. Give economic importance of BGA?
12. How Ascomycetes are different from Basidiomycetes?
13. Taxonomic categories showing hierarchial arrangement in ascending order are shown below. Fill the appro-
priate categories in blank spaces marked 'a', 'b', 'c', and 'd'
14. Give a comparative account of the classes of kingdom Fungi under the following.
(i) Mode of nutrition (ii) Mode of reproduction.
Type (IV) : Very Long Answer Type Questions: [05 Mark Each]
15 Describe five kingdom classification. What are advantages and disadvantages of this classification.
16. Explain the reproduction in bacteria
OR
Draw a well labelled diagram of bacterial cell.
17. Explain the following terms
(i) Plasmogamy (ii) Karyogamy (iii) Mycorrhiza
(iv) Plant and Animal Characters of Euglena. (v) Amphitrichous
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. The term taxonomy was coined by
(1) de Candolle (2) Linnaeus (3) John Ray (4) Bauhin
2. The basic / smallest unit of classification is
(1) Species (2) Taxon (3) Category (4) Subspecies
3. Dynamic concept of species is that species gradually change (mutate) and form new species was first given
by a French biologist
(1) John Ray (2) Julian Huxley (3) de Vries (4) Lamarck
4. Most recent branch of Taxonomy is
(1) Karyotaxonomy (based on nucleus and number, structure and arrangement of chromosomes)
(2) Biochemical taxonomy (based on biochemicals)
(3) Numerical taxonomy (based on number of shared characters using statisti cal methods)
(4) Classical systematics (based on morphological features).
5. The number of obligate categories which are always used in a taxonomic hierarchy are
(1) 7 (2) 5 (3) 3 (4) 8
6. According to binomial nomenclature, which one is incorrect
(1) Tautonyms (2) Synonyms (3) Autonyms (4) Bionyms
7. In binomial nomenclature proposed by Linnaeus, every organism has
(1 ) two names, one Latin and other common
(2) two names, one scientific and other ver-nacular
(3) one scientific name, given by two scientists
(4) one scientific/biological name with two words- a genus and a species
8. Taxon is the unit of
(1) order (2) genera (3) species (4) taxonomy
9. The idea of Binomial Nomenclature was first introduced by
(1) Gaspard Bauhin (2) Linnaeus (3) John Ray (4) Caesalpino
10. In which book, binomial nomanclature was issued by Linnaeus
(1) Historia Naturalae (2) Systema Naturae
(3) Historia Plantarum (4) Genera Plantarum
11. Phenetic classification is based on
(1) dendrograms based on DNA characteristics
(2) sexual characteristics
(3) the ancestral lineage of existing organisms
(4) observable characteristics of existing organisms
12. Which nomenclature system is followed for naming plants
(1) Polynomial (2) Vernacular (3) Binomial (4) Trinomial
13. Dendrogram is based on
(1) phenetic taxonomy (2) adansonian taxonomy
(3) numerical taxonomy (4) all the above
14. Three phases of taxonomy were recognised by
(1) de candolle (2) Julian Huxley (3) Takhatajan (4) Turril
15. Phylogeny refers to
(1) taxonomy of organisms (2) evolutionary classification
(3) evolutionary history (4) modern classification
16. Linnaeus sexual system of classification of plants on the basis of number and arrangement of stamens and
carpels / morphology of floral parts is
(1) artificial (2) natural
(3) phylogentic (4) partly natural and partly artificial
17. Hutchinson's phylogenetic classification is based on Bessey's 22 principles. It states that
(1) evolution in downward direction cause reduction and suppression.
(2) evolution does not necessarily involve all organs at same time
(3) monocots are advanced over dicots
(4) all of the above
18. Decomposers belong to kingdom
(1) Monera and Protista (2) Protista and Fungi (Mycota)
(3) Monera, Protista and Fungi (4) Protista, Fungi and Animalia
19. Three kingdom system of classification was proposed by
(1) Haeckel (2) Linnaeus (3) Stanier (4) Copeland
20. Four kingdom system of classification was given by
(1) Haeckel (2) Linnaeus (3) Copeland (4) Whittaker
21. Engler and Prantle proposed their phylogenetic system in
(1) Species plantarum (2) Die Naturlichen Pflanzen familien
(3) Origin of species (4) Phylogeny of flowering Plants
22. In Whittaker's five kingdom system of classification, eukaryotes are placed in
(1) three kingdoms (2) two kingdoms (3) four kingdoms (4) all the five kingdoms
23. Copeland and Stanier (1956) in their four kingdom system. placed prokaryotes in kingdom
(1) Monera (2) Prototista (Protista) (3) Metaphyta (4) Metazoa
24. ICZN/ICBN does not apply to
(1) viruses (2) plants (3) animals (4) bacteria
25. Classification based on maximum morphological characters and form relationships (similarities and dissimi-
larities) is called
(1) phylogenetic (2) natural (3) artificial (4) ancient
26. Artificial system is based on
(1) one or two morphological characters (2) few characters
(3) several characters (4) synthetic characters
27. All modern classifications are now based on
(1) evolutionary history (2) genetics (3) ecology (4) all of the above
28. Six kingdom classification was suggested by Gray and Doolittle (1982) and Carl Woose (1990) divided these
six kingdoms into three domains on the basis of sequence of
(1) r-RNA genes (2) m-RNA genes
(3) nitrogen bases in DNA (4) amino acids in protein
29. In Whittaker's classification, which kingdom is main producer ?
(1) Monera (2) Protista (3) Plantae (4) Mycota
30. Term new systematics was introduced by
(1) Julian Huxley (2) de Candolle (3) Lamarck (4) Carolus Linnaeus
31. New systematics based on genetic inter-relationship is
(1) Chemotaxonomy (2) Cytotaxonomy (3) Numerical Taxonomy (4) Experimental Taxonomy
32. Term Systematics was coined by Linnaeus in his book Systema Naturae. It includes
(1) Identification, Nomenclature, Classification
(2) Relationships among organisms
(3) Diversity of organisms
(4) All of the above.
33. The suffix oideae is added in
(1) family (2) class (3) subfamily (4) subclass
34. Natural system of classification differs from artificial system in
(1) developing evolutionary trends (2) taking only vegetative traits
(3) employing only floral traits (4) bringing out similarities & dissimilarities
35. The book Genera plantarum was written by
(1) Bessey (2) Engler and Prantl
(3) Bentham and Hooker (4) Hutchinson
36. Sometimes different authors give different names to one and the same species. In such a situation, law of
priority is used in which.
(1) name under which the species was first described is valid (legitimate) name and all other names become
synonyms.
(2) latest name under which species was described becomes valid and acceptable
(3) scientists are at liberty to use any of the names
(4) all known names are discarded and a new name is given to the species
37. Phenetics is.
(1) Natural Classification (2) Numerical Taxonomy
(3) Cytotaxonomy (4) Chemotaxonomy
38. Which of the following is included in New systematics.
(1) Karyotaxonomy and Cytotaxonomy
(2) Morphotaxonomy and Numerical taxonomy
(3) Experimental taxonomy and Chemotaxonomy
(4) All of the above.
39. Thallophyta includes.
(1) Algae, Fungi, Bacteria and Lichens (2) Algae and Fungi
(3) Fungi and Bacteria (4) Algae, Fungi and Lichens
40. In Whittaker's phylogenetic classification, slime moulds belong to
(1) Fungi (2) Protista (3) Monera (4) Animalia
41. In five kingdom system, which one is the main basis of classification is
(1) structure of nucleus (2) mode of nutrition
(3) structure of cell wall (4) asexual reproduction
42. In 5-kingdom classification, the kingdom that includes the blue-green algae, nitrogen fixing bacteria and
methanogenic archaebacteria, is.
(1) Plantae (2) Fungi (3) Protista (4) Monera
Kingdom - Monera
43. During conjugation, bacteria attach by means of.
(1) Flagella (2) Pili (3) Cilia (4) Hair.
44. Witches Broom of Potato is caused by
(1) Mycoplasma (2) Bacteria (3) Viruses (4) All the above.
45. A parasite which becomes saprophytic in the absence of host is called
(1) Obligate parasite (2) Facultative parasite (3) Obligate saprophyte (4) Facultative saprophyte.
46. Ribosomes of Nostoc are
(1) 50 S (2) 60 S (3) 70 S (4) 80 S.
47. All bacterial cells get stained with
(1) Mercuric chloride (2) Crystal violet (3) Crystal violet + iodine(4) Safranin
48. Mucopeptide is abundant in cell wall of
(1) Cyanobacteria (2) Gram ( + ) bacteria (3) Gram (-) bacteria (4) Bacteriophage.
49. Iron bacterium is
(1) Beggiotoa (2) Geobacillus (3) Thiobacillus (4) None of the above.
50. Bacteria obtaining energy by oxidation of inorganic substances are
(1) Chemo-lithotrophs (2) Chemo-organotrophs (3) Photo-lithotrophs (4) Photo-organotrophs.
51. Which one does not evolve oxygen
(1) Photosynthetic bacteria (2) Blue Green algae
(3) Green algae (4) Autotrophic plants
52. Peritrichous bacteria have flagella
(1) All over the body (2) At one end (3) Both ends (4) None
53. Prokaryotic genetic material is
(1) Linear DNA + histones (2) Circular DNA + histones
(3) Linear DNA without histones (4) Circular DNA without histones
54. Bacterial photosynthesis differs from photosynthesis of others in
(1) First product (2) Number of phases (3) Type of reductant (4) All the above.
55. Halophiles grow in concentrated salt solution due to
(1) Bacteriorhodopsin (2) Branched hydrocarbon chain in phospholipids
(3) Active absorption (4) Accumulation of KCl
56. Plague is caused by
(1) Xanthomonas (2) Pasteurella pestis (3) Varicella virus (4) Pseudomonas.
57. Blue-green algae are
(1) Eubacteria (2) Cyanobacteria (3) Actinomycetes (4) Archaebacteria.
58. Which of the following is correct about legumes
(1) They are incapable of fixing nitrogen
(2) They fix nitrogen with the help of bacteria that live in their leaves
(3) They fix nitrogen with the help of bacteria that live in their roots
(4) They fix nitrogen independent of bacteria.
59. Nitrogen fixation is performed by
(1) Green algae and fungi (2) Ferns and cycads
(3) Legumes and cereals (4) Blue-green algae and bacteria.
60. Match items of column I with those of column II and choose the correct combinations
Column-l Column-II
(a) Pneumonia (p) Vibrio comma
(b) Citrus Canker (q) Mycobacterium leprae
(c) Cholera (r) Yersinia pestis
(d) Leprosy (s) Xanthomonas citri
(t) Diplococcus pneumoniae
(1) a-t, b-s, c-p, d-q (2) a-t, b-p , c-s , d-q (3) a-t, b-s, c-q, d-p (4) a-t, b-q, c-p, d-s.
61. Bacteria possess the organelle
(1) Golgi bodies (2) Mesosomes (3) Mitochondria (4) All the above.
62. Comma shaped bacteria are
(1) Bacilli (2) Spirilla (3) Vibrios (4) Cocci.
63. The bacterium (Clostridium botulinum) that causes botulism is
(1) Obligate aerobe (2) Facultative aerobe
(3) Facultative anaerobe (4) Obligate anaerobe.
64. Cell wall of Gram (+) bacteria is formed of
(1) Cellulose (2) Murein (3) Lipid and protein (4) Cellulose and lipid.
65. Bacterium associated with legume roots is
(1) Rhizobium (2) Nostoc (3) Spirogyra (4) Clostridium.
66. The most primitive monerans are
(1) Rickettsiae (2) Actinomycetes (3) Progenote (4) Archaebacteria.
67. Procaryotes possess
(1) Nucleus (2) Nucleoid (3) Nucleolus (4) None of the above
68. Bt gene occurs in
(1) Bacillus thuringiensis (2) Escherichia coli
(3) Agrobacterium tumefaciens (4) Rhizobium leguminosarum
69. Which of the following statement is/are correct with respect to Bacteria
(a) Bacteria are the sole members of the Kingdom Monera.
(b) Bacteria occur almost everywhere
(c) Bacteria are the most abundant micro organism
(d) 80 S type of Ribosome are present in bacteria
(1) a & d (2) b & d (3) a, b, c (4) b, c, d.
70. By observing following figure find correct match. With example.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Examples
(i) Vibrio (ii) Spirillum
(iii) Bacillus (iv) Micrococcus roseus & Diplococcus pneumoniae
(1) a (i), b (ii), c (iii), d (iv)
(2) a (iv), b (iii), c (ii), d (i)
(3) a (iv), b (ii), c (iii), d (i)
(4) a (iii), b (ii), c (iv), d (i)
71. Which statement is/are wrong with respect to Archaebacteria.
(a) Archaebacteria differ from other bacteria in having a different cell wall structure.
(b) feature of cell wall is responsible for their survival in extreme conditions.
(c) Methanogens are present in the guts of sereral ruminant animals such as cow & buffalo.
(d) These are oldest of the living fossils.
(e) Peptidoglycan & muramic acid are present in cell wall
(1) a and e (2) b and e (3) a, b and c (4) only e
72. Which statement is/are wrong with respect to Mycoplasma :
(a) Mycoplasma are the smallest living cells known.
(b) These can survive without oxygen
(c) The Mycoplasma are organisms that completely lack a cell wall.
(d) Mycoplasma can not pass through bacteria proof filters–
(1) b & c (2) c & d (3) only d (4) Only b
73. The Blue-green algae also referred to as _____(i)_______have chlorohyll similar to green plants. Some of
these organisms can fix atmospheric nitrogen in specialised cell called______(ii)________eg. Nostock &
Anabaena._______(iii)________bacteria oxidise various inorganic substance such as nitrates, nitrites and
ammonia & use the released energy for their ATP production in above question (i), (ii) & (iii) are respectively.
(1) (i) Cyanobacteria (ii) Chromatophores (iii) Heterotrophic bacteria
(2) (i) Cyanobacteria (ii) Chromatophores (iii) Chemosynthetic autotrophic
(3) (i) Eubacteria (ii) Heterocysts (iii) Chemosynthetic autotrophic
(4) (i) Cyanobacteria (ii) Heterocysts (iii) Chemosynthetic autotrophic
74. Match column I with Column II
Colum I Column II
(i) presence of branched chain lipids in cell membrane (a) Thermo acidophiles
(ii) Homopolar bond in protein (b) Methanogens
(iii) Found in marshy habitats, swamps, ruminants, sewage treatment plants(c) Halophiles
(1) (i) a, (ii) b, (iii) c
(2) (i) a, (ii) c, (iii) a
(3) (i) b, (ii) c, (iii) a
(4) (i) c, (ii) a, (iii) b
75. Kingdom Organism
(i) Monera Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, BGA, Euglenoids
(ii) Protista Diatoms, Dinoflagellates, Euglenoids
(iii) Fungi Albugo, Mucor, Penicillium, Slime-moulds
Which one is/are correct match
(1) Only (i) (2) Only (ii) (3) Only (iii) (4) All are correct
76. Organisms living in salty areas are called as
(1) Methanogens (2) Halophiles (3) Heliophytes (4) Thermoacidophiles
77. Which of the following is/are correct regarding methanogens
(A) Gram negative (B) Obligate anaerobes
(C) Found in marshy habitats (D) Cell wall possessess protein
(1) A & D only (2) A & C only (3) A , B & C only (4) A, B, C & D
78. Which match is/are wrong regarding gram positive & gram negative bacteria.
Characters Gram Positive Bacteria Gram Negative Bacteria

(A) Cell Wall Single layered Two layers
(B) Murein or mucopeptide in cell wall 70-80% 10-20%
(C) Capsule mostly present Usually absent
(D) Mesosome Less common Quite common
(1) only A & C (2) only B & C (3) only B & D (4) only C & D
KINGDOM - PROTISTA
79. The diatomaceous earth is used for insulating boilers and steam pipes because
(1) The diatomaceous earth is very cheap (2) It is a good conductor of heat
(3) It is a bad conductor of heat (4) It is composed of calcium carbonate
80. Protists which are diploid reproduce sexually by the process of
(1) Zygotic meiosis (2) Cyst formation (3) Binary fission (4) Gametic meiosis
81. Protist used for the construction of sound proof rooms is
(1) Dinoflagellates (2) Diatoms (3) Euglenoids (4) Zooflagellates
82. Cell wall of Diatoms is made up
(1) Silica (2) Carbonate (3) Calcium carbonate (4) All of these
83. Diatoms are also known as
(1) Blue-green algae (2) Red algae 3) Golden brown algae (4) Green algae
84. Formation of diatomaceous earth has occured due to remains of the following part of diatoms
(1) Cell wall (2) Cytoplasm (3) Chloroplast (4) None of the above
85. The protists in which cell size decreases with each division are
(1) Dinoflagellates (2) Diatoms (3) Slime molds (4) Radiolarians
86. Bivalved siliceous shell of frustule occurs in
(1) Diatoms (2) Radiolarians (3) zooflagellates (4) Archaebacteria
87. Rejuvenescent cells (auxospores) occur in
(1) Diatoms (2) Radiolarians (3) Bacteria (4) Virus
88. Diatoms do not decay as readily as most other algae because
(1) They are non living cells (2) They have waterproof cell walls
(3) They have siliceous cell walls (4) They have mucilaginous cell walls
89. PSP (Paralytic shellfish poisoning) is connected with
(1) Gonyaulax (2) Ceratium (3) Noctiluca (4) Glenodinium
90. Bioluminescence was first recorded in
(1) Gonyaulax (2) Peridinium (3) Noctiluca (4) Pyrodinium.
91. Fire algae are members of
(1) Phaeophyceae (2) Dinophyceae (3) Rhodophyceae (4) Bacillariophyceae.
92. Transverse flagellum of Dinophyceae lies in
(1) Pellicle (2) Hypotheca (3) Cingulum (4) Epitheca.
93. In dinophyceae, sulcus is
(1) Transvese flagellum (2) Longitudinal flagellum
(3) Transverse groove (4) Longitudinal groove.
94. Dinophycean theca is made of
(1) Silica (2) lime (3) Cellulose (4) Protein.
95. Red tide is mostly caused by
(1) Noctiluca (2) Gymnodinium (3) Cymbiodinium (4) Nematodinium.
96. Contractile vacuole of Euglena is
(1) Posterior (2) Middle (3) Anterior (4) Anterior and fixed.
97. Paramylum granules are made of
(1) 1-3 glucan (2) 1-3 glucan (3) 1-4 glucan (4) 1-4 glucan
98. Paraflagellar body occurs in Euglena
(1) Near base of flagella (2) Region of union of flagellar branches
(3) Area of basal granules (4) On reservoir wall.
99. Eye spot granules of Euglena are formed of
(1) Fucoxanthin (2) Astaxanthin (3) -carotene (4) -carotene.
100. Periplast plates of Euglena are
(1) Interlocked (2) Pliable
(3) Underlined by mucilage and microtubules (4) All the above.
101. Periplast of Euglena is
(1) Continuous (2) With longitudinal plates
(3) With transverse plates (4) Made of spiral plates.
102. Cod liver oil is derived from
(1) Diatoms (2) Dinoflagellates (3) Euglenoids (4) All the above.
103. Diatom frustule is made of
(1) Silica (2) Calcium carbonate (3) Calcium hydroxide (4) Both 1 and 3.
104. In diatoms the nucleus generally lies in
(1) Epivalve (2) Hypovalve (3) Central vacuole (4) Peripheral cytoplasm.
105. Mesokaryon is
(1) A nucleus like structure (2) Nucleoid with condensed chromosomes
(3) A nucleus with condensed chromosomes (4) A nucleoid with distinct chromosomes.
106. In dinophyceae the two flagella are
(1) Anterior (2) One transverse and other vertical
(3) Lateral (4) Posterior.
107. Eye spot of Euglena is a
(1) Nonplastid structure found near the reservoir (2) Nonplastid structure found on the side near the middle
(3) Plastid structure present near the reservoir (4) Plastid structure found near the middle.
108. Whirling Whips are protists which possess two flagella that beat
(1) Slightly towards one side to as to cause rotation of the organism while moving forward
(2) Forward, backward and sideway depending upon the requirement
(3) At right angles to each other due to being present in different grooves
(4) Along with numerous cilia.
109. The storage product of chrysophytes is
(1) Oil and leucosin (2) Starch (3) Paramylum (4) Glycogen.
110. Photosynthetic protists belong to
(1) Bacillariophyceae
(2) Bacilariophyceae and euglenophyceae
(3) Bacillariophyceae, euglenophyceae and dinophyceae
(4) Zooflagellates.
111. Food reserve of diatoms is
(1) Starch (2) Chrysolaminarin (3) Paramylon (4) Glycogen.
112. Night visibility increases in paints having
(1) Foraminiferan ooze (2) Diatomaceous earth
(3) Slime Moulds (4) Radiolarians.
113. Protists having non-contractile pusule are
(1) Sporozoans (2) Ciliates (3) Dinoflagellates (4) Navicula.
114. Mixotrophic nutrition is present in
(1) Navicula (2) Amoeba (3) Paramecium (4) Euglena.
115. Protistans are connecting link between
(1) Plants and animals
(2) Fungi and plants
(3) Monoerans and kingdoms of multicellular organisms
(4) Fungi and animals.
116. Percentage of global photosynthesis performed by photosynthetic protists is
(1) 30% (2) 50% (3) 65% (4) 80%
117. Which statement is/are wrong with respect to kingdom protista.
(i) All single celled eukaryotes are placed under protista
(ii) The boundaries of this kingdom are not well defined.
(iii) Chrysophytes, dinoflagellated, Euglenoids, slimemoulds and protozoans are included under protista.
(iv) All protista are eukaryotic, achlorophyllous, heterotrophic, nonvascular organism.
(1) only (ii) (2) only (iii) (3) only (iv) (4) None of these
118. Match Column I with Column II
Column I Column II
(i) Chrysophytes (a) Absence of cell wall
(ii) Dinoflagellates (b) Golden algae
(iii) Euglenoids (c) Gonyaulax
(iv) Slime moulds (d) Saprophytic protists.
(1) (i) a (ii) b, (iii) c, (iv) d
(2) (i) b (ii) c, (iii) a, (iv) d
(3) (i) b (ii) c, (iii) d, (iv) a
(4) (i) c (ii) a, (iii) b, (iv) d
119. Slime moulds are _____(i)______protists. The body moves along decaing twigs and leaves engulfing organic
material under suitable conditions, they form an aggregation called_____(ii)______which may grow and
spread over several feet.
In above question (i) & (ii) are respectively.
(1) (i) Autotrophic, (ii) plasmodium
(2) (i) Chemosynthetic autotrophic (ii) plasmodium
(3) (i) Saprophytic, (ii) Phycobiont
(4) (i) saprophytic, (ii) plasmodium
120. Match column I with column II
(i) Amoeboid protozoan (a) Plasmodium
(ii) Flagellated protozoan (b) Paramoecium
(iii) Ciliated protozoan (c) Trypanosma
(iv) Sporozoans (d) Amoeba
(1) (i) d, (ii) c, (iii) a, (iv) b
(2) (i) a, (ii) d, (iii) b, (iv) c
(3) (i) b, (ii) a, (iii) c, (iv) d
(4) (i) d, (ii) c, (iii) b, (iv) a
121. Majority of Euglenoids are Fresh water organisms found in stagnant water. Instead of cell wall, they have a
protein rich layer called _____(a)________which maeks their body flexible. They have _____(b)______flagella;
(a) & (b) are respectively.
(1) (a) Pellicle (b) One
(2) (a) Pellicle, (b) Three
(3) (a) Gelatinous sheath, (b) Two
(4) (a)Pellicle (b) Two
122. Organism which are found in fresh water as well as in marine environment, they are microscopic and float
passively in water current (plankton). Most of them are photosynthetic. The cell wall form two thin overlapping
shell, which fit together as in a soap box.
Organism which possess above character are
(1) Dinoflagellates (2) Chrysophytes (3) Diatoms (4) 2 & 3 both
123. Read statements A to D & find out how many statement are wrong
(A) Golden Algae are classified under chrysophytes.
(B) Gonyaulax & Diatoms are classified under Dinoflagellates
(C) In Diatoms the cell wall form thin overlapping shell, which fit together as in soap box.
(D) Most of the Dinoflagellates have two flagello.
How many statement are wrong.
(1) one (2) two (3) three (4) four
124. Read the following four statements (A-D) and answer as asked next to them.
(A) All single celled eukaryotes are placed under protista
(B) Most of the organism of chrysophytes are photosynthetic.
(C) Dinoflagellates appear yellow, green brown, blue or red depend on the main pigments present in their cells.
(D) Chloroplast absent in Euglena
How many of the above statement are correct ?
(1) Two (2) Three (3) Four (4) one
125. As compared to slime moulds, Euglenoids has:
(A) Presence of chloroplast
(B) Holophytic nutrition
(C) Presence of proteinaceous pellicle
(D) Presence of contractile vacuole
(1) A & B, (2) B & C (3) A, B & C (4) A, B, C & D
126. Euglena is considered as connecting link between plant Kingdom & animal kingdom because it shows
features of both plants & animals which of the following is/are plant character of Euglena.
(A) presence of chlorophyll pigment
(B) holozoic nutrition
(C) Holophytic nutrition
(D) presence of contractile vacuole.
(1) A & B (2) B & C (3) C & D (4) A & C
KINGDOM-FUNGI
127. Who is known as the Father of mycology
(1) P.A. Micheli (2) Bessey (3) De Bary (4) Butler
128. Chlorophyll absent, nutrition absorptive, sexual reproduction gradually becoming simple and degnerated are
sepecialites of
(1) Algae (2) Fungi (3) Lichen (4) Bacteria
129. Fungal tissue is called
(1) Plectenchyma (2) Pseudoparenchyma (3) Prosenchyma (4) All the above
130. In which structure fungal hyphae are arranged loosely and parallelly
(1) Stromata (2) Sclerotium (3) Both (1) & (2) (4) Mycorrhiza
131. Which of the following shows formation of sclerotium
(1) Rhizopus (2) Claviceps (3) Agaricus (4) Puccinia
132. What is parenthesome
(1) Cell organelle of fungi
(2) pores in fungi
(3) Covering present on both the sides of the dolipore septum
(4) Reproductive organs of fungi
133. In which fungi the cell wall is absent
(1) Phycomycetes (2) Ascomycetes (3) Deutreomycetes (4) None of the above
134. The fungi growing on faecal matter are called
(1) Coprophilous (2) Saprophyte (3) Parasite (4) Symbiont
135. Which is called as mycorrhiza
(1) Root like structure made of fungal hypae (2) Association of fungi and roots of higher plants
(3) Fungi growing on roots (4) All the above
136. Which of these is unicellular fungi
(1) Yeast (2) Synchytrium (3) (1) and (2) both (4) None of these
137. Unicellular, multinucleate, amoeboid type of thallus fungi is called
(1) Ceoenocytic (2) Multinucleate (3) Plasmodium (4) Syncytial
138. What is meant by holocarpic thallus
(1) Reproductive structure present on whole thallus
(2) Thallus unicellular and reprodctive structure absent
(3) Thallus unicellular and reproductive structure multicellular
(4) Unicellular thallus converted to reproductive structure at the time of reproduction
139. What is lacking in fungi
(1) Carotenoids (2) Chlorophyll (3) Both (1) & (2) (4) None of these
140. Who disvocered lomasomes
(1) Moore (2) Mc Clear (3) Both (1) & (2) (4) Gaumann
141. The flat structure formed by the hyphal tip on coming in contact with the host from which a number of
infection hyphae arise, is called
(1) Appresorium (2) Haustarium (3) Both (1) & (2) (4) Stromata
142. Which of these is a facultative saprophyte
(1) Albugo (2) Aspergillus (3) Ustilago (4) Agaricus
143. Which of these were called by Duddinton as different fungi
(1) Saprophytic fungi (2) Parasitic fungi (3) Symbiotic fungi (4) Predatory fungi
144. absorptive nutrition is found in
(1) Plants (2) Fungi (3) Bacteria (4) All the above
145. Which process occurs during sexual reproduction in Mucor
(1) Gametangial contact (2) Gametangial copulation
(3) Spermatisation (4) Somatogamy
146. What happens in dikaryotisation
(1) Fusion of two nuclei in cell
(2) Separation of two nuclei in cell
(3) Transfer of nucelus from one type of cell to another type of cell
(4) Each cell of the hyphae becoming dikaryotic
147. The ascospores are the type of spores
(1) Asexual (2) Sexual (3) Vegetative (4) None of these
148. Which type of sex organs are found in advanced fungi
(1) Well developed (2) Under developed (3) Absent (4) Very complex
149. Where the basidiospores are formed
(1) In basidium (Endogenous) (2) On basidium (exogenous)
(3) In basidiocarp (4) On basidiocarp
150. Which types of enzymes are secreted by fungi to drive nutrition
(1) Endoenzymes (2) Exoenzymes (3) Both 1 & 2 (4) Isoenzymes
151. Thick walled structure having reserve food which fulfils the function of vegetation reproduction is called as
(1) Bud (2) Oidia (3) Chlamydospore (4) Torula
152. The chlamydospores formed in chains are called
(1) Budding stage (2) Torula stage (3) Tilia stage (4) None of these
153. Conidia is a modification of
(1) Spore (2) Zoospore (3) Sporangium (4) All the above
154. Which of the following statement is false about conidia
(1) Conidia are formed in basipetal/acropetal succession
(2) Conidia are non motile
(3) Conidia are generally unicellular sometimes multicelled
(4) Conidia are sexual reproductive structures
155. Which type of fructification is formed by mutual aggregation of conidiophores
(1) Acervules (2) Sporodochium (3) Coremium (4) Any of the above
156. Which are self sterile organisms
(1) Homothallic (2) Heterothallic (3) both of above (4) None of these
157. Life cycle of fungi is generally
(1) Haplobiontic haplontic (2) Haplobiontic diplontic
(3) Diplobiontic, isomorphic (4) None of the above
158. Who is known as the father of Indian mycology
(1) E.J. Butler (2) Martin (3) K.C.Mehta (4) H.A.D. Beri
159. The classification of fungi is mainly based on
(1) Septation in mycelium (2) Reserve food
(3) Types of spores (4) All the above
160. In which of the following mycogical groups the cell wall is made up of cellulose
(1) Zygomycetes (2) Trichomycetes (3) Oomycetes (4) Ascomycetes
161. Which of the following does not have ascocarp
(1) Penicillium (2) Claviceps (3) Morchella (4) Yeast
162. Which are called club fungi
(1) Ascomycetes (2) Basidiomycetes (3) Deuteromycetes (4) Phycomycetes
163. Which is called bread mould
(1) Mucor stolonifer (2) Mucor mucido (3) Rhizopus (4) Aspergillus
164. Who is the father of lichenology
(1) Erik Acharius (2) Erik von Schermak (3) Smith (4) De bary
165. The existence of Pinus plants is due to
(1) Boletus (2) Agaricus (3) Aspergillus (4) None of these
166. Which fungus is related to N2 fixation
(1) Neurospora crassa (2) Penicillium notatum (3) Rhodotorula (4) Rhizopus
167. Which fungus is well known for producing food toxins
(1) Penicillium (2) Aspergillus (3) Clostridium (4) Bacillus
168. From which fungus a toxin called aflotoxin is formed
(1) Mucor (2) Aspergillus (3) Penicillium (4) Neurospora
169. Which of these are poisonous fungi
(1) Helvella (2) Amanita (3) Both of above (4) None of these
170. What is exended form of LSD
(1) Lysergic acid diethylamide (2) Life saving drugs
(3) Loose smut disease (4) None of the above
171. Lysergic acid is found in
(1) Claviceps (2) Sclerotia of Claviceps
(3) Penicillium (4) Cleistothecium
172. Red rot of wood in Apple is due to
(1) Colletotrichum falcatum (2) Cephaleuros
(3) Alternaria (4) Armillaria mellia
173. What is meant by imperfect fungus
(1) Absence of true necleus (2) Absence of cell wall
(3) Absence of sexual reproduction (4) Absence of fructification
174. Which fungus is important for making bread
(1) Rhizopus (2) Mucor (3) Yeast (4) Neurospora
175. Which of these is used in making wine
(1) Yeast (2) Bacteria (3) Both of above (4) None of these
176. Which enzyme in yeast is responsible for fermentation
(1) Zymase (2) Protease (3) Lipase (4) Invertase
177. Penicillin is obtained from
(1) Penicillium notatum (2) P. griseofulvum (3) P. fumigatus (4) All the above
178. Which called as ergot
(1) Claviceps (2) Sclerotia of Claviceps
(3) Fructification of Claviceps (4) None of the above
179. Late blight of potato disease is caused by
(1) Peranospora (2) Phytophthora infestans
(3) Synchytrium (4) Alternaria
180. Green ear disease of Bajra occurs due to
(1) Sclerospora (2) Pilobolus (3) Fusarium (4) Claviceps
181. Rust of Wheat is due to
(1) Albugo (2) Puccinia (3) Cephaleuros (4) None of the above
182. Early blight of potato is due to
(1) Phytophthora infestans (2) Peranospora
(3) Alternaria solani (4) Saprolegnia
183. Athelete foot in animals is due to
(1) Aspergillus (2) Tenia rubrum (3) Mucor (4) Trichophyton
184. Who has written the first book fully devoted to fungi
(1) Piere Antonio Micheli (2) Bessey
(3) Elias M. Fries (4) Van Steribeik
185. Which of these is called polymorphic fungus
(1) Puccinia (2) Ustilago (3) Agaricus (4) Claviceps
186. In luminous fungi, due to which enzyme light is produced
(1) Luciferase (2) Fumerase (3) Oxygenase (4) All the above
187. Who gave the word ‘spore’ for the first time
(1) Hedwig (2) Flemming (3) Bessey (4) Martin
188. Which fungus and destruction of which crop caused the severe famine of lreland
(1) Alternaria solani-Early blight of potato
(2) Phytophthora infestans-Late blight of potato
(3) Helminthosporium oryzae-Brown leaf spot of rice
(4) None of the above
189. Due to which disease the famous Bengal famine occured
(1) Black rust of wheat (2) Smut of wheat
(3) Brown leaf spot of rice (4) Black wart disease of potato
190. In which fungal group clamp connections are found
(1) Ascomycetes (2) Basidiomycetes (3) Both of above (4) Deuteromycetes
191. Which of these is an example of luminous fungus
(1) Polyporus (2) Agaricus (3) Rameria (4) Xyaria
192. Which is a water mould
(1) Saprolegnia (2) pythium (3) Sclerospora (4) Rhizopus
193. Which is a cup fungus
(1) Yeast (2) Peziza (3) Morchella (4) Agaricus
194. Which is called as spongy mushroom
(1) Morchella (2) Agaricus (3) Polyporus (4) Peziza
195. Which is not true about Morchella
(1) Largest sac fungus (2) Edible sac fungus (3) Morrel (4) None of the above
196. Which fungus is called as puff ball
(1) Lycoperdon (2) Lycopodium (3) Polyporus (4) Lycopersicum
197. Which is called as the weed of laboratory
(1) Penicillium (2) Rhizopus (3) Mucor (4) Aspergillus niger
198. What is the common name of Polyporus
(1) Pore fungus (2) Bracket fungus (3) Both of above (4) Chytrids
199. What is wrong about Neurospora crassa
(1) Genetic fungus (2) Drosophila of plant kingdom
(3) Backery fungus (4) None of the above
200. Which is called as budding fungus
(1) Synchytrium (2) Yeast (3) Both of above (4) Neurospora
201. Which are the pioneers of rock vegetation
(1) Lichen (2) Algae (3) Herbs (4) Grasses
202. Which is called as the beard of old man
(1) Usnea (2) Lecanora (3) Parmelia (4) Rochella
203. Which may be responsible for forest fire
(1) Usnea (2) Avernia (3) Cladonia (4) Parmelia
204. Read the following statement (A-D) and answer as asked next to them
(A) Cell wall of Fungi consists of chitin or fungal cellulose.
(B) Most fungi are heterotrophic
(C) Fungi can also live as symbionts in association with algae as lichens and with roots of higher plants as
mycorrhiza
(D) Fusion of two nuclei called plasmogamy
How many of the above statement are correct ?
(1) Two (2) Three (3) Four (4) one
205. The sexual cycle in fungi involves three steps, which statement is/are correct
(A) Fusion of protoplasm between two motile or nonmotile gamete called karyogamy
(B) Fusion of two nuclei called plasmogamy
(C) Meiosis in zygote resulting in haploid spores–
(1) A & B (2) B & C (3) A & C (4) only C
206. Column I Column II
(i) Phycomycetes (a) Albugo
(ii) Ascomycetes (b) Puccinia
(iii) Basidiomycetes (c) Alternaria
(iv) Deuteromycetes (d) Neurospora
(1) (i) a, (ii) d, (iii) b, (iv) c
(2) (i) a, (ii) b, (iii) c, (iv) d
(3) (i) b, (ii) a, (iii) c, (iv) d
(4) (i) c, (ii) d, (iii) a, (iv) b
207. Column I Column II
(i) Phycomycetes (a) Imperfect fungi
(ii) Asocomycetes (b) Agaricus
(iii) Basidiomycetes (c) Sac fungi
(iv) Deuteromycetes (d) Algal fungi
(1) (i) a (ii) b (iii) c (iv) d

(2) (i) d (ii) c (iii) b (iv) a
(3) (i) c (ii) b (iii) d (iv) a
(4) (i) b (ii) a (iii) c (iv) d
208. Read the following statement (A-D) & select wrong statement
(A) In phycomycetes mycelium is multinucleate (Coenocytic) and septate
(B) Wall of hyphae is composed of cellulose
(C) A sexual reproduction take place through sporangia.
(D) Sexual reproduction take place by gametangial contact.
(1) only A (2) only B (3) only C (4) A & D
209. In fungi (Ascomycetes & Basidomycetes) an intervening stage (n + n, i.e. two nuclei per cell) occurs; such
a condition is called.
(1) Monokaryon (2) Dikaryon (3) Diploid stage (4) None of these
210. Match column I with column II
Disease Causal organism

(A) Late blight of potato (i) Colletotrichum falcatum
(B) Damping off of seedling (ii) Alternaria solani
(C) Early blight of potato (iii) Pythium debaryanum
(D) Red rot of sugarcane (iv) Phytophthora infestans
(1) A (iv), B (ii), C (iii), D (i)

(2) A (iii), B (ii), C (iv), D (i)
(3) A (i), B (ii), C (iii), D (iv)
(4) A (iv), B (iii), C (ii), D (i)
211. A dikaryon is formed when
(1) Meiosis is arrersted
(2) The two haploid cells do not fuse immediately
(3) Cytoplasm does not fuse
(4) None of the above
212. With respect to fungal sexual cycle, choose the correct squence of events
(1) Karyogamy, Plasmogamy and Meiosis
(2) Meiosis, Plasmogamy and Karyogamy
(3) Plasmogamy, Karyogamy and Meiosis
(4) Meiosis, Karyogamy and Plasmogamy
213. Members of phycomycetes are found in
i. Aquatic habitats
ii. On decaying wood
iii. Moist and damp places
iv. As obligate parasite on plants
Choose from the following options
(1) None of the above (2) i and iv (3) ii and iii (4) All of the above
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following is true about the phytosynthetic protista ? (5th NSO I L)
(1) Dinophyta often have cell wall made up of armor plates
(2) Bacillariophyta are commonly foundas phytoplankton
(3) All of them have chlorophyll
(4) All of the above
2. The principle pigment imparting distinctive brown or olive brown colouration to the thallus of Phaeophyta is
(5th NSO I L)
(1) Siphonoxanthin (2) Fucoxanthin (3) Necoxanthin (4) Flavoxanthin
AIIMS CORNER
ASSERTION / REASONING
In each of the following questions a statement of Assertion (A) is given followed by a correspond-
ing statement of Reason (R) just below it. Of the statements, mark the correct answer as
(1) If both assertion and resaon are true and reason is the correct explanation of assertion
(2) If both assertion and reason are true but reason is not the correct explanation of assertion
(3) If assertion is true but reason is false
(4) If both assertion and reason are false.
1. Assertion : To give scientific name to plant, there is ICBN.
Reason : It use articles, photographs and recommendations to name a plant.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2. Assertion : Bacteria do not always move with the help of flagella.
Reason : Flagellated bacteria employs rotary motion of flagellum when it moves.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
3. Assertion : Root nodules in leguminous plants are inhabited by Anabaena.
Reason : Leguminous plants are an example of symbiotic nitrogen fixation.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
4. Assertion : Euglena is studied as an animal as well as a plant.
Reason : Euglena is more an animal that a plant.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
5. Assertion : Deuteromycetes lack sexual reproduction.
Reason : Fungi show three type of reproduction asexual, sexual and vegetative.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
6. Assertion : Mushrooms are called fairy rings.
Reason : Mushroom consists of two parts - stipe and pileus.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
7. Assertion. Cyanobacteria are photosynthetic blue-green algae with procaryotic structure.
Reason. They are green due to presence of chloroplasts. (AIIMS - 2000)
(a) (b) (c) (d)
8. Assertion. Plasmids are strands of extra chromosomal DNA. (AIIMS - 2000)
Reason. Plastids are found in eucaryotic cells.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
9. Structure helping lichens in respiration is (AIIMS - 2002)
(a) Isidium (b) Soredium (c) Cephalodium (d) Cyphella.
10. Bacterium Pseudomonas is useful as it can. (AIIMS - 2004)
(a) Transfer genes from one plant to other (b) Fix atmospheric nitrogen
(c) Produce several antibiotics (d) Decompose a variety of organic compounds.
11. Among rust, smut and mushroom, all the three (AIIMS - 2006)
(a) Are pathogens (b) Are saprobes (c) Bear ascocarps (d) Bear basidiocarps.
12. In prokaryotes, chromatophores are (AIIMS - 2006)
(a) Specialised granules responsible for colouration of cells
(b) Structures responsible for determining shape of the organism
(c) Inclusion bodies lying free in the cells for carrying out various metablic activites
(d) Internal membrane system that may become extensive and complex in photosynthetic bacteria.
13. Myxomycetes are (AIIMS - 2006)
(a) Saprobes or parasites having mycelia, asexual reproduction by fragementation, sexual reproduction by
fusion of gametes
(b) Slimy mass of multinucleate protoplasm having pseudopodia-like structures for engulphing food, repro-
duction through fragmentation or zoospores
(c) Prokaryotic organisms, cellular or acellular, saprobes or autotrophic, reproduce by binary fission
(d) Eukaryotic single-celled or filamatous saprobes or autotrophs, asexual reproduction by division of
haploid individuals, sexual reproduction by fusion of two cells or their nuclei.
14. By all of the following ways bacteria become resistant to antibiotic except (AIIMS - 2009)
(1) Making enzymes that inactivate the drug (2) Becoming impermeable to the drug
(3) Modifying the target of the drug (4) Moving away from the drug.
15. The outer most limiting layer of mycoplasma is made up of (AIIMS - 2009)
(a) Cell wall (b) Cell membrane (c) Mucilaginous sheath (d) slime layer
PART-1
LEVEL-1
QUESTIONS OF PREVIOUS YEAR OF AIPMT/NEET
1. Organisms which obtain energy by oxidation of reduced inorganic compounds are (AIPMT - 2002)
(1) Photoautotrophs (2) Saprotrophs (3) chemoautotrophs (4) Chemoheterotrophs.
2. Azolla has a symbiotic relationship with (AIPMT - 2004)
(1) Chlorella (2) Anabaena (3) Nostoc (4) Tolypothrix
3. The most well studied bacterial-plant relationship is that of. (AIPMT - 2004)
(1) Cyanobacterial symbiosis with some aquatic ferns
(2) Nodulation in Sesbania stem
(3) Gall formation by Agrobacterium
(4) Growth stimulation by phosphate bacteria.
4. Bacterial flagella are formed of. (AIPMT - 2004)
(1) Amines (2) Proteins (3) Lipids (4) Carbohydrates.
5. Barophilic prokaryotes (AIPMT - 2005)
(1) Occur in water containing high concentration of barium hydroxide
(2) Grow slowly in alkaline frozen lakes at high altitude
(3) Grow and multiply in very deep marine sediments
(4) Readily grow and divide in sea water enriched with soluble salt of barium
6. For retting of Jute, the fermenting microbe is (AIPMT - 2005)
(1) Methanophilic bacteria (2) Butyric acid bacteria
(3) Helicobacter pylori (4) Streptococcus lactin.
7. Crown gall disease of plants is caused by (AIPMT - 2005)
(1) Ti-plasmid (2) Pi-plasmid (3) Virus (4) Protozoan.
8. Curing of Tea leaves is brought about by the activity of (AIPMT - 2005)
(1) Fungi (2) Bacteria (3) Viruses (4) Mycorrhiza.
9. Two plants belong to same species if they. (AIPMT - 2007)
(1) Have more than 90% similar genes
(2) Look similar and possess identical secondary metabolites
(3) Have similar number of chromosomes
(4) Can reproduce freely with each other and form seeds.
10. A filamentous nitrogen fixing bacterium is present in root nodules of non flowering plant (AIPMT - 2007)
(1) Cicer arietinum (2) Casuarina equisetifolia
(3) Cycas revoluta (4) Crotalaria juncea.
11. Which is wrong about mycoplasma (AIPMT - 2007)
(1) They are called PPLO
(2) They are pleomorphic
(3) They are sensitive to penicillin
(4) They cause diseases in plants.
12. In the light of recent classification of living organisms into three domains of life (bacteria, archaea and
eukarya), which one of the following statements is true about archaea (AIPMT - 2008)
(1) Archaea completely differ from both prokaryotes and eukaryotes
(2) Archaea completely differ from prokaryotes
(3) Archaea resemble eukarya in all respects
(4) Archaea have some novel features that are absent in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
13. Thermococcus, Methanococcus and Methanobacterium exemplify (AIPMT - 2008)
(1) Bacteria whose DNA is relaxed or positively supercoiled but which have a cytoskeleton as well as
mitochondria
(2) Bacteria that contain a cytoskeleton and ribosomes
(3) Archaebacteria that contain protein homologous to eukaryotic core histones
(4) Archaebacteria that lack any histones resembling those found in eukaryotes but whose DNA is negatively
supercoiled.
14. Phylogenetic system of classification is based on ` (AIPMT - 2009)
(1) Floral Characters (2) Evolutionary relationships
(3) Morphological features (4) Chemical constituents
15. Semiconservative replication of DNA was first demonstrated in (AIPMT - 2009)
(1) Salmonella typhimurium (2) Drosophila melanogaster
(3) Escherichia coli (4) Streptocccus pneumoniae
16. The common nitrogen-fixer in paddy fields is (AIPMT 2010)
(1) Azospirillum (2) Oscillatoria (3) Frankia (4) Rhizobium
17. Membrane-bound organelles are absent in (AIPMT - 2010)
(1) Streptococcus (2) Chlamydomonas (3) Plasmodium (4) Saccharomyces
LEVEL-2
QUESTION OF PREVIOUS YEAR OF COMPETITIVE EXAMS
18. Karyotaxonomy is based on.
(1) Trinomial nomenclature (2) Organic evolution
(3) Number of chromosomes (4) Bands formed on chromosomes.
19. Book written by Aristotle is (MPPMT- 1999)
(1) Historia Animalium (2) Historia Naturellae
(3) Systema naturae (4)Philosophie Zoologique.
20. Holophytic nutrition occurs in (Har. PMT - 2000)
(1) Amoeba (2) Entamoeba (3) Euglena (4) Giardia
21. Which one is prokaryote (J.K.C.M.E.E. - 2000)
(1) Chlorella (2) Prosopis (3) Paramecium (4) Nostoc.
22. Flagella are absent in (J.K.C.M.E.E. - 2000)
(1) Chlorophyta (2) Cyanophyta (3) Phaeophyta (4) Euglenophyta.
23. Mitotic apparatus is absent in (M.P.P.M.T. - 2000)
(1) Green algae (2) Fungi (3) Bacteria (4) Higher plants.
24. Teichoic acid is present in cell wall of (M.P.P.M.T.- 2000)
(1) Bacteriophage (2) Mycoplasma (3) Nostoc (4) Pneumococcus.
25. Disease pneumonia is due to (M.P.P.M.T - 2000)
(1) Virus (2) Bacterium (3) Cyanobacterium (4) Protozoan
26. Mycoplasmas are not sensitive to (M.P.P.M.T. - 2000)
(1) Penicillin (2) Streptomycin (3) Erythromycin (4) Neomycin.
27. In which bacterial reproduction phage is required (CET, Chd. - 2000)
(1) Conjugation (2) Transformation (3) Binary fIssion (4) Transduction
28. Multicellular fragment of a blue green alga capable of growth into new plant is (.I.P.M.E.R. - 2000)
(1) Hormocyst (2) Trichome (3) Trichogyne (4) Hormogonium.
29. Bacteria have cell membrane made of (Pb.P.M.T. - 2000)
(1) Chitin (2) Cellulose
(3) Proteins and phospholipids (4) Fats.
30. Which one is autotrophic. (B.V. - 2000)
(1) Clostridium (2) Rhizobium (3) Anabaena (4) Azotobacter.
31. Nucleus equivalent of bacteria and cyanobacteria is called (B.V. - 2000)
(1) Genophore (2) Genotype (3) Incipient nucleus (4) All the above.
32. Bacteria that survive high salt concentration and temperature are (BHU - 2000)
(1) Cyanobacteria (2) Archaebacteria (3) Eubacteria (4) Actinomycetes
33. Inner wall of Gram (–) bacteria is formed of (RPMT - 2000)
(1) Lipoprotein (2) Mucopeptide (3) Chromoprotein (4) Glycoprotein.
34. Keystone species are (Pb. PMT - 2001)
(1) Species belonging to same period
(2) Species that determine structure of biotic community
(3) Species reproducing sexually
(4) Species recorded only in the fossil state.
35. Feeding on dead and decaying organisms is a nutrition called (CPMT - 2001)
(1) Autotrophic (2) Saprotrophic (3) Parasitic (4) Holozoic.
36. Organisms found in extreme temperature are (DPMT - 2001)
(1) Fungi (2) Cyanobacteria (3) Eubacteria (4) Archaebacteria.
37. Which one is nonpathogenic bacterium of colon (BHU - 2001)
(1) Balantidium coli (2) Entamoeba coli
(3) Enterobium vermicularis (4) Escherichia coli
38. A bacterial cell divides once every minute. It takes one hour to fill a cup. How much time will it take to fill half
the cup. (Karnataka - 2001)
(1) 59 minute (2) 30 minutes (3) 29 minutes (4) 20 minutes.
39. What is true about archaebacteria (AIPMT - 2001)
(1) All photosynthetic (2) All fossils (3) All halophiles (4) Oldest living beings.
40. Extrachromosomal DNA of bacteria is (MPPMT - 2001, AMU - 2001, AIPMT - 2002)
(1) Mesosome (2) Micrososme (3) Plasmid (4) Chromosome.
41. Match the columns (Manipal - 2002)
(a) Nitrobecter (i) Free living aerobic nitrogen fixer
(b) Clostridium (ii) Converts ammonia into nitrate
(c) Nitrosococcus (iii) Changes nitrite to nitrate
(d) Azotobacter (iv) Free living anaerobic nitrogen fixer
(1) (1) – (ii), (2) – (iv) (3)– (iii), (4) – (i) (2) (1) – (iii), (2) – (iv) (3) – (ii), (4) – (i)
(3) (1) – (iv), (2) – (ii) (3)– (i), (4) – (iii) (4) (1) – (i), (2) – (ii) (3) – (iii), (4) – (iv)
42. Smallest bacterium is (CPMT - 2002)
(1) Dialister (2) Nitrosomonas (3) Bacillus (4) Spirillium.
43. Genetic recombination through transduction was first discovered in bacterium (APMEE - 2002)
(1) Agrobacterium tumefaciens (2) Escherichia coli
(3) Salmonella typhimurium (4) Diplococcus pneumoniae.
44. PPLO is (MPPMT - 2002)
(1) Virus (2) Viroid (3) Mycoplasma (4) bacteria
45. Bacteria useful in biogas fermentation are (Kerala - 2002)
(1) Methanogens (2) Halophiles (3) Vibrio (4) Thermoacidophiles
46. Escherichia coli present in human colon is (AFMC - 2002)
(1) Parasite (2) Commensal (3) Symbiont (4) Saprophyte
47. In peritrichous bacteria flagella occur (AFMC - 2002)
(1) At one end (2) At both ends (3) All over the body (4) Absent.
48. ICBN is
(1) International Code of Biological Naming (DPMT - 2003)
(2) International Code of Botanical Nomenclature
(3) International Class of Bioloigical Nomenclature
(4) International Classification of Biological Nomenclature.
49. Bacteria possess (AIEEE - 2003)
(1) One circular chromosome (2) One linear chromosome
(3) Many linear chromosomes (4) Many circular chromosomes.
50. Which is source of Vitamin B12 (AMU - 2003)
(1) Pseudomonas (2) Spirulina (3) Nostoc (4) Oscillatoria
51. Bacterial pili are involved in (CMC - 2003)
(1) Asexual reproduction (2) Sexual reproduction (3) Saprophytic nutrition (4) Antibiotic resistance
52. Which do not give out O2 (CPMT - 2003)
(1) Green algae (2) Blue-green algae
(3) Green plants (4) Photosynthetic bacteria
53. Natural system of classification was proposed by (Orissa - 2004)
(1) Bentham and Hooker (2) Hutchinson (3) Whittaker (4) Engler and Prantl
54. Who wrote “Species Plantarum” and provided a basis for classification of plants (AIEEE - 2004)
(1) Carolus Linnaeus (2) Charles Darwin
(3) Robert Hooke (4) Leeuwenhoek.
55. Five kingdom classification of living organisms was proposed by (Orissa - 2004)
(1) Engler and Prantl (2) Bentham and Hooker
(3) Whittaker (4) Hutchinson.
56. Who proposed that monocots are more primitive than dicots (Kerala - 2004)
(1) Bentham and Hooker (2) Bessey
(3) Aristotle (4) Engler and Prantl
57. Father of taxonomy is (Kerala - 2004)
(1) Bentham and Hooker (2) Hutchinson (3) Linnaeus (4) Whittaker.
58. A chain of coccoid bacterial cells is (Manipal - 2004)
(1) Staphylococcus (2) Monococcus (3) Diplococcus (4) Streptococcus.
59. Modern system of classification divides organisms into Kingdoms (Har. PMT - 2005)
(1) 1 (2) 2 (3) 4 (4) 5
60. Engler and Prantl published aphylogenetic system in the monograph (Kerala - 2005)
(1) Genera Plantarum (2) Origin of Species
(3) Die Naturlichen Pflazenfamlien (4) Species Plantarum
61. A nonlegume, symbiotic nitrogen fIxing bacterium is. (BHU 2000, Orissa - 2005)
(1) Rhizobium (2) Azotobacter (3) Frankia (4) Clostridium.
62. Match the columns and choose the correct combination (Kerala - 2005)
Column I Column II
(a) Escherichia coli (i) Nif gene
(b) Rhizobium Meliloti (ii) Digest hydrocarbons of crude oil
(c) Bacillus thuringiensis (iii) Human insulin production
(d) Pseudomonas putida (iv) Biocontrol of fungal disease
(v) Biodegradable insecticide.
(1) (a)–(iii), (b) – (i), (c)–(v), (d)–(iv) (2) (a)–(i), (b) – (ii), (c)–(iii), (d)–(iv)
(3) (a)–(iii), (b) – (i), (c)–(v), (d)–(ii) (4) (a)–(ii), (b) – (i), (c)–(iii), (d)–(iv)
63. Pigments phycocyanin and phycoerythrin occur in (Kerala - 2005)
(1) Bacillariophyceae (2) Archaebacteria
(3) Eubacteria (4) Cyanophyceae
64. Match the columns and bring out correct option of inhibitor and its effect (Kerala - 2005)
Colum n I Column II
(a) Chloramphenicol (p) Inhibits binding of amino acyle RNA to ribosome
(b) Erythromycin (q) Inhibits interaction between tRNA and mRNA
(c) Neomycin (r) Inhibits initiation of translation
(d) Streptomycin (s) Inhibits peptidyl transferase activity
(e) Tetracycline (t) Inhibits translo cation of mRNA over ribosome
(1) a – p, b – q, c – r, d – t, e – s (2) a – r, b – p, c – t, d – s, e – q
(3) a – q, b – r, c – s, d – p, e – t (4) a – s, b – t, c – q, d – r, e – p
(5) a – t, b – s, c – p, d – q, e – r.
65. Prokaryotes are placed in a group (RPMT - 2005)
(1) Monera (2) Pteridophytes (3) Bryophyta (4) Angiosperms.
66. Photosynthetic pigments of bacteria are located in (Wardha - 2005)
(1) Cytoplasm (2) Thylakoid membranes
(3) Ribosomes (4) Chloroplast membrane
67. Bacteria are considered plants as they (BHU - 2005)
(1) Are green in colour (2) Have rigid cell wall (3) Have chlorophyll (4) Have stomata
68. All monerans (Pb. PMT - 2005)
(1) Contain DNA and RNA
(2) Are bacteria
(3) Demonstrate a ciruclar strand of DNA without a covering of nuclear membrane
(4) All of the above
69. Cyanobacteria are useful biofertilizers in fields of (Manipur - 2006)
(1) Wheat (2) Maize (3) Rice (4) Sugarcane
70. F-factor occurs in (Orissa - 2006)
(1) Plasmid (2) Cosmid (3) Golgi body (4) Cell wall.
71. Penicillin has inhibitory effect over bacteria by (Orissa - 2006)
(1) Destruction of nucleus (2) Inhibition of cell wall synthesis
(3) Stopping entrance of antibody (4) None of the above
72. Nitrite is changed to nitrate by (Orissa - 2006)
(1) Nitrobacter (2) Nitrosomonas (3) Clostridium (4) Pseudomonas
73. Rod-shaped bacteria are called (Orissa - 2006)
(1) Cocci (2) Bacilli (3) Spirilli (4) Vibrios.
74. System of classification that employs numerical data to evaluate similarities and differences is known as
(H.P.P.M.T. - 2007)
(1) Cytoaxonomy (2) Biosystemiatics (3) Phenetics (4) Chemotaxonomy
75. Huxley is father of (MPPMT - 2007)
(1) Artificial taxonomy (2) Adansonian taxonomy
(3) Classical taxonomy (4) Neotaxonomy.
76. Infolding of bacterial membrane is called (RPMT - 2006, DPMT - 2007)
(1) Mesosome (2) Sphaerosome (3) Acrosome (4) Episome
77. Sexual reproduction is absent in (Orissa - 2007)
(1) Xanthophyta (2) Cyanophyta (3) Chloropohyta (4) Rhodophyta
78. It causes abortion (MPPMT - 2007)
(1) Viruses (2) Bacteria (3) Mycoplasma (4) Chlamydia.
79. Which amino acid in present only in bacteria and cyanobacteria (MPPMT - 2007)
(1) Glycine (2) Tyrosine
(3) Glutamic acid (4) Diaminopimellic acid
80. Linnaen system of plant classification is based on (CPMT-2009)
(1) Morphological and anatomical characters (2) Evolutionary trends
(3) Floral characters (4) None of the above
81. Basic unit of classification is (CPMT-2009)
(1) Genus (2) Species (3) Order (4) Class
82. Which one of the following has least similar characters (2009 BCECE)
(1) Family (2) Class (3) Genus (4) Species
83. Pasteurization temperature is (CPMT-2009)
(1) 72° C for 20 minutes (2) 63° C for 15 seconds
(3) 70° C for 15 seconds (4) 65° C for 30 minutes
84. Plasmids are found in (CPMT-2009)
(1) Virus (2) Bacteria (3) Fungi (4) Viroid
85. Teichoic acid is present in (CPMT-2009)
(1) Cell wall of Gram positive bacteria (2) Cell wall of Gram negative bacteria
(3) Capsid of virus (4) Protoplasm of mycoplasma
86. Blue green algae belong to this kingdom (2009 BCECE)
(1) Plantae (2) Protista (3) Fungi (4) Monera
87. The shape of the Micrococcus bacteria is (2009 BCECE)

(1) Rod (2) Spiral (3) Oval (4) Coil
88. Mycoplasmas are sensitive to (2009 BCECE)

(1) Tetracyclines (2) Penicillin (3) Sugars (4) Amino acids
89. Interferons are (2009 BCECE)

(1) Nucleoproteins (2) Glycoproteins (3) Iipoproteins (4) Ribosomal proteins
90. Highest number of antibiotics are produced by (BHU-2009)
(1) Bacillus (2) Penicillium (3) Streptomyces (4) Cephalosporum
91. Viral genome incorporated host DNA is called (2010 BCECE)
(1) Prophase (2) Plasmid (3) Bacteriophage (4) None of these
92. The capsid of virus is synthesized on (2011 BCECE)

(1) Nucleus of the virus (2) Ribosomes of the host
(3) Mitochondria of the host (4) Plasma membrane of the host
93. Mycoplasma can multiply (2011 BCECE)
(1) Inculture media (2) In the body of living host
(3) On dead and decaying matter (4) All of the above
Kingdom - Protista
94. Diatoms stay a float due to (AMU - 2001)
(1) Pseudopodia (2) Flagella (3) Stored lipids (4) Foraminiferans.
95. Which of the following can be used as bacteriological filter (JIPMER - 2002)
(1) Gelidium (2) Batrachospermum (3)Oscillatoria (4) Cymbella.
96. What is not true for Euglena (Orissa - 2004)
(1) Presence of chlorophyll (2) Presence of proteinaceous pellicle
(3) Presence of cellulose cell wall (4) Presence of flagellum.
97. Auxospores and hormocysts are formed respectively by (AIPMT - 2005)
(1) Some diatoms and several cyanobacteria (2) Some cyanobacteria and several diatoms
(3) Several cyanobacteria and several diatoms (4) Serveral diatoms and few cyanobacteria.
98. Chlorophyll containing euglenoid species are (Pb. PMT - 2005)
(1) Facultative autotrophs (2) Obligate autotrophs
(3) Obligate heterotrophs (4) Facultative heterotrophs.
99. Kingdom protists includes (Pb. PMT - 2005)
(1) Life cycle showing sporic meiosis 2) Life cycle showing zygotic meiosis
(3) Life cycle showing gametic meisosis (4) Both 2 and 3.
100. The term protista was coined by (Bih. PMT - 2006)
(1) Haeckel (2) Linnaeus (3) Copeland (4) Whittaker.
101. Progressive diminishing size of diatoms is prevented by production of (COMED-K’s - 2006)
(1) Auxospores (2) Arthrospores (3) Zoospores (4) Basidiospores.
102. Bioluminescence is shown by (Orissa - 2006)
(1) Ceratium (2) Chlorella (3) Hirudinaria (4) Chlamydomonas.
103. Diatoms / Diatomaceous earth belong to class (CPMT - 2007, Orissa - 2007)
(1) Xanthophyceae (2) Bacillariophyceae (3) Phaeophyceae (4) Chlorophyceae.
104. Chloroplasts of euglenophyceae are surrounded by (Orissa - 2007)
(1) Double membrane (2) Single membrane
(3) Three layered membrane (4) Four layered membrane.
105. The thalloid body of slime mould (myxomycetes) is known as (AFMC - 2008)
(1) Plasmodium (2) Protonema (3) Fruiting body (4) Mycelium.
106. Protista includes (BHU-2008)
(1) Unicellular eukaryotes (2) Multicellullar prokaryotes
(3) Unicellular prokaryotes (4) All of the above
107. Which of the following organisms completely lack cell wall, they are the smallest living cells known and
can survive without oxygen? (AFMC - 2009)
(1) Mycoplasma (2) Euglenoids (3) Slime moulds (4) All of these
108. Which one of the following has characters of both plant and animal (2009 BCECE)
(1) Bacteria (2) Mycoplasma (3) Euglena (4) Paramoecium
109. Single-celled eukaryotes are included in (AIPMT - 2010)
(1) Fungi (2) Archaea (3) Monera (4) Protista
110. Which of the following is not a protist (2011 BCECE)
(1) Amoeba (2) Taenia (3) Paramecium (4) Euglena
Kingdom Fungi
111. Columella is a structure found in (AIPMT - 1997)
(1) Ascus of Penicillium (2) Sporangium of Rhizopus
(3) Pycnidia of Puccinia (4) None of the above
112. Which is correct about cell wall of bacteria and fungi both have (CPMT - 1998)
(1) Glycopeptide (2) N-acetylglucosamine
(3) N-acetylglucosamine and cellulose (4) Chitin.
113. Fungus used in genetic experiments is (RPMT - 1998)
(1) Rhizopus (2) Mucor (3) Neurospora (4) Claviceps.
114. Puccinia produces (AIPMT - 1998)
(1) Uredia and pycnia on Barberry leaves (2) Uredia and aeacia on Barberry leaves
(3) Uredia and aeacia on Wheat leaves (4) Uredia and telia on Wheat leaves
115. Antibiotic flavicin is produced by (MPPMT - 1999)
(1) Aspergillus fumigatus (2) A. clavatus
(3) Streptomyces griseus (4) S. fradiae.
116. In Yeast, cell wall contains (AFMC - 1999)
(1) Amylose and glucose (2) Glucose and mannose
(3) Glucose and muramic acid (4) Sucrose and mannose.
117. Mushroom is (BHU - 1999)
(1) Saprophyte (2) Facultative parasite (3) Obligate parasite (4) Phagotroph.
118. Yeast is important source of (BHU - 1999)
(1) Proteins (2) Riboflavin (3) Vitamin C (4) Sugars.
119. Aflatoxicosis of poultry is due to (APMEE - 1999)
(1) Candida albicans (2) Penicillum notatum
(3) Aspergilus flavus (4) Aspergillus fumigatus
120. Cheese maturation is connected with (Manipal - 1999)
(1) Aspergillus oryzae (2) Aspergillus niger
(3) Penicillum camemberti (4) Penicillium chyrsogneum.
121. In an ascus of ascomycetes, number and arrangement of ascopores are (BHU - 2000)
(1) 8 in linear order (2) 4 in linear order
(3) both 1 and 2 (4) 8 or 4, linear order or unordered.
122. Collateral host is (Pb. PMT - 2000)
(1) Additional host (2) Host in which life cycle is completed
(3) Alternate host (4) Infected host
123. A coprophilous fungus is (JIPMER - 2000)
(1) Trichoderma (2) Pilobolus (3) Fusarium (4) Humicola.
124. In Agaricus, the largest phase of nuclear conditions is (Kerala - 2001)
(1) n (2) 2 n (3) n + n (4) 3 n (5) 4n.
125. Fungi differ from other kingdoms in being (DPMT - 2001)
(1) Unicellular consumers (2) Unicellular decomposers
(3) Multicellular consumers (4) Multicellular decompsers.
126. Which one is a laboratory weed (Pb. PMT - 2001)
(1) Penicillium (2) Aspergillus (3) Neurosopora (4) Yeast.
127. Rice blast is caused by (AMU - 2001)
(1) Taphrina deformis (2) Puccinia graminis
(3) Pyricularia oryzae (4) Colletotrichum falcatum.
128. An edible sac fungus is (Kerala - 2002)
(1) Lycoperdon (2) Agaricus (3) Morchella (4) Rhizopus
129. A septum having pore complex in eumycota is (BHU - 2002)
(1) Septal pore (2) Dolipore septum (3) Lomasome (4) Coenocyte
130. Wart disease caused by Synchytrium endobioticum occurs in (JIPMER - 2002)
(1) Cabbage (2) Pea (3) Groundnut (4) Potato.
131. A fungal disease that spreads by seeds and flowers is (AIPMT - 2002)
(1) Loose smut of Wheat (2) Corn smut
(3) Covered smut of Barley (4) Soft rot of Potato.
132. Toxin is secreted during storage condition by (AIPMT - 2002)
(1) Fusarium (2) Colletotrichum (3) Penicillium (4) Aspergillus
133. Symbiotic association between fungus and root of higher plant is (HPPMT - 2001, BV - 2002)
(1) Lichen (2) Mycorrhiza (3) Orchid (4) Puffball.
134. Match the columns (Har. PMT - 2002)
(a) Early Blight of Potato (i) Puccinia graminis
(b) Late Blight of Potato (ii) Ustilago tritici
(c) Smut of Wheat (iii) Phytophthora infestans
(d) Rust of Wheat (iv) Alternaria solani
(1) (a) – (i), (b) – (ii), (c)– (iii), (d) – (iv) (2) (a) – (iv), (b) – (iii), (c) – (ii), (d) – (i)
(3) (a) – (ii), (b) – (iii), (c)– (i), (d) – (i) (4) (a) – (iv), (b) – (ii), (c)– (iii), (d) – (i)
135. Citric acid is got from (Manipla - 1999, AMU - 1999, AIPMT - 2002)
(1) Aspergillus niger (2) Polyporus species
(3) Penicillium notatum (4) Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
136. The deadlist mushroom is (Kerala - 2003)
(1) Agaricus (2) Amanita (3) Pleurotus (4) Volvariella.
137. In endomycorrhiza, the fungus is generally (AMU - 2003)
(1) Ascomycetes (2) Zygomycetes (3) Basidiomycetes (4) Deuteromycetes.
138. Dolipore septum occurs in (JIPMER - 2003)
(1) Zygomycetes (2) Basidiomycetes (3) Ascomycetes (4) Alternaria.
139. In lichen, fungus has (AIPMT - 2003)
(1) Symbiotic relationship with alga (2) Epiphytic relationship with alga
(3) Saprophytic relationship with alga (4) Parasitic relationship with alga.
140. Lichen growing on wood is called (AFMC - 2004)
(1) Corticolous (2) Lignocolous (3) Terricolous (4) Saxicolous
141. Which one of the following is antifungal antibiotic (JIPMER - 2004)
(1) Streptomycin (2) Aureomuycin (3) Griseofulvin (4) Chloromycetin.
142. Lichens are well known combination of an alga and a fungus where fungus has (AIPMT - 2004)
(1) A parasitic relationship with the alga (2) A symbiotic relationship with the alga
(3) A saprophytic relationship with the alga (4) An epiphytic relationship with the alga
143. Fungal flagellum originates from (Orissa - 2004)
(1) Dictyosome (2) Kinetosome (3) Glyoxisome (4) Oxysome.
144. Ascocarp of Penicillium is (AFMC - 1999, Bih, PMT - 2004)
(1) Perithecium (2) Apothecium (3) Acrostroma (4) Cleistothecium.
145. Claviceps purpurea grows as parasite (CPMT - 2005)
(1) In human gut (2) In sugarcane roots (3) One pine needles (4) On fruits of grasses.
146. Zygospore is formed from (Wardha - 2005)
(1) Gametangial copulation (2) Gametic union
(3) Zygote (4) Oogamy
147. Bakane disease was caused by (Wardha - 2005)
(1) Fungal toxin (2) Growth hormone released by fungal infection
(3) Change in photoperiod (4) inadequate nutrients.
148. Which of the following environmental conditions are essential for optimum growth of Mucor on a piece of
bread. (AIPMT - 2006)
(a) Temperature about 25ºC (b) Temperature about 5%
(c) Relative humidity of about 5% (d) Relative humidity of about 95%
(e) A shaded place (f) A Brightly illuminated place.
Choose the answer from the following options
(1) b,c and e only (2) a, c and e only (3) a, d and e only (4) b,d and e only
149. Red rot of Sugarcane and white rust of Radish are respectively caused by (Kerala - 2006)
(1) Colletotrichum and Albugo candida (2) Colletotrichum and Fusarium
(3) Pythium and phytophthora (4) Albugo candida and Puccinia graminis
(5) Albugo candida and Cercospora.
150. Coenogametes are formed in (B.V. - 2006)
(1) Alternaria (2) Albugo (3) Rhizopus (4) Saccharomyces.
151. Usinc acid is an antibiotic obtained from (Manipur - 2006)
(1) Fungi (2) Bacteria (3) Lichen (4) Algae.
152. Which is not found in mushroom (Orissa - 2006)
(1) Eukaryotic structure (2) Dikaryotic mycelium
(3) Basidiospores (4) Ascospores.
153. Puccinia infection from Barberry to Wheat occurs through (CPMT - 1999, B.V. - 2006)
(1) Teleutospores (2) Uredospores (3) Aeciospores (4) Pycnospores.
154. Clamp connection are found in (Orissa - 2004, BHU - 2006)
(1) Ascomycetes (2) Zygomycetes (3) Saccharomycetes (4) Basidiomycetes.
155. Which pair belongs to basidiomycetes (AIPMT - 2006)
(1) Puffball and Claviceps (2) Peziza and Stink Horn
(3) Morchella and Mushroom (4) Bird Nest Fungus and Puffball
156. Soft rot disease of Sweet Potato is due to (JKCMEE - 2007)
(1) Rhizopus stolonifer (2) Chlamydomonas nivalis
(3) Rhizopus sexualis (4) Chlamyhdomonas coccifera
157. A fungus which grows on a host but can also subsist on organic matter is (HPPMT - 2007)
(1) Obligate parasite (2) Obligate saprophyte
(3) Facultative saprophyte (4) Facultative parasite.
158. Mycorrhiza generally occurs in (DPMT - 2007)
(1) Alkaline soils (2) Acidic soils (3) Oligotrophic soils (4) Eutrophic soils.
159. Cell wall of fungi is made up of (CPMT- 2009)
(1) Fungal cellulose (2) Hemicellulose (3) Fungal chitin (4) Both (1) and (3)
160. Clamp connections are found in (BHU -2009)
(1) Phycomycetes (2) Ascomycetes (3) Basidiomycetes (4) Deuteromycetes
161. Which one of the following is not commercially produced by yeast? (CPMT- 2009)
(1) Enzyme (2) Vitamin (3) Hormone (4) Riboflavin
162. Lichen is the association of (BHU-2009)
(1) Protista and algae (2) Fungi and bacteria (3) Protista and fungi (4) Algae and fungi
163. This fungus is not edible (2009 BCECE)

(1) Agaricus (2) Toadstool (3) Puffballs (4) Morchella
164. Aflatoxin is produced by a (2009 BCECE)

(1) Virus (2) Bacteria (3) Ascomycota fungi (4) Basidiomycota fungi
165. Bakanae disease is caused by (BHU-2009)
(1) Fungus (2) Alga (3) Bacterium (4) Virus
166. Ringworm in humans in caused by (AIPMT - 2010)
(1) Fungi (2) Nematodes (3) Viruses (4) Bacteria
167. Mycorrhizal association is must for growth of (2011 BCECE)
(1) Mushrooms (2) orchids (3) sal and teak (4) None of these
BOARD LEVEL EXERCISE : HINT & SOLUTIONS
1. Taxonomy : It is branch of science that deals with identification, nomenclature and classification of living
beings. The term Taxonomy used by A.P. de Candolle in his book ‘Theory of elementary de la
botanqui’.
2 Some dinoflagellates grow profusely in the sea causing the water to look red and so called as “red tide”
Ex: Gonyaulax, Gymnodinium.
3. BGA is able to fix atmospheric nitrogen in to ammonium compounds. for this purspose some of their cells
become pale yellow and thick walled structure called heterocysts. The latter has nitrogenase enzyme
that performs nitrogen fixation in anaerobic conditions Ex: Anabaena, Nostoc, Aulosira.
4 Frustule
5 Phycobiont - It is the algal partner of lichen
mycobiont - It is the fungal partner of lichen
6 n- Haploid, 2n-Diploid, n+ n Dikaryophase
7 (i) ICBN – International Code of Botanical Nomenclature - for plants.
(ii) ICZN – International Code of Zoological Nomenclature - for animals.
8 (i) Methanogens(ii) Halophiles (iii) Thermoacidophiles
9. Siliceous shells of diatoms do not deccay, pile up and forms heaps called diatomaceous earth or diato-
mite or kiselgurh. The latter is employed as insulation material in refrigerators, boilers and furnaces.
10. (i) Fungi Imperfecti
The perfect stage or sexual stage is either absent or not reported therefore these are called fungi
imperfecti.
It is considered as artificial group without any common relationship. These are actually sac fungi that
have lost the ability to reproduce sexually.
Mycelium is septate, branched.
Asexual reproduction takes place through conidia formed on conidiophores.
Its some members produce diseases.
(ii) Mixotrophic nutrition
In mixotrophic type of nutrition organism show both holophytic and holozoic nutrition. Ex: Euglena,
11. Economic Importance of BGA :
(i) BGA can fix atmospheric nitrogen Ex: Aulosira fertilissima is most active nitrogen fixer in rice fields
enriching (upto 20%) rice fields with nitrogen, Anabaena azollae is found in the leaves of Azolla (an aquatic
fern) and fix nitrogen hence Azolla is introduced in rice fields as biofertilizer. Nostoc, Tolypothrix,
Cylindrospermum, are other major nitrogen fixers.
(ii) Nitrogen fixing BGA like Nostoc, Anabaena are used as a green manure that help in retaining soil
moisture along with supply of nitrogen salts.
(iii) Exessive growth of blue green algae (like Microcystis) is responsible for the formation of Algal bloom in
NO3 and PO4 rich water and cause deficiency of oxygen in water that is responsible for death of fishes.
(iv) Colonies of Nostoc (called Yuyucho) are consumed as food in china.
12. Differences between Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes
Ascomycetes Basidiomycetes
1. Septa are perforated by simple pore 1. Septa are perforated by dolipore
2. The fruiting bodies are ascocarps 2. The fruiting bodies are basidiocarps
3. Secondary mycelium is short lived 3. Sec. mycelium is long lived

4. Sexual reproduction leads to the formation of 4. Basidiomycetes are characterized by production
ascus (pl. asci) of basidia (sig. basidium)
5. Each ascus is a sac like structure that contains 5. Each basidium is a club-shaped structure that
8 ascospores bears 4 basidiospore
6. Ascospores are borne endogenously (inside the 6. Basidiospores are borne exogenously (attached
ascus) outside the basidia)
13. a = Phylum or Divison, b = Order, c = Family, d = Species

14. (i) Refer pg. No. 29 (Nutriton In Fungi)
(ii) Refer pg. No. 29 (Reproduction in Fungi)
15. Refer pg. No. 6 - 7 (Five kingdom classification)
16. Refer pg. No. 16 & 17 (Reproduction in bacteria)

OR
Refer pg. No. 13
17. (i) Refer pg. No. 29 (ii) Refer pg. No. 30 (iii) Refer pg. No. 40 (iv) Refer pg. No. 27
(v) (d) Amphitrichous : A Flagellum at each of the two ends. Ex: Nitrosomonas.
EXERCISE - 1
1. (1) 2. (1) 3. (4) 4. (1) 5. (1) 6. (1) 7. (4) 8. (4) 9. (1) 10. (2)
11. (4) 12. (3) 13. (4) 14. (4) 15. (3) 16. (1) 17. (4) 18. (3) 19. (1) 20. (3)
21. (2) 22. (3) 23. (1) 24. (1) 25. (2) 26. (1) 27. (4) 28. (1) 29. (2) 30. (1)
31. (4) 32. (4) 33. (3) 34. (4) 35. (3) 36. (1) 37. (2) 38. (4) 39. (1) 40. (2)
41. (2) 42. (4) 43. (2) 44. (1) 45. (4) 46. (3) 47. (2) 48. (2) 49. (3) 50. (1)
51. (1) 52. (1) 53. (4) 54. (3) 55. (2) 56. (2) 57. (2) 58. (3) 59. (4) 60. (1)
61. (2) 62. (3) 63. (4) 64. (2) 65. (1) 66. (4) 67. (2) 68. (1) 69. (3) 70. (2)
71. (4) 72. (3) 73. (4) 74. (4) 75. (2) 76. (2) 77. (4) 78. (4) 79. (3) 80. (4)
81. (2) 82. (1) 83. (3) 84. (1) 85. (2) 86. (1) 87. (1) 88. (3) 89. (1) 90. (3)
91. (2) 92. (3) 93. (4) 94. (3) 95. (2) 96. (4) 97. (1) 98. (2) 99. (2) 100. (4)
101. (4) 102. (1) 103. (1) 104. (3) 105. (3) 106. (2) 107. (1) 108. (3) 109. (1) 110. (3)
111. (2) 112. (2) 113. (3) 114. (4) 115. (3) 116. (4) 117. (3) 118. (2) 119. (4) 120. (4)
121. (4) 122. (4) 123. (1) 124. (2) 125. (4) 126. (4) 127. (1) 128. (2) 129. (1) 130. (1)
131. (2) 132. (3) 133. (1) 134. (1) 135. (2) 136. (3) 137. (3) 138. 4) 139. (2) 140. (3)
141. (1) 142. (3) 143. (4) 144. (4) 145. (2) 146. (4) 147. (2) 148. (3) 149. (2) 150. (2)
151. (3) 152. (2) 153. (3) 154. (4) 155. (4) 156. (2) 157. (1) 158. (1) 159. (3) 160. (3)
161. (3) 162. (2) 163. (1) 164. (1) 165. (1) 166. (3) 167. (2) 168. (2) 169. (3) 170. (1)
171. (2) 172. (4) 173. (3) 174. (3) 175. (1) 176. (1) 177. (1) 178. (2) 179. (2) 180. (1)
181. (2) 182. (3) 183. (2) 184. (1) 185. (1) 186. (1) 187. (1) 188. (2) 189. (3) 190. (2)
191. (4) 192. (1) 193. (2) 194. (1) 195. (4) 196. (1) 197. (4) 198. (3) 199. (4) 200. (2)
201. (1) 202. (1) 203. (1) 204. (2) 205. (4) 206. (1) 207. (2) 208. (1) 209. (2) 210. (4)
211. (2) 212. (3) 213. (4)
EXERCISE - 2
1. (4) 2. (2)
EXERCISE - 3
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (b) 6. (b) 7. (c) 8. (b) 9. (d) 10. (d)
11. (d) 12. (4) 13. (b) 14. (4) 15. (b)
EXERCISE - 4
1. (4) 2. (2) 3. (3) 4. (2) 5. (3) 6. (2) 7. (1) 8. (2) 9. (4) 10. (2)
11. (3) 12. (4) 13. (3) 14. (2) 15. (3) 16. (1) 17. (1) 18. (3) 19. (1) 20. (3)
21. (4) 22. (2) 23. (3) 24. (4) 25. (2) 26. (1) 27. (4) 28. (4) 29. (3) 30. (3)
31. (1) 32. (2) 33. (2) 34. (2) 35. (2) 36. (4) 37. (4) 38. (1) 39. (4) 40. (3)
41. (2) 42. (1) 43. (3) 44. (3) 45. (1) 46. (2) 47. (3) 48. (2) 49. (1) 50. (2)
51. (2) 52. (4) 53. (1) 54. (1) 55. (3) 56. (4) 57. (3) 58. (4) 59. (4) 60. (3)
61. (3) 62. (3) 63. (4) 64. (4) 65. (1) 66. (2) 67. (2) 68. (4) 69. (3) 70. (1)
71. (2) 72. (1) 73. (2) 74. (3) 75. (4) 76. (1) 77. (2) 78. (3) 79. (4) 80. (3)
81. (2) 82. (2) 83. (4) 84. (2) 85. (1) 86. (4) 87. (3) 88. (1) 89. (2) 90. (3)
91. (1) 92. (2) 93. (1) 94. (3) 95. (4) 96. (3) 97. (4) 98. (4) 99. (4) 100. (1)
101. (1) 102. (1) 103. (2) 104. (3) 105. (1) 106. (1) 107. (1) 108. (3) 109. (4) 110. (2)
111. (2) 112. (2) 113. (3) 114. (4) 115. (1) 116. (2) 117. (1) 118. (2) 119. (3) 120. (3)
121. (4) 122. (1) 123. 2) 124. (3) 125. (4) 126. (2) 127. (3) 128. (3) 129. (2) 130. (4)
131. (1) 132. (4) 133. (2) 134. (2) 135. (1) 136. (2) 137. (2) 138. (2) 139. (1) 140. (2)
141. 3) 142. (2) 143. (2) 144. (4) 145. (4) 146. (1) 147. (2) 148. (3 149. (1) 150. (3)
51. (3) 152. (4) 153. (3) 154. (4) 155. (4) 156. (1) 157. (3) 158. (3) 159. (4) 160. (3)
161. (3) 162. (4) 163. (2) 164. (3) 165. (1) 166. (1) 167. (4)

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BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION

(b) Numerical Taxonomy (Phenetics or Taximetrics) or Adansonian Taxonomy : It is based on the

(d) Experimental Taxonomy : It is based on study of experimental determination of the genetic

Turril (1938) divided taxonomy into three types.

(A) Polynomial Nomenclature :

(B) Binomial Nomenclature :

Scientific names have been recognized by following institutions.

(i) ICBN – International Code of Botanical Nomenclature - for plants.

Rules for Binomial nomenclature :

(C) Trinomial nomenclature :

(I) Artificial systems of classification :

1. Two kingdom system–Plant and animal :

Shortcomings of Two-Kingdom System :

2. Three kingdom system :

3. Four kingdom system :

4. Five kingdom system :

The five kingdoms are Monera – Protista – Fungi – Plantae – Animalia.

(ii) Cell wall bears peptidoglycan except archaebacteria and mycoplasma.

(vi) 70 S type of Ribosomes are present.

(viii) Nutrition is autotrophic/heterotrophic.

Note: Cyclosis (streaming movement of cytoplasm) is absent in monerans.

(iii) 16 s rRNA is present.

These are of three types

NEET_ KINGDOM MONERA # 9

(1) Monococcus : Occurs singly Ex: Micrococcus roseus, M. luteus.

NEET_ KINGDOM MONERA # 11

Gram Staining Technique :

NEET_ KINGDOM MONERA # 12

NEET_ KINGDOM MONERA # 13

(B) Cytoplasm and Cytoplasmic Inclusion Bodies :

(4) Mesosome or chondrioid :

(i) Central mesosome (ii) Peripheral mesosome

The length of each flagellum is 4–5 m while diameter is 15–20 nm.

NEET_ KINGDOM MONERA # 14

DNA is naked, double stranded, circular.

Bacterial genome is haploid. It does not follow Chargaff’s rule.

NEET_ KINGDOM MONERA # 15

(10) Inclusion bodies (storage granules) :

(i) By Binary Fission :

NEET_ KINGDOM MONERA # 16

(iii) Genetic Recombination / Parasexuality :

NEET_ KINGDOM MONERA # 17

(iii) Abortive transduction :

Economic importance of bacteria :

(A) Useful Activities :

(3) Nitrifying bacteria : They convert ammonia into nitrates.

NEET_ KINGDOM MONERA # 18

(6) Vinegar : Ex: Acetobacter aceti, A. schizenbachi.

S.No. Antibiotics Source (Name of bacteria)

(11) Decomposition of petroleum/hydrocarbons : Genetically engineered superbug (Pseudomonas putida)

NEET_ KINGDOM MONERA # 19

S.No. Disease Agent

1 Typhoid Salmonella typhi

6 Meningitis Neisseria meningitidis

10 Syphilis (STD) Treponema pallidum

12 Gas Gangrene Clostridium perfringens

14 Diarrhoeal disease Enteritis E. Coli , Shigella, Salmonella, Campylobacter

15 Tuberculosis (TB) Mycobactertium tuherculosis

Male sterility and female

17 Pneumonia Streptococcus pneumoniae

18 Pimples Staphylococcus aureus

Bacterial diseases in plants

S.No. Plant diseases Causal organism