Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1
[30]
4.14.1 Provisional Plate Design ...........................................................................................................35
4.14.2 Weir Height (hw).............................................................................................................................36
4.14.3 Weeping........................................................................................................................................36
4.14.4 Plate Pressure Drop.......................................................................................................................39
4.14.5 Downcomer Design [40]...................................................................................................................42
4.14.6 Residence Time [41].........................................................................................................................44
4.14.7 Entrainment [42]..............................................................................................................................44
4.14.8 Trial Layout....................................................................................................................................46
4.14.9 Liquid Flow Arrangement..............................................................................................................48
4.14.10 Hydraulic Gradient.......................................................................................................................49
4.14.11 Actual Plate Efficiency [47].............................................................................................................49
4.14.12 Actual Number of Plates..............................................................................................................51
4.14.13 Height of Column.........................................................................................................................51
5.0 Energy Balance...........................................................................................................................................52
5.1.1 Condenser Heat Load (QC)...................................................................................................................52
5.1.2 Condenser Design................................................................................................................................55
5.1.2.1 Heat Transfer Area and Number of Tubes (NT)............................................................................55
5.1.2.2 Tube Bundle Diameter (Db) [........................................................................................................56
5.1.2.3 Length of Condenser.....................................................................................................................57
5.2 Tube Side Coefficient [55].........................................................................................................................58
5.3 Shell Side Coefficient [58]..........................................................................................................................59
5.4 The Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient.....................................................................................................62
5.5 Reboiler Design.......................................................................................................................................63
5.5.1 Reboiler Duty...................................................................................................................................63
5.5.2 Kettle Reboiler Design.....................................................................................................................64
6.0 Mechanical Design......................................................................................................................................67
6.1 Shell Thickness........................................................................................................................................67
6.2 Skirt Design [66]....................................................................................................................................68
6.3 Heads and Closures............................................................................................................................72
6.4 Material Selection...................................................................................................................................72
6.5 Pipe Sizing...........................................................................................................................................73
6.5.1 Pipe Sizing at the Feed.....................................................................................................................74
6.5.2 Pipe Sizing at the Distillate...............................................................................................................76
6.5.3 Pipe sizing at the bottoms...............................................................................................................77
2
6.6 Concept Drawing....................................................................................................................................80
7.0 Control and Instrumentation [74].................................................................................................................80
7.1.1 Quality Control....................................................................................................................................81
7.1.2 Pressure Control..................................................................................................................................82
7.1.3 Temperature Control...........................................................................................................................83
7.1.4 Flow Control........................................................................................................................................84
7.1.5 Level Control........................................................................................................................................85
7.1.6 Alarms and Safety Trips [74]...................................................................................................................85
7.1.7 Valve Selection [76]................................................................................................................................87
7.1.8 Instruments and Controllers................................................................................................................88
7.1.9 Pipe Labelling.......................................................................................................................................89
8.0 Hazard and Operability Study (HAZOP)......................................................................................................91
9.0 Economic Appraisal....................................................................................................................................92
9.1.1 Estimation of Capital Costs..................................................................................................................92
9.1.1.1 Wilson’s Method [81]......................................................................................................................93
9.1.1.2 Zevnik and Buchanan Method [81].................................................................................................95
9.1.1.3 Bridgewater‘s Method [81].............................................................................................................96
9.1.2 Cost of Raw Materials..........................................................................................................................99
9.1.3 Operating Costs.................................................................................................................................100
9.1.4 Plant Income......................................................................................................................................101
9.1.5 Cash Flow.......................................................................................................................................101
9.2 Breakeven and Profitability Analysis.....................................................................................................104
9.2.1 Amortisation..................................................................................................................................104
9.2.3 Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return............................................................................................106
9.2.4 Return on Investment....................................................................................................................108
9.2.5 Analysis of Profitability and Improvements to Profitability...........................................................108
10.0 Economic Optimisation...........................................................................................................................109
10.1.1 Potential Changes to the Existing Plant.................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
10.1.1.1 Re-define Product Purity................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
10.1.1.2 Improved Heat Integration.......................................................................................................110
10.1.1.3 Control System Upgrade...........................................................................................................111
10.1.2 Divided Wall Column.............................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
References:.....................................................................................................................................................113
3
1.0 Project Objectives
This section of the advanced process design module involves designing a product distillation column. It is a
continuation from the group project which involved the production of 100000 tonnes per year of Methyl
Ethyl Ketone to be located in China.
This report will focus on certain chemical engineering design features including calculations of length and
diameter. Also, it will be important to consider materials of construction and other characteristics associated
with designing a distillation column. Within this part of the report cost and economical appraisal of designing
the distillation column will be included.
The type of alarms, trips and relief devices which will be used will be included in the control and
instrumentation section of the report. When selecting the types of control and instrumentation devices for
the distillation column it will be important to consider temperatures and pressures.
A piping and instrumentation drawing will be constructed for the product distillation column. This will
include all alarms, control valves, pressure relief devices and utilities.
This report will also include a Hazard and Operability study (HAZOP). This will be carried out as a group with
the group supervisor. Each member will select a process line and a HAZOP will be carried out.
Within this report a costing and economic optimisation of the product distillation column design will also be
carried out. The last section of the report includes the economic appraisal for the process. Within this
section the capital costs of the process will be determined. Standard correlations will be used to determine if
the project is economically feasible. It will identify whether the project should be carried out in the real
world.
4
Research in detail and evaluate the design of a distillation column. Including characteristics such as
number of trays, column height, column diameter, efficiency and flooding parameters.
Research the various types of control systems, instrumentation and monitoring systems for the safe
operation of the distillation column.
Construct a P +ID indicating clearly all equipment items, piping, process and utility lines, control
loops, valves, instruments including alarms and trips, pressure relief devices. Include a key of
symbols and ensure that the diagram is correctly numbered.
Carry out the HAZOP with the group. This will include systems which are required for the safe
operation of the distillation column and reduce the chance of any accidents occurring.
An economic appraisal should be carried out. This will include an estimate of the overall capital costs
and annual operating costs. Parameters including product price, construction time and interest rate
should also be justified.
References used throughout the project should be listed.
All appropriate documents including the Gantt Chart, lengthy calculations and any large drawings
should be placed in the appendices.
5
Improve technical skills by carrying out a HAZOP and constructing a P +ID which may be useful in
future projects.
Proof read all work to correct any errors which may occur and to ensure that work is of a high
standard.
6
3.0 Introduction
One of the most important operation in the chemical and petroleum industry is the separation of liquid
mixtures into several components. It is sometimes referred to as fractional distillation. It is one of the oldest
unit operation processes. The technical publication of distillation was first developed in 1957, however,
distillation had been practiced for many centuries prior to this. Distillation is one of the most common and
widely used separation processes in the chemical industry. However, it is also an extremely energy intensive
[1]
process. It requires large amounts of energy for both cooling and heating. 50% of plants operating costs
are produced from distillation. At present distillation is commonly used in the petroleum, chemical,
petrochemical, beverage and pharmaceutical industries. Distillation is a process which is important in the
development of new products and for the recovery and reuse of volatile liquids. [2] A great deal of research
has been carried out into techniques of distillation due to the demand for purer products and a persistent
requirement of greater efficiency.
When designing a distillation column it is essential to consider process control. Many distillation columns
[3]
usually operate with the combination of many other separate units. The correct design of a distillation
[2]
column is not always a simple procedure as it is regarded as a specialised technology. Compared to other
types of processing equipment distillation columns have to be designed with a larger range in capacity with
single columns varying from 0.3 to 10m in diameter and 3m to 75m in height. It is important that designers
are able to provide the desired product quality at a minimum cost but also at a constant purity.
Distillation is usually used to separate liquid mixtures into two or more vapour or liquid products which have
different compositions. [1] The separation of liquid mixtures is dependent on the differences in the volatility
[3] There
between the components. Separation is easier if the relative volatilities are larger. are two major types
of distillation, this includes continuous distillation and batch distillation. [4] In continuous distillation the feed
is supplied continuously. There are usually no interruptions however, problems may occur with the column
or surrounding units. This type is the more common of the two types of distillation. However, in batch
distillation the feed is supplied to the column batch-wise. The column is charged with a batch and the
distillation process is then carried out. Once the desired task has been achieved the next batch of the feed is
then introduced. [5]
7
3.1 Components of Distillation Columns
The following section is a description of the components required for the operation of a distillation column.
This includes a reboiler and a condenser.
3.1.1Reboiler [5][6]
The main objective of a reboiler in distillation columns is to vaporise a fraction of the bottom product. They
are used to provide the necessary vaporisation required for the distillation process. [5] There are three
principal types of reboilers used in distillation columns. They are as follows:
1. Forced Circulation Reboiler: the fluid is pumped through the exchanger and the vapour which is
formed is separated at the base of the column. Figure 1 shows a diagram of a forced circulation
reboiler.
2. Thermosyphon Natural Circulation Reboiler: it is a vertical exchanger with vaporisation in the tubes
or the shell. The difference in density between the two-phase mixture of vapour and liquid and the
single phase liquid in the base of the column helps maintain the liquid circulation through the
exchanger. The most frequently used reboiler is the shell and tube thermosyphon reboiler this is
because it is the most economical type of reboiler for most applications. Figure 2 shows a diagram
of a thermosyphon reboiler.
The choice of the reboiler to be used for a given duty will depend on certain factors including [6]:
1. The nature of the process fluid i.e. the viscosity and propensity to fouling.
2. The operating pressure i.e. vacuum or pressure.
3. The equipment layout.
Condensers are available in a range of designs and in many different sizes. Capital costs of condensers can be
reduced by using a carbon steel shell. There are four possible condenser configurations which may occur as
they. They are as follows:
1. Horizontal in design with condensation occurring in the shell and the cooling medium in tubes.
2. Horizontal in design with condensation in the tubes.
3. Vertical in design with condensation in the shell.
4. Vertical in design with condensation in the tubes.
9
4.0 Chemical Engineering Design
4.1 Process Description [8]
A mixture containing Methyl Ethyl Ketone and Secondary Butyl Alcohol is obtained from the solvent recovery
column and this is fed to the product distillation column.
Methyl Ethyl
Ketone
Secondary Butyl
Alcohol to the recycle
stream
The product distillation unit will be fed with a Methyl Ethyl Ketone (MEK)/ Secondary Butyl Alcohol (SBA)
mixture. The mixture fed to the product distillation column is obtained from the distillate of the solvent
recovery column. Before the mixture is fed to the product distillation column, the two streams are firstly
mixed in an intermediate storage holding tank. Within the product distillation column cooling water is
utilised, which enters the condenser at 24°C and leaves at 40°C. In the reboiler steam enters at 140°C and at
a pressure of 2.0 bar.
There are various stages in the design of a distillation column. They can be divided into the following steps:
Firstly the degree of separation required is specified. The product specifications are set.
The operating conditions are selected; i.e. batch or continuous, temperature and pressure.
Select the type of contacting device which is required; i.e. tray design or packed column.
Determine the stage and reflux requirements; i.e. the number of stages required for distillation
using various correlations, calculating the minimum reflux ratio and the reflux ratio.
Size the column; i.e. diameter, height and number of real stages.
10
Design the column internals; i.e. plates and packing supports.
Consider the mechanical design.
Design the condenser and reboiler.
It is assumed that the operating temperature of the column will be at an average temperature of 89 °C
(362K). This is because Methyl Ethyl Ketone has a boiling point of 79.79°C and Secondary Butyl Alcohol has a
boiling point of 99°C. So the feed has been set to operate at a temperature in between the boiling points of
the two components.
(79.79+99)
=89 ° C
2
The column will be operated on a continuous basis and will be operated at atmospheric pressure at 89 °C
(362K).
Packed columns are used for a variety of processes including distillation, gas absorption and liquid-liquid
extraction. In packed bed columns the gas liquid contact is continuous, however, in plate columns it occurs
11
stage-wise. In packed columns the liquid flows down the column and over the packed surface and the
vapour flows counter-currently up the column. The adequate operation and performance of a packed
column relies greatly on the maintenance of good liquid and gas distribution throughout the packed bed.
Figure 5 shows a diagram of a packed column. Packed distillation columns and plate columns are similar.
However, the difference being that in packed columns the plates are replaced with packed sections.
They provide a large surface area i.e. to provide a high interfacial area between the vapour and
liquid.
They should have an open structure.
They should promote the uniform distribution of liquid on the packing surface.
They should promote uniform vapour gas flow across the column cross-section.
Various types of packing have been developed with many shapes and sizes to satisfy the requirements. They
are usually divided into two categories:
1. Random Packing
2. Structured Packing
The various types of random and structured packing can be seen in appendix ##.
In distillation columns cross-flow plates are the most common type used. In this type design the liquid flows
across the plate and the vapour flows up through the plate. The liquid is passed from one plate to the next
through vertical channels which are known as downcomers. Figure 6 shows a diagram of a cross-flow plate.
12
In certain occasions plates may be used which do not have any downcomers. They are known as non-cross-
flow plates. This type of plate may be utilised when a particularly low pressure drop is required.
1. Sieve Plate also sometimes called perforated plate: This type of plate is the simplest type of
cross-flow plate. The vapour passes the holes in the plate and the liquid is retained on the plate
due to the vapour flow. In occasions when flow rates are low liquid weeps through the holes and
this reduces plate efficiency. Usually the perforations are small holes however, in some cases
larger holes and slots are also made use of.
[13]
Figure 7: Diagram of a Sieve Plate
13
are enclosed by a cap with a jagged edge or slots. Risers ensure that a level of liquid is
maintained on the tray at all vapour flow-rates.
3. Valve Plate also sometimes called floating cap plate: This type of plate is very much similar to
sieve plates however, the only difference being that they have large diameter holes which are
covered by movable flaps. When the vapour flow increases the movable flaps lift. Valves plates
are able to operate more efficiently at lower flow rates in comparison to sieve plates. At low
flow rates the valves in the valve plate’s close.
14
It can be observed from the mass balance in section 4.8 that a plate column will be more suitable. This is
because the flow rates in this process are large and these will require a large diameter. In cases when the
diameter is large it is possible to have plates or trays.
When selecting the plate type many factors are considered including cost, capacity, operating range,
efficiency and pressure drop. Of the three types sieve plates are the cheapest and are satisfactory for most
applications. The operating costs of sieve plates are the pressure drop is lower compared to the other types
of plates. For these reasons the selected type of plate for the distillation column is sieve plates.
17 Product Distillation
Column
19
15
Previously in the group report it was assumed that hundred percent separation i.e. complete separation was
achieved. However, this is not likely to occur to reality. The temperature difference between the
components is only 20°C as Methyl Ethyl Ketone has a boiling point of 79.79°C and Secondary Butyl Alcohol
(SBA) has a boiling point of 99°C. The distillate temperature is assumed to be the boiling point of Methyl
Ethyl Ketone i.e. the desired product. A small amount of SBA is assumed to be present in the distillate. Also,
a small quantity of MEK is also present in the bottom product. This means that the mass balance calculated
in the previous report has to be adjusted.
The following table shows the summary of the compositions entering and leaving the product distillation
column before recalculation.
Inlet
Stream: 17
Components kg/hr kmol/hr wt%
MEK 12276.78571 170.2744204 89.66
SBA 1416.08693 19.11048489 10.34
Hydrogen
Water
TCE
Total 13692.87264 189.3849053 100
Table 1a: Inlet Flowrates of the product Distillation Column [8]
Outlet
Stream: 18 19
Components kg/hr kmol/hr wt% kg/hr kmol/hr wt%
MEK 12276.78571 170.2744204 99.0
SBA 124.00794 1.673521457 1.00 1292.07899 17.43696343 100
Hydrogen
Water
TCE
Total 12400.79365 171.9479419 100 1292.07899 17.43696343 100
Total Outlet Mass flowrate = 13692.87264 kg/hr
Table 1b: Outlet Flowrates of the Product Distillation Column [8]
16
4.8.1 Adjusted Mass Balance
It was previously assumed in the group project that all the MEK is recovered in the distillate i.e. meaning that
there would be no MEK in the bottom product stream. This does not usually occur. So it is assumed that
there is a 99% separation. This means that 99% of the MEK from the feed is recovered in the distillate and
therefore the remaining 1% is recovered in the bottom product. This will mean the previous mass balance
will have to be adjusted. This is calculated in this section of the report.
The inlet stream to the distillation column does not change. This can be seen from table 2a below:
Inlet
Stream: 17
Components kg/hr kmol/hr wt%
MEK 12276.786 170.274 90
SBA 1416.0867 19.110 10
Total 13692.873 189.385 100
Table 2a: Inlet Flowrate of the Product Distillation Column [8]
Outlet
B
log 10 ( P )= A− Equation 1: Antoine Equation[14]
(T +C )
Where:
17
P = Vapour Pressure (bar)
T = Temperature (K)
A, B and C are constants
The following table shows the Antoine constants, the boiling point and latent heat of vaporisation for both
MEK and SBA.
1150.207
log 10 ( P )=3.9894−
(362+(−63.904))
log 10 ( P ) = 0.131
P = 100.131
P = 1.35bar
1158.672
log 10 ( P )=4.32943−
(362+(−104.683))
log 10 ( P ) = -0.1735
P = 10−0.1735
P = 0.67 bar
P°A
α AB= °
PB
Where:
18
A = Light Key
B = Heavy Key
P°A 1.35
α AB= °
= =2.015
P B 0.67
αAB = 2.015
The reflux ratio is a very important factor in the determination of the number of stages required for
separation. An increase in the reflux ratio reduces the number of stages required for separation. This leads
to a decrease in capital costs, however, operating costs and service requirements such as steam and water
increases. The optimum reflux ratio will be the ratio at which the annual operating costs are its lowest.
The minimum reflux ratio Rmin is calculated using the Underwood equation. It is assumed that the feed enters
at its boiling point. Therefore q=1.
1 x D α AB (1−x D )
Rmin =
[ α AB−1 ]( xF
−
1−x F )
Equation 2: Underwood Equation to calculate the minimum reflux ratio
Where:
Substitute in values:
19
1 0.99
Rmin =
[
2.015−1 0.90
−2.015
(1−0.99)
(1−0.90) ]
Rmin = 0.88
It is suggested that for many systems the optimum reflux ratio lies between 1.2 to 1.5 times the minimum
reflux ratio.
Therefore:
R= Rmin x 1.5
R= 0.88 x 1.5
R= 1.323
20
4.11 Fenske Equation and Gilliland Correlation [19]
The Fenske Equation and Gilliland correlation are used together to calculate the number of theoretical
stages. The minimum number of stages required at the total reflux can be calculated using the Fenske
equation. The number of theoretical plates required can then be estimated using the Gilliland correlation,
figure 11. The Gilliland correlation is a relationship between the reflux ratio, the minimum reflux ratio and
the minimum number of stages. [18]
xA xB
( n+1 )m =
log
[( ) ( ) ]
xB D xA W
log α AB
Where:
Substitute in values:
( n+1 )m =
log ([ 0.99
0.01 ) (D
0.99
0.01 ) ]W
log 2.015
( n+1 )m = 13.099
The Gilliland correlation can now be used to calculate the number of theoretical stages.
21
Figure 11: Gilliland Correlation
R−Rm
¿ the X axis:
R+ 1
Where:
Substitute in values:
1.32−0.88
=0.189
1.32+1
From figure 11 it can be determined that the curve is intersected at 0.47 when the x-axis is 0.189.
( n+1 )−(13.099)
=0.46
n+2
Therefore,
n=24.1 ≅ 24 stages
22
4.12 Erbar–Maddox Correlation [21]
The Erbar–Maddox correlation is a different method which can also be used in the determination of the
number of theoretical plates. This method gives the ratio of number of stages required to the number at
total reflux. It is given as a function of the reflux ratio with the minimum reflux ratio. Figure 12 shows the
Erbar-Maddox correlation.
The following calculations have to be carried out in order to determine the number of stages:
R
¿ the Y axis:
R+1
Where:
Substitute in values:
1.32
=0.57
1.32+1
Rm
¿ the lines of constant :
R m+ 1
Where:
23
Substitute in values:
0.88
=0.47
0.88+1
Nm
=0.57
N
Where Nm = 13.099
Therefore, substitute in the values and rearrange to obtain N. Where N is the number of theoretical plates.
13.099
N= =22.98 ≅ 23
0.57
The values obtained for the number of plates are only preliminary value. The actual number of stages cannot
be determined at this point as the plate efficiency is not yet known. The plate efficiency will be calculated at
a later stage of the report and that will be used to calculate the actual number of stages.
24
4.13 Column Diameter
The number of stages is not required to calculate the diameter of the column. However, the liquid and
vapour flowrates are required in order to calculate the diameter. The flowrate is the principal factor in
determining the column diameter. It is important that the vapour velocity is lower than that velocity which
would cause entrainment.[23] There are various steps which will be needed to calculate the column diameter
for the distillation column. A number of calculations will be carried out in this section to determine the
column diameter.
The chosen plate is a sieve plate. Certain specifications have to be put in place in order to calculate the
diameter of the column. The following specifications were made:
1. Lo = RD
2. V = Lo + D
3. L’ = Lo + qF
4. V = V’ + (1 – q)
Where:
1. Lo = RD
A) Lo = 1.323 x 170.08 = 225.028 kmol/hr
B) Lo = 1.323 x 12266.269 = 16228.274 kg/hr
2. V = Lo + D
A) V = 225.028 + 170.081 = 395.109 kmol/hr
B) V = 16228.274 + 12266.269 =28495.543 kg/hr
25
3. L’ = Lo + qF
A) L’ = 225.028 + (1 x 189.385) = 414.413kmol/hr
B) L’ = 16228.274 + (1 x 13692.873) =29921.147 kg/hr
4. V = V’ + (1 – q)
A) V =395.109 + (1 – 1) = 395.109 kmol/hr
B) V = 28495.543 + (1 – 1) = 28495.543 kg/hr
PV=nRT [25]
Where:
P: is the Pressure in Pa
V: is the Volume
n: is the number of Moles
R: is the gas constant
T: is the temperature in Kelvin
PV=nRT
nRT
V=
P
M nRT
=
ρ P
M ×P
ρ=
nRT
M
We know that relative molecular mass , Mr= So therefore :
n
Mr × P
ρ=
RT
The column pressure is assumed to be operating at atmospheric pressure. So the pressure will be taken as
101325Pa.
26
Methyl Ethyl Ketone Vapour Density
P = 101325 Pa
Mr = 72.1
R = 8314 m3PaK-1kmol-1
T = 362 K
72.1 ×101325
ρ= =2.427 kg /m 3
8314 × 362
P = 101325 Pa
Mr = 74.1
R = 8314 m3PaK-1kmol-1
T = 362 K
74.1 ×101325
ρ= =2.495 kg /m3
8314 × 362
1−T n
ρ L= A∗B
−
( ) Tc
Where:
27
A B n Critical Operating Temperature
(K)
Component Temperature
, Tc (K)
Methyl Ethyl Ketone 0.2676 0.2514 0.2857 535.5 362
(MEK)
Secondary Butyl 0.2734 0.2635 0.2604 536.01 362
Alcohol
(SBA)
[26]
Table 4: Regression Coefficients for MEK and SBA
ρ=0.2676×0 .2514
− (535. 5 )
Convert to kg/m3
g mL L Kg
ρ=0.78 ×1000 × 1000 3 ×
ml L m 1000 g
Kg
ρ=780
m3
ρ=0.82 g /mL
Convert to kg/m3
g mL L Kg
ρ=0.82 ×1000 × 1000 3 ×
ml L m 1000 g
28
Kg
ρ=820
m3
4.13.4 Flooding
Flooding occurs when the vapour flow is excessive and this causes liquid to be entrained in the vapour up
the column. The excessive vapour flowrate also cause an increase in pressure and this backs up the liquid in
the downcomer. This causes an increase in liquid holdup on the plate above. The maximum capacity of the
column can be reduced severely depending on the degree of flooding. Flooding can be detected by a sharp
[27]
increase in the column differential pressure and a significant decrease in the separation efficiency. The
following equation is used to calculate the Liquid-Vapour Flow (F LV) factor.
0. 5
L ρ
F LV = ( )( )
V
∗ V
ρL
Where:
The Liquid-Vapour Flow Factor will be calculated for both the enriching (Top) section and the stripping
(Bottom) section.
0. 5
L ρ
F LV = ( )( )
V
∗ V
ρL
29
0.5
225.028 2.427
F LV =( 395.109)(
×
780 )
F LV =¿0.0312
Assuming a tray spacing of 600m (0.6m) which is suitable for maintenance, inspection and cleaning. From
the calculated FLV the corresponding K1 TOP value can be obtained. From figure13 it can be seen that the
corresponding K1TOP value is 0.11.
0. 5
L' ρ
F LV =( )( )
V'
∗ V
ρL
30
0.5
414.413 2.495
F LV =( 395.109
× )(
820 )
F LV =¿1.048856138 × 0.055155504
F LV =¿ 0.058
Assuming a tray spacing of 600m (0.6m) which is suitable for maintenance, inspection and cleaning. From
the calculated FLV the corresponding K1BOTTOM value can be obtained. From figure13 it can be seen that the
corresponding K1BOTTOM value is 0.1.
0. 5
ρ L− ρ V
U F=K 1
[ ρV ]
Equation 7: Flooding Velocity Correlation [28]
Where:
0. 5
ρ L− ρ V
U F=K 1
[ ρV ]
UF TOP: Flooding Vapour Velocity
K1: A Constant = 0.11
ρL: Liquid Density = 780 kg/m 3
ρV: Vapour Density = 2.427 kg/m3
0.5
( 780−2.427 )
u F top =0.11 × [ 2.427 ]
UF TOP = 1.969 m/s
31
Stripping Section Flooding Velocity
0. 5
ρ L− ρ V
U F=K 1
[ ρV ]
UF TOP: Flooding Vapour Velocity
K1: A Constant = 0.1
ρL: Liquid Density = 820 kg/m3
ρV: Vapour Density = 2.495 kg/m3
0.5
( 820−2.495 )
u F BOTTOM =0.1 × [ 2.495 ]
UF BOTTOM = 1.81 m/s
The flooding condition fixes the upper limit of vapour velocity. For high plate efficiencies a higher vapour
velocity is required, the velocity will be normally 79-90% of that which could flooding. In chemical
engineering design a flooding velocity between 80-85% would be effective. [29]
To calculate the area for the top and the bottom of the column the maximum volumetric flowrates are used.
The maximum volumetric flowrate is calculated using the following equation:
V × Mr
U max =
ρ× 3600
Where:
32
ρ: Vapour Density
Mr: Relative Molecular Mass
V × Mr
U max =
ρ× 3600
Where:
395.109× 72.1
U max =
2.427 × 3600
V × Mr
U max =
ρ× 3600
Where:
395.109× 74.1
U max =
2.495× 3600
33
4.13.6 Calculation of Column Diameter
The following equation is used to calculate the column diameter of the distillation column:
4×A
d=
√ π
Where:
d: The diameter
A: Area
Area:
3.260
=2.070 m2
1.575
4 ×2.070
d=
√ π
d = 1.623 m
Area:
3.260
=2.251 m2
1.448
4 ×2.251
d=
√ π
34
d = 1.693 m
It can be seen that the both the top and bottom diameter are very similar. However, the largest diameter is
selected to be the column diameter of the entire distillation column, i.e. D c = 1.693 m.
From the diameter calculated it can be seen that the diameter is greater than 0.6m. Therefore, it would be
suitable for the column to be designed as a tray design.
π d 2c
Ac =
4
π ×1.693
Ac =
4
Ac = 2.251 m2
The Downcomer area (Ad) is taken at 12% of the column area (A c):
Ad = 0.12 × 2.251 = 0.270 m2
The Hole area (Ah) is taken at 10% of the Active area (A a):
Ah = 0.1 × 1.711 = 0.171m2
Ad
¿ the Y axis: ×100
Ac
Where:
35
Substitute in the values:
0.270
×100=12 %
2.251
lw
The corresponding value for can now be obtained from figure14. The value determined from the graph is
Dc
0.76.
36
4.14.3 Weeping
Weeping occurs when the flowrate in the distillation column is low. Due to this the pressure exerted by the
vapour is insufficient to hold up the liquid on the tray. As a result of this, liquid starts to leak through the
perforations (holes). Dumping occurs as a result of excessive weeping. This will mean that the liquid on all
the trays will crash through to the base of the column. This in turn results in a domino effect and the
therefore the column will have to be re-started. Significant pressure drops and reduced separation efficiency
[27]
indicate the presence of weeping. The weep point occurs when liquid leakage through the plate holes
becomes excessive. The vapour velocity at the weep point is the minimum velocity required for stable
operation. The vapour flow velocity at the lowest operating rate must be well above the weep point when
specifying the hole area. The minimum design vapour velocity is given in equation 11. [32]
Where:
K2 in equation 11 is a constant value. In order to determine K 2 the depth of the crest of liquid over the weir
(how) must first be calculated. The Francis weir formula can be utilised to find the height of the liquid crest
over the weir. The Francis weir formula is given in equation 12.
2/ 3
Lw
h ow=750
ρl l w[ ]
Equation12: Francis weir equation [34]
Where:
Firstly, the values required to determine the weir crest must be calculated.
37
The maximum liquid rate ( L’):
29921.147
L' = =8.312 kg/ s
3600
Maximum how:
2/ 3
8.312
750 [ 780× 1.278 ] =30.840 mm of liquid
Minimum how:
2/ 3
5.818
750
[
780× 1.278 ] =24.312 mm of liquid
Now the minimum design vapour velocity can be calculated from equation 11.
Where:
38
dh: The hole diameter = 5 mm
K2: A constant = 30.7
ρv: Vapour Density = 2.427 kg/m3
0.7 ×3.260
¿ =13.34 m/ s
0.171
It can be seen that the minimum operating rate is well above the weep point.
Where:
39
ρv: Vapour Density
ρL: Liquid Density
3.260
Uh= =19.064 m/ s
0.171
To determine Co:
Plate Thickness 5
= =1
Hole Diameter 5
Ah A h 0.171
≈ = =0.1× 100=10 %
A p A a 1.711
Now the dry plate drop can be determined by substituting into equation 13.
2
19.064 2.427
h d=51 [ 0.84 ]×
780
=81.673 mmliquid
40
4.14.4.2 Residual Head [39]
Many methods have been developed to estimate the residual head which have been a function of liquid
surface tension, froth density and height. As a result of the correction term being small the estimation is not
justified. However, an equation by Hunt et al (equation 14) has been proposed to find the residual head.
12.5× 103
hr =
ρL
Where:
12.5× 103
hr = =16.026 mm liquid
780
Where:
The total plate drop is expressed in terms of millimetres however it can also be given in pressure units. This
is given as follows:
∆ Pt =9.81 ×10−3 h t ρL
41
Equation 16: Total Pressure Drop [36]
Where:
The head loss in the downcomer can be estimated using the equation is equation 17.
2
Lwd
h dc=166
[ ]
ρL Am
Where:
42
Lwd: Liquid flow rate in downcomer
Am: is either the downcomer area (Ad) or the clearance area under the downcomer (A ap). The smallest value is
used.
ρL: Liquid Density
hap is the height of the bottom edge of the apron above the plate. The height is usually set at 5 to 10mm. In
this case it has been set to be 10mm. So:
hap = hw – 10 = 50 – 10 = 40mm
= 0.04m
It can be seen that Ad = 0.270m2. It can therefore be concluded that the smallest value for A m in this case is
equal to Aap. i.e. Am = Aap
The downcomer backup can now be calculated: h b=( h w + how ) +ht + hdc
hb = 50 + 30.840 + 178.539 + 7.248 = 266.627 mm
The downcomer back up height should be less than 0.5 times the plate spacing and weir height for a safer
plate design. This is shown below:
1
h bc < [ ( plate spacing ) +h w ]
2
1
0.266 m< [ 0.6+0.05 ]=0.325 m
2
43
4.14.6 Residence Time [41]
It is important to ensure that enough time is allowed in the downcomer for any entrained vapour to
disengage from the liquid stream and prevent the liquid being carried under the downcomer. A time of at
least 3 seconds is recommended.
Ad hbc ρ L
t r=
Lwd
Where:
It can be seen that the calculated residence time is greater than the recommended time of least 3 seconds.
It can be seen from section 4.13.5 that the percentage flooding is taken to be 80%.
FLV = 0.058
The corresponding fractional entrainment (ψ) can be obtained from figure18 below. The (ψ) is found to be
0.041.
44
It is important to ensure that the fraction entrainment is lower than 0.1. It can be seen that the value
obtained is significantly lower than 0.1 and is therefore within a safe operating range.
45
4.14.8 Trial Layout
4.14.8.1 Perforated Area [43]
Figure19: Relation between angle subtended by chord, chord height and chord length [44]
Obstruction caused by structural members such as support rings and beams and by the use of calming zones
reduces the area available for perforation. Calming zones are referred to unperforated strips of plate at the
inlet and outlet sides of the plate. The widths of each zone are usually made the same and have
recommended values of below 1.5m, 75mm; above 100mm. For sectional plates the width of the support
ring is usually between 50 to 75mm. It is important to ensure that the support rings do not enter into the
downcomer area. Using figure19 the unperforated area can be calculated from the plate geometry. [43]
From figure19:
l w 1.278
¿ the x axis= = =0.755
D c 1.693
The angle subtended at the plate edge by unperforated strip = 180 – 99 = 81°
46
Area of calming zone = 2(1.328 x 50 x 10 -3) = 0.133 m2
Total Area for perforations (Ap) = Active Area - Area of unperforated edge strips - area of the calming zone
Ap = 1.711 – 0.116 – 1.328 = 0.267 m 2
The distance between the hole centres i.e. the hole pitch should not be less than 2.0 hole diameters. The
normal range falls between 2.5 to 4.0 diameters. From the range the pitch can be selected to give the
number of active holes required for the total hole area. Usually square and equilateral triangular patterns
are used. Of these two the equilateral triangular pattern is preferred. The total hole area as fraction of the
perforated area Ap is expressed in the following equation.
2
Ah dh
Ap
=0.9
[ ]
lp
Equation 19: The total hole area as a fraction of the perforated area [43]
Ah 0.171
= =0.640
A p 0.267
lp Ah
From figure 20 below the can be determined using the value calculated for above.
dh Ap
Figure 20: Correlation to show the relationship between hole area and pitch [45]
47
Ah
The value obtained for does not fall within the range. This means that the hole area is too large. Within
Ap
the provisional plate design it was originally assumed that the hole area will be taken as 10% of the active
area. However, now we shall assume a hole area as 3% of the active area:
Ah
Therefore, can now be recalculated:
Ap
Ah 0.051
= =0.191
A p 0.267
lp
The corresponding can now be obtained figure20:
dh
lp
=2.25 this isaccpetable as it is greater than 2.0
dh
Therefore,
48
Figure21: Graph for selection of liquid-flow arrangement [46]
The liquid flow-rate and column diameter are the factors which determine the choice of the plate type i.e.
reverse, single pass or multiple pass. Figure21 can be used to find the liquid-flow arrangement. [46]
16228.74
Maximum volumetric liquid rate= =5.779× 10−3 m 3 /s
3600× 780
From figure21it can be seen that a cross –flow (single pass) can be used.
0 . 14 0 .25 0. 08
Emv =0 .07 Dg Sc Re
Equation 20: Van Winkle Correlation for plate efficiency [47]
Where:
σL
D g : Surface tension=
μ L × uV
μL
Sc : Liquid Schmidt Number=
ρ L × D LK
hw × uv × ρ v
ℜ: Reynolds Number= × FA
μL
49
Maximum Volumetric Flowrate
u v : Superficial Vapour Velocity =
Area of Column
Area of Holes
FA : Fractional Area=
Areaof Column
σL: Liquid surface tension = 0.0213 N/m (calculation shown in appendix ##)
DLK: Liquid Diffsivity = 3.794 ×10−9 m2 / s (calculation shown in appendix ##)
hw: Weir height = 50 mm
ρL: Liquid Density = 780 kg/m 3
ρv: Vapour Density = 2.427 kg/m3
σL 0.0213
D g : Surface tension= = =67.046
μ L × uV 2.194 ×10−4 ×1.448
μL 2.194 ×10−4
Sc : Liquid Schmidt Number= = =74.139
ρ L × D LK 780 ×3.794 ×10−9
Therefore, using Van Winkle’s equation and actual plate efficiency of 77.6% is obtained.
50
4.14.12 Actual Number of Plates
Previously two methods were used to determine the theoretical number of plates. According to Gilliland and
Fenske’s correlation 24 plates would be required. According to the Erbar-Maddox correlation 23 plates
would be required. We must select the worst case scenario i.e. pick 24 plates.
Therefore, the actual number of plates required taking account of the calculated plate efficiency would be as
follows:
24
=30.927 ≅ 31 Plates
0.776
Hc = (N+1)*Hs+∆H+plate thickness
Equation 21: Determination of Column Height
Where:
Substitution of all values gives a column height of: [(31 + 1) × 0.6] +1 + 0.005 = 20.205m ~ 21m
51
5.0 Energy Balance [48]
Process streams have kinetic and potential energies; however, they are neglected as they are small. In all
systems a transfer of heat occurs between the inlet and outlet streams. This is shown in figure22.
Input of energy is provided by two means: from the feed (H f) and the reboiler (Qb).
So: Qb + feed sensible heat Hf
Output of energy occurs from the top (H D) and bottom (HW) products and from the condenser (QC).
So: QC + top and bottom products sensible heat H D + HW
In order to calculate the condenser and reboiler heat load the following have to be calculated:
52
inlet temperature to the condenser is assumed to be 79.98°C (352.98K) and the outlet temperature is
assumed to be 60°C (333 K). From the mass balance in section 4.8 it can be seen that the distillate contains
99% MEK so the calculation will be based on the capacities of only MEK.
12266.269 kg/hr
INPUT = OUTPUT
H V =H D + H L +Q c
Q c =H V −H D −H L
It is assumed that complete condensation occurs so:
Enthalpy of vapour HV = Latent + Sensible
Where:
53
V’= 28495.543 kg/hr
The amount of cooling water required in the condenser will be calculated in this section.
It is assumed that:
Qh=Q c ( heat of cooling)
It is know that:
Q c =m water × C p water × ∆ T
The above equation can be rearranged to calculate the amount of cooling water required. This is as follows:
Qc
m water =
C p water × ∆ T
Where:
Cp = 4.187 kj/kg.K
ΔT = From the process description in section 4.1 it can be seen that the cooling water enters the condenser
at 24°C (297K) and leaves at 40°C (313 K).
6317039.579
m water = =94295.432 kg/hr
4.187 × ( 40−24 )
54
5.1.2 Condenser Design
This next focuses on the detailed design of the condenser.
There are certain specifications which are put in place in order to carry out the appropriate calculations.
They are as follows:
Firstly the log mean temperature needs to be calculated using the following equation:
( T 1 −t2 ) −( T 2−t1 )
∆ T LM =
[ T 1−t2 ]
ln
( [ T 2−t1 ] )
Equation 22: Calculation of log mean temperature [53]
Where:
55
Substitute values into equation 22:
We are aware that Q=UAΔT. This can be rearranged to obtain the area. This is shown below:
Q
A=
U ∆T
From the above assumptions and specification it can be seen that U is assumed to be 850 W/m 2 °C.
Therefore;
6317039.579 ×1000
A= =54.391 m 2
850 ×37.955 ×3600
25
Surface Area of one Tube= ( 1000 ) × π × 5=0.393 m 2
54.391
NT = =138.399=139 tubes
0.393
1 /n 1
NT
D b =d o ( )
K1
Equation 23: Tube Bundle diameter page [54]
Where:
56
NT: The number of tubes = 139
K1 and n1: Constants = assumed a square pitch with 2 passes (The constants are shown in table 5)
1/ 2.291
139
D b =25× ( 0.156 ) =484.774 mm
Db
The number of tubes∈the centre row is given by :
Pt
Where:
Therefore:
D b 484.774
= =15.513=16 Tubes
Pt 31.25
A
L=
π do N t
57
Equation 24: Length of Condenser
Where:
54.391
L= =4.982m
π × 0.025 ×139
The tube side coefficient is calculated using equation 25 below. The equation has been adapted from data
provided Eagle and Ferguson (1930).
Where:
139
Tubes per Pass= =69.5=70
2
58
Total flow area=70 ×314.160 ×10−6=0.022 m 2
1190.599
Water linear velocity = =1.193 m/s
998
Choosing the pull through floating head the bundle diametrical clearance is found to be 90.5mm.
59
Figure24: Shell-bundle Clearance [59]
In the shell’s baffles are used to direct the fluid stream across the tubes. They help to increase fluid velocity
and therefore improve the rate of transfer. Single segmental baffles are the most common type of baffle
used. This type of baffle is show in figure25.
D S 575.274
Choose baffle spacing= = =115.055 mm
5 5
28495.543 1
Mass Velocity ( G S ) = × =599.654 kg /m 2
3600 0.0132
1.27 2 1.27
Equivalent Diameter= ( pt × 0.785 d 2o )= ( 31.252−0.785 ×25 2) =24.686 mm
do 25
79.98+60
Mean shell side temperature= =69.99° C
2
The density of MEK has to be calculated at 69.99°C. This is shown in appendix ##.
Density of MEK at 69.99°C (342.99 K) = 795 kg/m3
The viscosity of MEK has to be calculated at 69.99°C. This is shown in appendix ##.
Viscosity of MEK at 69.99°C (342.99 K) = 0.2548 MNs/m2
One is also required to calculate the thermal conductivity (K) The calculation is shown in appendix ##.
The thermal conductivity (K) = 0.188 w/m ◦C
G S ×d e 599.954 × 24.686
ℜ= = =58125.842=58126
μ 0.2548
60
Cp× μ 2.994 × 103 × 0.2548 ×10−3
Pr= = =4.0578
Kf 0.188
From the assumptions it can be seen that a baffle cut of 25% has been specified. From figure26 the
corresponding heat transfer factor (j h) can be determined from the Reynolds number calculated.
Jh = 2.7 ×10-3
The shell side heat transfer coefficient without the viscosity correction term is as follows:
1
0.188
h s= −3
× 2.7 ×10−3 ×58126 × 4.0578 3 =1906.365 w / m2 C
24.686 ×10
61
5.4 The Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient [62]
do
1 1
= +
1
+
d o ln
( )
di
+
do 1 d o 1
∗ + ∗
U h o hod 2 kw d i hid d i hi
Equation 26: Overall heat transfer coefficient [62]
Where:
U: Overall Coefficient
ho: Outside fluid film coefficient = 1906.365w /m 2 C
hod: Outside dirt coefficient = 5000 W/m2 °K
hi: Inside fluid film coefficient = 5286.993 W /m 2 ° C
hid: Inside dirt coefficient = 5000 W/m 2 °K
kw: Thermal conductivity of the tube wall = 50 W /m 2 ° C
di: Inside diameter = 20 mm
do: Outside diameter = 25mm
1
=
1
+
1
+
0 . 025ln ( 00 .025
.020 ) 0 . 025
+ ×
1
+
0 .025
×
1
=789 . 407
U 1906. 365 5000 2×50 0 . 020 5000 0 .020 5286. 993
U = 789.407 W /m 2 ° C
It can be seen that the calculated value for the overall heat transfer coefficient is different from the assumed
value of 850 W/m2 °C. So in this case it would be suitable to assume an overall heat transfer coefficient of
700 W/m2 °C and carry out the calculations again.
62
5.5 Reboiler Design
This section will involve calculating the heat load for the condenser and also a brief design of the reboiler
required for the distillation column.
Where:
HD and Hb are the sensible heats of the distillate and bottom product.
In order to determine the reboiler duty the other parameters have to be calculated. Then the above
equation can be rearranged to find the heat required in the reboiler. They are as follows:
H F=mC p ∆ T
Firstly the specific heat capacity (Cp) has to be calculated for Methyl Ethyl Ketone (MEK) and Secondary Butyl
Alcohol (SBA). This is shown in appendix##. The feed inlet to the distillation column is assumed to be 70 °C.
The sensible heat of the feed at a basis of 25 °C is calculated below.
H B =mC p ∆ T
The bottom product is assumed to be at a temperature of 98.807°C. The sensible heat of the bottom product
is calculated as follows:
HD = 0
Now all the parameters have been found the heat required can now be calculated.
63
QB = QC + HD + HB – HF
QB = 6317039.579 + 0 + 355253.736 – 2091312.493 = 4580980.822 kj/hr
= 1272.495 kw
Heat losses may occur. Therefore add 10% for heat losses:
QB =1.10 × 4580980.822 = 5039078.904 kj/hr
= 1399.744 kw
It is assumed that the steam which is supplied to the reboiler is at 2 bar (200 kN/m 2) at a temperature of
approximately 140°C. The latent heat of steam is therefore 2144.4 kj/kg. [63]
Where:
Q B 5039078.904
S= = =2349.878 kg/hr
h fg 2144.4
In order to carry out the appropriate calculations certain specifications and assumptions will have to be set.
They are as follows:
64
The temperature of the bottom product is assumed to be 98.807 °C (371.807 K). From the steam table it can
be determined that the temperature of the steam at 2 bar (200 kN/m 2) is 120.23 °C (393.23 K).
We are aware that Q=UAΔT. This can be rearranged to obtain the area. This is shown below:
Q
A=
U ∆T
From the above assumptions and specification it can be seen that U is assumed to be 900 W/m 2 °C.
Therefore;
5039078.904 × 1000
A= =72.598 m2
900 × 21.423× 3600
A
Nt= Equation 28: Number of tubes
π do L
Where:
72.598
Nt= =154.058=155
30
π× (1000 )
×5
Where:
65
NT: The number of tubes = 155
K1 and n1: Constants = assumed a square pitch with 2 passes (The constants are shown in table 5)
1/ 2.291
155
D b =30× (
0.156 ) =610.062mm=0.610 m
To calculate the freeboard assume the liquid level as 500mm from the base:
Freeboard = 1220.124 – 500 = 720.124 mm
720.124
720...
mm
.....12
4m
5001.5
mm m 610.062
1.3 m
mm
66
6.0 Mechanical Design [64]
This section will focus on the mechanical design of the distillation column. The detailed mechanical design of
processing equipment will not be usually carried out by chemical engineers. It is usually mechanical
engineers who are responsible for this. However, in this section of the report certain aspects of the
mechanical design will be investigated including; shell thickness, skirt design and weight of plates.
In order to carry out the mechanical design certain assumptions and specifications have to be stated. They
are as follows:
Pi D i
e= Equation 29: Minimum Shell Thickness [65]
2 f −P i
Where:
67
e: cylindrical column minimum shell thickness
Pi: The design pressure = 0.1114575 N/mm2
Di: The column diameter: 1.693 m
f: The design stress = from table 8 at 100⁰C the design stress is 150 N/mm2
e=0.629+ 2=2.629 mm
From the calculated wall thickness it can be seen that thickness is too small to withstand the pressure of the
column. It is important that the thickness of any vessel is strong enough to withstand its own weight and any
incidental loads. The table below gives an indication of wall thicknesses of any vessel. The thickness should
not be less than the values stated in the table.
From table 6 it can be seen that with a vessel diameter of 1 to 2m the minimum thickness should be 7mm.
The diameter of this distillation column been calculated and found to be 1.693m so it is important that the
minimum thickness is 7mm.
Certain factors such as size, shape and weight of the vessel will determine the type of support a vessel uses.
Skirt supports are usually used for tall vertical columns. It is support that the supports are designed to
withstand the weight of both the column and the contents within it. Also, it must be able to withstand other
loads such as wind loads. When designing supports it has to be taken into that there should be ease of
[66]
access to the vessel for inspection and maintenance. The skirt support will be made of a cylindrical shell
that is welded to the base of the distillation column. A flange at the bottom of the skirt will transmit the load
to the foundations. When designing the skirt support it is important that gaps are provided for access and
68
for connecting pipes. The thickness of the skirt must be sufficient enough to withstand bending moments
and the dead weight of the column. [66] Figure 28 below shows the two types of skirt designs.
Where:
Bending Stresses
The following equation is used to determine the bending stresses in the skirt support:
4×Ms
σ bs = Equation 30: Bending stresses [66]
π × ( D s+ t s ) t s D s
Where:
Ms: The maximum bending moment elevated at the bottom of the skirt, due to wind, seismic and eccentric
loads
Ds: The diameter of the column , including shell thickness and insulation (calculated below)
ts: is the shell thickness = 7 mm
The diameter of the column including the shell thickness and insulation has to be calculated. This is
calculated as follows: 1.693 + 2 x (7 + 75) x 10 -3 = 1.857 m
69
The loading Fw = 1280 x 1.857 = 2376.96 N/m
From section 4.14.13 it can be seen that height of the column is 21m.
So,
2376.96
Bending Moment=212 × =524119.68 Nm
2
4 ×524119.68 ×10 3
σ bs = −3 −3
=2.754 N /m m−2
π × ( 1.857+ 7× 10 ) ×7 × 10 ×1.857
The following equation is used to determine the dead weight stresses in the skirt support:
W
σ ws= Equation 31: Dead weight stresses [68]
π ( D s +t s ) t s
Where:
Ms: The maximum bending moment elevated at the bottom of the skirt, due to wind, seismic and eccentric
loads
Ds: The diameter of the column , including shell thickness and insulation (calculated below)
ts: is the shell thickness = 7 mm
W: Total weight of the vessel and contents (calculated below)
The total weight of column (W)= weight of the shell (w 1) + weight of the plates (w2) + weight of the insulation
(w3)
Where:
70
Cv: Factor accounts for the weight of the nozzle, for distillation columns = 1.15
Hv: The height of the column = 21m
t: The shell thickness = 7mm
Dm: The diameter of the column including the shell thickness (calculated below)
7
D m =1.693+ ( 1000 )=1.7 m
Substitute the values into equation 32:
π
The plate area if calculated as follows: Plate Area= ×1.6932 =2.251m 2
4
In the distillation column there are 31 plates in total therefore the total weight of the 31 plates is as follows:
= 2.701 × 31 = 83.731 kN
The volume of insulation has to be calculated. It is specified that the column will be insulated with 75 mm
mineral wool. Therefore, the insulation volume:
The value for the weight of insulation has to be doubled in order to allow for fittings:
= 2 × 10683.188 = 21366.376 N = 21.366 kN
The dead weight stresses can now be calculated by substitution into equation 31.
71
178532
σ ws= =4.756 N / mm−2
π (1700+ 7 ) × 7
Flat plates are usually used as covers for manways and are used as channel covers for heat exchangers.
Formed flat ends are sometimes known as ‘flange-only’ heads. This type of head is the cheapest type to
manufacture as fabrication costs are low, however, they are limited to low pressures and small diameter
vessels. Torispherical head are the most commonly used type for vessels with operating pressures up to 15
bar. They can be used with vessels with higher pressures however; the costs have to be compared with that
of an ellipsoidal head. For pressures over 15 bar ellipsoidal heads would be the most economical type. The
hemispherical head type has the strongest shape and is able to withstand double the pressure of a
torispherical head which is of the same thickness. For the product distillation column the flat head closure
would be suitable as the column is assumed to operate at atmospheric pressure. [65]
72
Stainless steel is one of the most commonly used material in the chemical industry, as It is highly corrosion
resistant. [70]
From section 4.16.4 it can be seen that stainless steel has been chosen as the material to build the pipes.
Equation 31 has been developed to calculate the optimum diameter for turbulent flow. The following
equation can be used to give an estimation of the economic pipe diameter for normal pipes.
d opt =260G 0.52 ρ−0.37 Equation 33: optimum diameter for stainless steel pipes [71]
Where:
G: The flowrate
ρ: The liquid density
The optimum pipe diameter will be calculated for the pipes at the feed, the distillate and the bottom
product. Also, the wall thickness will be calculated for the feed pipe, the distillate pipe and the bottom
product pipe. In order to resist internal pressure the pipe wall thickness is also calculated which has an
allowance for corrosion. Process pipes are usually considered as thin cylinders. However, in cases such as
high-pressure streams they are considered as thick cylinders. The wall thickness is calculated from equation
[71]
34.
Pd
t= Equation 34: Formula for wall thickness [71]
20 σ d + P
73
Where:
P: Internal Pressure
d: Pipe outer diameter (will be calculated for each pipe and calculations are shown below)
σ: Design stress at working temperature (obtained from table 8)
1−T n
ρ = A∗B
( )
−
Tc
L
1−343 0. 2857
ρ=0.2676×0.2514 0.8798
ρ=0.794 g/mL
Convert to kg/m3
g mL L Kg
ρ=0.794 × 1000 ×1000 3 ×
ml L m 1000 g
74
Kg
ρ=794
m3
1−T n
ρ L= A∗B
−
( )
Tc
1−343 0. 2604
0. 8896
ρ=0. 2734×0 . 2635
ρ=0.835 g /mL
Convert to kg/m3
g mL L Kg
ρ=0.835 ×1000 × 1000 3 ×
ml L m 1000 g
Kg
ρ=835
m3
V T =15.462+1.698=17.160 m 3 /hr
0.52
13692.873
d opt =260× ( 3600 ) × ( 797 )
−0.37
=43.968 mm
An optimum diameter of 50 mm should be used. However, the diameter has to be converted to inches.
According to a reference a nominal pipe size of 2 inches should be used. [73]
75
Using this information the wall thickness can be calculated using equation 34. However, firstly the design
stress has to be calculated using the information provided in table 8 interpolation as follows:
165−x x−150
= =159 N /mm 2
50° −70° 70 °−100 °
It is assumed that the feed to the column is not viscous it is a pumped liquid. Therefore, from table 7 it can
be seen that the velocity falls between the 1-3.0 m/s range. So the pressure will be:
kPa Pa ( N /m2 )
∆ P=0.5 =500
m m
1−T n
ρ = A∗B
( )
−
Tc
L
ρ=0.2676×0.2514
− ( 535. 5 )
ρ=0.2676×0.2514 0.8870
ρ=0.786 g /mL
Convert to kg/m3
g mL L Kg
ρ=0.786 ×1000 ×1000 3 ×
ml L m 1000 g
76
Kg
ρ=786
m3
0.52
12266.269
d opt =260× ( 3600 ) × ( 786 )
−0.37
=41.74 mm
An optimum diameter of 50 mm should be used. However, the diameter has to be converted to inches.
According to a reference nominal pipe size of 2 inches should be used. [73]
Using this information the wall thickness can be calculated using equation 34. However, firstly the design
stress has to be calculated using the information provided in table 8 interpolation as follows:
165−x x−150
= =156 N /m m2
50° −79.982° 79.982°−100 °
It is assumed that the feed to the column is not viscous it is a pumped liquid. Therefore, from table 7 it can
be seen that the velocity falls between the 1-3.0 m/s range. So the pressure will be:
kPa Pa ( N /m2 )
∆ P=0.5 =500
m m
1−T n
ρ L= A∗B
−
( )
Tc
1−371. 81 0 . 2604
77
ρ=0. 2734×0 . 26350. 9086
ρ=0.814 g/mL
Convert to kg/m3
g mL L Kg
ρ=0.814 × 1000 ×1000 3 ×
ml L m 1000 g
Kg
ρ=814
m3
0.52
1430.000
d opt =260× ( 3600 ) −0.37
× ( 814 ) =13.475 mm
An optimum diameter of 20 mm should be used. However, the diameter has to be converted to inches.
According to a reference a nominal pipe size of 3/4 inches should be used. [73]
Using this information the wall thickness can be calculated using equation 34. However, firstly the design
stress has to be calculated using the information provided in table 8 interpolation as follows:
165−x x−150
= =150 N /mm2
50° −98.81° 98.81 °−100 °
It is assumed that the feed to the column is not viscous it is a pumped liquid. Therefore, from table 7 it can
be seen that the velocity falls between the 1-3.0 m/s range. So the pressure will be:
kPa Pa ( N /m2 )
∆ P=0.5 =500
m m
Using all the information a data sheet has been constructed for the column, the condenser and the reboiler.
This can be found in appendix##.
78
79
6.6 Concept Drawing
Column Height 21 m
Feed Pipe Size 50mm
E-1
80
7.0 Control and Instrumentation [74]
One of the main priorities of a chemical plant is the safe operation of the process as a potential disaster
could possibly lead to major negative consequences. Therefore, control and Instrumentation is an essential
requirement for all chemical plants. The design intention is unachievable if the chemical plant lacks control.
Control can only be met when the design intention is safe and any disturbances which may occur are within
bounds which can be predicted. Safe plant operation occurs when the process variable are within the safe
operating limits. Using control and recording instruments information can be obtained about the process.
Measuring and indicating instruments such as flow meters and pressure indicators are used to measure the
process variables. Process instruments are sometimes linked together using control valves to form control
loops which provide more efficient control and understanding of the process. The readings are taken to
ensure that pressure, temperature and other variables such as flow are within safe limits. Instruments are
defined as devices or control systems which are designed in a way that maintains a functional relationship
between a prescribed property of a substance and a physical variable. [74][75]
Safe plant operation – To ensure that process variables are kept within known safe operating
limits. Also, any deviations which may occur are brought to the attention of operators by the use
of alarms. Finally, in dangerous situations automatic shut-down systems should be put in place.
Production rate – The desired product should be produced, i.e. to ensure the product meet the
desired specifications.
Cost – it should be aimed to operate at the lowest production cost.
The piping and instrumentation diagram can be seen in figure 42 and in a larger size in appendix##.
For quality control a mixture of both automatic and manual control systems can be used to achieve the most
effective results. For example, on-stream composition analysers can be installed coming off the distillation
column. However, they are rarely used as they are expensive and they require a great deal of maintenance.
81
It is important that the analysers are placed in a protected location they cannot simply be mounted to the
distillation column.
Various disturbances such as environmental disturbances i.e. weather conditions can occur which can affect
the quality of the product exiting the distillation column. Environmental disturbances are an example of
uncontrolled disturbances. To overcome the effects of uncontrolled disturbances a controller can be used
and this will help to restore the quality of the desired product.
The compositions of the distillate and bottom product must be determined externally so the product purity
can be measured continuously. To overcome this, a sample could be sent off to be tested in the onsite
laboratory for analysis. Adjustments can be made once the results have been obtained from analysis.
82
Also from figure 30 it can be seen that pressure indicators are located next to each pump. This measures the
pressure in the delivery line. From the indicator operators will be able to deduce if the pump is operating
normally and adequately as the operator as the pressure in the delivery line can be analysed.
Figure 30: Pressure indicator and Transmitter for the pump delivery line
From figure 31 below it can be seen that in order to maintain and achieve the required temperature at the
bottom of the column a temperature control device has been put in place. The steam temperature is
adjusted to control the temperature of the vapour that returns from the reboiler. The temperature indicator
will detect a temperature rise over the set point and this will in turn be controlled by the temperature
controller. The steam supply to the reboiler will be either reduced or shut off until the temperature has
returned to the set point. In the case where a drop in temperature is detected then a signal will be sent to
increase the steam supply. We are aware that temperature is used as an indication of composition.
Therefore, in order to obtain the specified purity it is extremely important to monitor this section of the
distillation column.
83
Figure 31: Temperature control for the reboiler
The other point at where a temperature control loop is used is to measure the temperature of the cooling
water in coming into the condenser. This is used to control the temperature of the product stream which
leaves the condenser. From figure ## it can be seen that a signal is transmitted along the line to vary the
flowrate of the cooling water into the condenser. The reflux ratio can also be varied to control the
temperature at the top of the column.
84
Figure 33: Feed Stream Flow Control Loop
There are three components of an automatic trip system they are as follows:
A sensor monitors the control variable and provides an output signal when the set value is exceeded.
A link transfers the signal to the actuator and this consists of pneumatic or electric relays.
The actuator carries out the required action. For example, to close or open a valve.
Interlock systems are utilised when a fixed sequence of operations has to be followed. Interlock systems are
included in these situations to prevent operators from departing from the required sequence. For example
85
these types of systems are usually applied in start-up and shut down procedures. It is possible to incorporate
them into the control system design or mechanical interlocks can also be used. [74]
Alarms have been included in the P&ID this can be seen in figures 35 and 36 below. It can be seen that the
distillation column has a level indicator attached to it with a level indicator alarm. The alarm has a high level
and low level alarm fixed to it. The main objective of the alarm is to alert operators and to ensure that the
level within the distillation column is not too high or too low.
If the level increases above the set point the alarm sends a warning to the control and this helps to alert
operators. A message is sent to the control room and then the correct regulatory procedure is carried out to
return the level back to the set point. The same procedure would occur if the level fell below the set point.
The procedure may be automatic or may have to be done manually by the operator.
In the case where the level deviates significantly i.e. high-high limit or low-low limit operators would be
alerted by the alarm. Also, at the same time safety trips would be used which in turn would cause the
automatic shut down of the process.
It is possible to incorporate a safety trip into a control loop. In some situations it may be more suitable to
separate the trip system from the control loop to increase the reliability of the control equipment. The
control loop and the trip system may be separated because a fault in the control loop can potentially affect
the trip system and may increase the risk even further.
From figure 36 it can be seen that safety trips have been fitted to the active pumps. In the event that a
deviation occurs from the set point in the column the pump will shut down and this prevents the flow from
entering into the distillation column. Once the deviation returns to the set point the pump will be started up
again so the flow can enter the column.
86
Figure 36: Safety Trips on Pumps
1. Shut off valves – The main purpose of shut off valves is to close off the flow.
2. Control valves – They can be either automatic or manual and their objective is used to regulate the
flow.
Control Valves
Selection of control valves is an important factor. It is important that good flow control is achieved whilst the
pressure drop is kept low as possible. Control valves may fail open this is the position the valves take when
power supply failure occurs. Diaphragm valves are commonly used and this is the type used in this case. This
type of valve can be seen from figure 37 below.
Flanged Valves
Flanged valves can be used for drainage. An example of the type of flanged valve used in this case is shown
in figure 38below. These are generally closed and are in operation usually during site or unit maintenance.
This type of valve is used to prevent the back-flow of the fluid in the process lie. It is important that non-
return valves have been correctly installed to ensure they are working adequately, i.e. they should be fitted
in the correct orientation. In this case non-return valves have also been utilised an example of this type of
valve is shown in figure 39 below.
87
Figure 39: Non-return valve
Gated Valves
Gated valves are frequently used for shut –off purposes. It is important that a valve selected for this purpose
gives a positive seal in the closed position and minimum resistance to the flow when the valves are open.
Gate valves exist in a wide range of sizes and it is possible to operate them manually or atomically by the use
of a motor. When gate valves are fully open they have a low pressure drop. When operating gate valves
attention must be paid to ensure they are not operated partially open. This is because the valve seal can
become deformed, so as a result the valve will not seal properly. Below figure 40 shows a diagram of a gate
valve which has been frequently used in the piping and instrumentation diagram.
88
7.1.9 Pipe Labelling
Within the P&ID it is important that the process lines are labelled. The line label will show the required
information which is associated with that particular stream. No fixed standard exists on line piping. In this
case only the three main process lines i.e. the feed line, the distillate line and the waste products line will be
labelled. This is because the diameters have only been calculated for the three streams mentioned. The
following information is required to label each of the streams:
For example, the feed line which 2 inches made out of stainless steel is labelled as follows:
2 – SS – 01
89
Figure 17: Piping and Instrumentation Diagram for Product Distillation Column 90
91
[79]
It is a detailed and systematic application of prescribed guidewords to a design drawing. Conducting a
HAZOP is an important stage of any chemical plant for the prevention of major accidents from arising. Not
only does a HAZOP prevent major accidents but they also provide major financial benefits to the plant
[80]
owner. A HAZOP is usually carried out for the whole process. However, this is very time consuming
therefore for the purpose of this report it will only be carried out for one process line.
The method of a HAZOP involves using guidewords such as ‘pressure’, ‘flow’, ‘temperature’ and ‘level’. For
each of the guidewords all deviations that could potentially occur are identified, for example ‘no flow’. Then
the possible causes of the deviation are identified and finally the consequences and actions required are
stated before moving on to the next deviation. Once all deviations have been covered move onto the next
guideword. [79]
The line chosen to conduct the HAZOP was the line connecting the feed to the solvent recovery distillation
column. The HAZOP can be seen below in section.......
92
9.0 Economic Appraisal
In this section of the report an economic appraisal will be carried over the Methyl Ethyl Ketone plant by
estimating and calculating the relevant economical factors of the process plant.
There are many factors which have to be considered to determine whether the proposal of a plant is
worthwhile. A very important factor is the cost required to build the plant and to determine whether the
investment is financially viable.
To determine the feasibility of the plant a thorough economical evaluation will be carried out in which all the
costs involved must be accounted for. Costs such as services and equipment required to operate the plant
must be considered. Other factors such as capital costs, operating costs and raw materials must also be
considered to determine the feasibility. There are many methods which have been developed to estimate
the cost to set up and run a chemical plant over a number of years. From the various methods the capital
costs of the plant can be calculated and these are analysed carefully before deciding whether investing in the
plant is viable or not.
Using various methods the capital costs of the chemical plant will be calculated. Also, a cash flow table will
be constructed and from this the cost going in and out of the project during the plant life will be analysed.
From the cash flow table the expected targets on an annual can also be predicted. The breakeven point i.e.
the point at which the initial investment is recovered will then determined.
Wilson Method
Zevnik-Buchanan Method
Bridgewater Method
The three methods mentioned above are known as step counting methods as the capital cost is determined
by the number of significant process steps in the overall process.
93
9.1.1.1 Wilson’s Method [81]
According to the Wilson Method the principle is that the average cost of one item of equipment is a function
of the process size and complexity, i.e. the capital cost is calculated based upon the number of significant
plant items in the overall process. Firstly the Average unit cost of main plant items has to be calculated. The
following equation is used to estimate this:
AUC = 21 X V0.675
Where:
This is then used to calculate the capital cost from the equation below:
Where:
From the AUC calculated above the installation factor (f) can be determined from figure 43below.
94
Figure 43: Installation Factor [81]
From Figure 43 it can be seen that the installation factor F is approximately 1.9.
Assuming that the material of construction is stainless steel the materials factor to be used is 1.3.
From figure 44 below the pressure factor is found to be 1.0 as the operating pressure in the reactor is
assumed to be 2.5 bar. A pressure of 2.5 bar is the maximum operating pressure in the process.
95
Next the temperature factor has to be determined. From figure 45 below the temperature factor is found to
be 1.1 as the operating temperature in the reactor is assumed to be 800K (527°C). A temperature of 800K
(527°C) is the maximum operating temperature in the process.
Using all of the above information the cost can be calculated as follows:
C(£ 2000)=7470 × N × Q 0.6 × 10 xEquation 36: Zevnik and Buchanan’s Method [81]
Where:
In order to calculate the costs using the above firstly X has to be calculated. This is shown as follows:
Where:
96
Fm: Materials of Construction Factor = 0.1
Where:
Therefore:
0.675
100000
C(£ 2000)=1930 × 7× ( 0.8757 ) =£ 35.04 million
The Wilson method will be used as the initial capital costs. This method has been selected as it is the middle
value of the three calculated capital cost. Bridgewater’s method may be deemed as not reliable as it is too
small and Zevnik and Buchanan method may be too large. So in this case Wilson’s method has been selected.
Another justification as to why Wilson’s method may be selected is because it accounts for all the plant
items. So this provides a more clear indication on how much the initial cost will be taking account for all
plant items not just the ‘main process steps’.
97
The calculated capital cost is that for 2000 so it is important to find the capital cost for 2012. Also, the
proposed plant is to be located in China therefore location factors and exchange rates have to be taken into
account. To determine the capital cost for 2012 inflation rates of both China and Great Britain have to be
considered. This is done as follows:
Table 10 below shows the inflation rate for Great Britain from 2000 to 2012.
Location factors are only available for the year 2004 so the plant has to be moved in 2004. However, the
initial capital cost calculated above is for the year 2000 so this is where the UK inflation is taken into
consideration. So the cost in the UK in the year 2004 will be:
98
As mentioned above the location factors are only available for 2004. So using the location factors below the
plant has to be moved from UK to China. So the capital cost in 2004 taking account of location factors is as
follows:
The location factor for China in 2004 is 0.9. So the capital cost of the proposed plant in China in 2004 is:
It is also important to take into account the exchange rate as the plant is to be built in China. The exchange
rate of Great British Pounds to Chinese Yuan in 2004 was ¥14.8173. [83] Using the exchange rate the capital
cost in 2004 would be as follows:
The next step is to determine the capital cost of the plant for 2012. China inflation rates from 2004 to 2012
have to be taken into account. This is shown below:
Table 11 below shows the inflation rate for China from 2004 to 2012.
99
2008 +5.97% 1.0597
So, therefore the capital cost in 2012 for China is calculated as follows:
C2012 = C2004 × 1.0384 × 1.0178 × 1.0165 ×1.0482 × 1.0597 × 0.9928 × 1.0317× 1.0553× 1.0458
C2012 = ¥715.32 million × 1.0384 × 1.0178 × 1.0165 ×1.0482 × 1.0597 × 0.9928 × 1.0317× 1.0553× 1.0458
Also, it has to be taken into account that the prices of the raw materials obtained are in dollar per tonne.
However, these have to be converted into the Chinese currency i.e. Yuan per tonne. For this economic
appraisal an exchange rate of $1: ¥6.30298 [85] be used. The table below shows the cost of the raw materials:
Raw Cost ($/t) Cost (¥/t) Flowrate Flowrate Flowrate Total Cost
Material (kg/hr) (kg/yr) (tons/yr) (¥)
SBA 1080 6807.22 11576.71 93354589.44 93354.58944 635,485,228.3
TCE 1180 7437.52 2232.14 17999976.96 17999.98 133,875,211.2
Total 769,360,436.5
Table 12: Cost of Raw Materials [86][87]
From table 12 above it can be seen that in order to produce 100000 t/y of Methyl Ethyl Ketone the total cost
[8]
of raw materials will be ¥769.36 million. However, from the mass balance produced in the previous report
it can be seen that the amount of TCE entering stream 14 is completely recycled and is used again. So, the
cost of TCE can be ignored and the cost can be included in the start up cost. Therefore, TCE is not considered
as an operating cost. Also, It can be seen from the group project mass balance there is a recycle of 1292.08
100
kg/hr of SBA [8]. This amount can therefore be deducted from the amount of SBA required. This will help to
decrease the cost of raw materials.
An estimate of the operating of the costs associated with the Methyl Ethyl Ketone can be found from the
cost of raw materials. From table 13 it can be seen that raw materials cost represent 31% of the total
operating costs. Therefore, the total operating costs are shown below:
% of Total % of Total
Operating Cost Cost (¥/Y) Operating Cost Cost (¥/Y)
Operating Cost Operating Cost
Royalties and
2 40,999,046.98 Administration 4 81,998,093.96
Patents
From the above the total operating cost therefore equates to: ¥2,049,952,349
101
9.1.4 Plant Income
The plant makes an income by selling the product which is Methyl Ethyl Ketone. Currently MEK is being sold
for $1800 /t. Using the conversion above i.e. $1: ¥6.30298, the selling price of MEK is therefore calculated to
be ¥11345.364. Therefore, this gives an annual amount of:
The plant has been assumed to have a plant of 15 years. Also, it is assumed that construction is split equally
over two years with 50% construction in year 0 and 50% construction in year 1. This therefore, means that
production will begin in year 2.
The working capital is paid in the year before operation and is recovered in the final year of operation which
is an income to the plant. The working capital is usually required in the year before production to purchase
the initial raw materials to get the plant running. In this cash flow the working capital will be 10% of the
capital cost. The final income to account for is the scrap value. The scrap value will again be 10% of the
capital cost.
All of the data which has been previously found is bought together in order to construct a cash flow table.
The cash flow table can then be assessed to determine the profitability of the process.
The following diagram can be produced using the data from the cash flow in Table 14.
102
Cash Flow Diagram
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
-2,000,000,000
Cumulatine Net Cash Flow
-4,000,000,000
-6,000,000,000
-8,000,000,000
-10,000,000,000
-12,000,000,000
-14,000,000,000
-16,000,000,000
Year
103
Operating Cost Income
Year Capital Cost Working Capital Scrap Value Net Cash Flow Cumulative NCF
0 -482471590.3 -482471590.3 -482471590.3
1 -482471590.3 -96494318.05 -578965908.3 -1061437499
2 -2049952349 1134536400 -915415949 -1976853448
3 -2049952349 1134536400 -915415949 -2892269397
4 -2049952349 1134536400 -915415949 -3807685346
5 -2049952349 1134536400 -915415949 -4723101295
6 -2049952349 1134536400 -915415949 -5638517244
7 -2049952349 1134536400 -915415949 -6553933193
8 -2049952349 1134536400 -915415949 -7469349142
9 -2049952349 1134536400 -915415949 -8384765091
10 -2049952349 1134536400 -915415949 -9300181040
11 -2049952349 1134536400 -915415949 -10215596989
12 -2049952349 1134536400 -915415949 -11131012938
13 -2049952349 1134536400 -915415949 -12046428887
14 -2049952349 1134536400 -915415949 -12961844836
15 -2049952349 1134536400 -915415949 -13877260785
16 96494318.05 -2049952349 1134536400 -818921631 -14696182416
17 96494318.05 96494318.05 -14599688097
Table 14: Cash Flow Table for the Methyl Ethyl Ketone Plant
104
9.2 Breakeven and Profitability Analysis
Al the relevant costs and income have now been calculated for 1 year’s production of MEK. Now the
profitability of the proposed plant has to be determined. There are various methods which can be used to do
this they are as follows:
Amortisation
Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return
Return on Investment
9.2.1 Amortisation
The initial capital which is necessary to purchase all required equipment is usually borrowed from the bank.
As the capital is repaid the outstanding loan decreases and the interest on the initial loan is reduced. The
borrowed capital is often repaid on an amortisation basis. This means that over the life time of the plant a
constant annual repayment is made. The following equation is used to calculate the amortisation rate:
I∗r (1+ r) n
A=
( 1+ r)n −1
Where:
A: The annual repayment which includes capital and interest. It is constant over the life of the loan.
n: The number of years the loan is repaid over. It is usually the lifetime of the plant = 10 years
The following table show the effect of amortisation. Table 15 shows the effect if a loan was taken out based
on the full capital cost.
105
Year Working Capital (¥) Scrap Value (¥) Amortisation (¥) Operating cost (¥) Income (¥) Net Cash Flow (¥) Cumulative NCF (¥)
0
1 -96494318.05 -126864724.4 -223359042.5 -223359042.5
2 -126864724.4 -2049952349 1134536400 -1042280673 -1265639716
3 -126864724.4 -2049952349 1134536400 -1042280673 -2307920389
4 -126864724.4 -2049952349 1134536400 -1042280673 -3350201063
5 -126864724.4 -2049952349 1134536400 -1042280673 -4392481736
6 -126864724.4 -2049952349 1134536400 -1042280673 -5434762409
7 -126864724.4 -2049952349 1134536400 -1042280673 -6477043083
8 -126864724.4 -2049952349 1134536400 -1042280673 -7519323756
9 -126864724.4 -2049952349 1134536400 -1042280673 -8561604430
10 -126864724.4 -2049952349 1134536400 -1042280673 -9603885103
11 -126864724.4 -2049952349 1134536400 -1042280673 -10646165776
12 -126864724.4 -2049952349 1134536400 -1042280673 -11688446450
13 -126864724.4 -2049952349 1134536400 -1042280673 -12730727123
14 -126864724.4 -2049952349 1134536400 -1042280673 -13773007797
15 -126864724.4 -2049952349 1134536400 -1042280673 -14815288470
16 96494318.05 -126864724.4 -2049952349 1134536400 -945786355.4 -15761074825
17 96494318.05 96494318.05 -15664580507
Table 15: Cash Flow Table for the Methyl Ethyl Ketone Plant taking account for amortisation
106
9.2.3 Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return
The discounted cash flow rate of return also known as DCFrr is another method which is used to assess
profitability. This method uses the net present value to determine the profitability. Money which is invested
into a project will earn interest. This means that any sum of money which is spent or any money which arises
in the future has an equivalent value today. [81] This depends on the interest rate assumed and the number of
years. The following equation is used to calculate the present value:
F
P= Equation 39: Present Value Calculation [81]
( 1+i )n
Where:
The net present value is the cumulative present value over the life time of the plant. The net present value
will be calculated for two interest rates; 10% and 20%. The number of years of the MEK is 15 years. The net
present value can then be used to determine the DCFrr. This is the discount rate which is required to make
the net present value equal zero.
DCFrr
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Cumulative Net Present Value
-2,000,000,000
-4,000,000,000
-6,000,000,000
-8,000,000,000
-10,000,000,000
-12,000,000,000
-14,000,000,000
-16,000,000,000
Discount Rate
From figure 48 it can be seen that a DCFrr cannot be determined as the graph does not cross the axis.
107
CUM NPV at 10% (¥)
Net Cash Flow (¥) Cumulative NCF(¥) NPV at 10% (¥) NPV at 20% (¥) CUM NPV at 20% (¥)
-482471590.3 -482471590.3 -482471590.3 -482471590.3 -482471590.3 -482471590.3
-578965908.3 -1061437499 -526332643.9 -1008804234 -482471590.3 -964943180.5
-915415949 -1976853448 -756542106.6 -1765346341 -635705520.1 -1600648701
-915415949 -2892269397 -687765551.5 -2453111892 -529754600.1 -2130403301
-915415949 -3807685346 -625241410.4 -3078353303 -441462166.8 -2571865468
-915415949 -4723101295 -568401282.2 -3646754585 -367885139 -2939750606
-915415949 -5638517244 -516728438.4 -4163483023 -306570949.1 -3246321556
-915415949 -6553933193 -469753125.8 -4633236149 -255475791 -3501797347
-915415949 -7469349142 -427048296.2 -5060284445 -212896492.5 -3714693839
-915415949 -8384765091 -388225723.8 -5448510169 -177413743.7 -3892107583
-915415949 -9300181040 -352932476.2 -5801442645 -147844786.4 -4039952369
-915415949 -10215596989 -320847705.6 -6122290351 -123203988.7 -4163156358
-915415949 -11131012938 -291679732.4 -6413970083 -102669990.6 -4265826348
-915415949 -12046428887 -265163393.1 -6679133476 -85558325.48 -4351384674
-915415949 -12961844836 -241057630.1 -6920191106 -71298604.57 -4422683278
-915415949 -13877260785 -219143300.1 -7139334406 -59415503.81 -4482098782
-818921631 -14696182416 -178221206.8 -7317555613 -44293745.49 -4526392528
96494318.05 -14599688097 19090886.41 -7298464727 4349311.953 -4522043216
Table 16: Net Present Value at 10% and 20%
108
9.2.4 Return on Investment
Return on Investment (ROI) is another method which is used to analysis profitability. ROI is the percentage
return of the initial investment over the plant lifetime. This method takes into account the capital cost, the
cumulative net cash flow and the plant operating life. The following equation is used in order to calculate the
ROI.
The return on investment is calculated for the return on the initial capital cost is shown below:
−14,599,688,097
15
ROI= × 100=−100.87 %
964,943,180.5
It can be seen from the calculation that the ROI is negative. It again shows that the plant is suffering a major
loss. It would be classed as not being ‘worthwhile’. It shows that the plant is not profitable at all. From the
ROI achieved it can be said it would be better to invest in a bank rather than to build the plant. It would be
less of a risk to put the money in a bank rather than to build the plant.
It can be seen that the plant is not generating any profit as the operating costs are vastly greater than the
income into the plant. It can therefore be assumed that the project is not feasible any may not worth be
constructing.
109
Profitability to the plant may be increased if the cost of raw materials was decreased. The cost of raw
materials could be reduced by locating the plant closer to raw materials. This would mean that costs of
transporting the raw materials would also be decreased.
Also, the plant could negotiate a contract with the supplier in which a discount could be obtained if the plant
was to buy the raw materials in bulk. Therefore, this would decrease the price of raw materials which would
in turn reduce the operating cost.
Another suggestion to improve the profitability of the plant is to increase the selling price of the product
Methyl Ethyl Ketone. If the selling price increases this would in turn increase the revenue into the project
and would slowly decrease the debt. From the first term project it was seen that there is a large market for
MEK in China so it may be viable to increase the selling of MEK. However, if the selling price is set to high
then there is a threat of competition from rival companies. Also, an increase in income will also cause an
increase in the operating cost therefore; the plant again would still suffer a major loss.
The cost of the major parts of equipment in a distillation column are the vessel, the condenser and reboiler.
In section 10.1 the costs of the three parts of equipment are estimated.
Using the inflation rates determined in section 9 the 2012 cost can be calculated. This is show as follows:
110
= ¥794,553 × 0.9927 × 1.0113 × 1.0384 × 1.0178 × 1.0165 ×1.0482 × 1.0597 × 0.9928 × 1.0317× 1.0553×
1.0458
=¥1,076,024.7
Using the inflation rates determined in section 9 the 2012 cost can be calculated. This is show as follows:
= ¥13,7391 × 0.9927 × 1.0113 × 1.0384 × 1.0178 × 1.0165 ×1.0482 × 1.0597 × 0.9928 × 1.0317× 1.0553×
1.0458
=¥186,062
111
distillate stream leaves the condenser at 60°C and this then enters a product cooler. This heat can be
recovered and can then be used to preheat the inlet stream to the distillation column.
11.0 Conclusion
This project has been a indication of the level of detail that is involved in the design of a distillation column.
The project has been a major learning experience and has helped to further develop skills including time
management and analytical skills. The report has expanded my perspective and conception of chemical
engineering.
During the design phase it was found that many educated assumptions had to be made using the data
available and in cases were data was not available chemical engineering knowledge had to be used.
112
12.0 Nomenclature
Cp Specific heat at constant pressure J/kgK
Dc Diameter m
Db Bundle diameter m
di Internal diameter m
do Outer diameter m
Ds Shell diameter m
e Column shell thickness
F Feed mass flow rate kg/s
FLV Liquid-vapour flow factor _
G Vapour mass flow rate kg/s
g Acceleration due to gravity m/s2
H Height m
jf Friction factor _
jh Heat transfer factor _
k Thermal conductivity W/mK
KL Thermal conductivity of liquid W/mK
l Length of tube m
Lo Liquid mass flow in rectifying region kg/s
L’ Liquid mass flow in stripping region kg/s
N Number of theoretical stages _
Np Number of passes in a tube _
NT Number of tubes _
p Pressure N/m2
p Pitch _
P max Maximum process pressure N/m2
P° Saturated vapour pressure N/m2
q Feed condition _
Q Heat transferred per unit time W
R Reflux ratio _
Rmin Minimum reflux ratio _
S Allowable design stress N/m2
t Thickness of vessel m
T max Maximum process temperature K
TIN, TOUT Shell side temperature of process fluid IN,OUT K
tIN, tOUT Tube side temperature of service fluid IN,OUT K
113
u Velocity m/s
uf Flooding velocity m/s
Uo Overall heat transfer coefficient W/m2K
us Shell side velocity m/s
uv Vapour velocity m/s
V Vapour mass flow in the rectifying region kg/s
V* Vapour mass flow rate per unit area kg/m2s
V’ Vapour mass flow in the stripping region kg/s
W Bottom mass flow rate kg/s
xf Mole fraction of component in feed _
xHK Mole fraction of heavy key _
xLK Mole fraction of light key _
αa, αb Relative volatilities of component a,b.. _
μL Liquid viscosity kg/ms
ρL Liquid density kg/m3
ρV Vapour density kg/m3
∆Ps Pressure drop in shell N/m2
∆Pt Pressure drop in tube N/m2
∆T Temperature difference K
∆TLM Log mean temperature difference K
Nu Nusselt number
Pr Prandtl number
Re Reynolds number
114
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