The Endocrine System

Word Roots Endocrine System Glands

aden/o: gland
adren/o: adrenal glands
adrenal/o adrenal glands
andr/o: male
cortic/o: cortex
crin/o: secrete
dips/o: thirst
gluc/o: sugar

Overview
 The endocrine
system and
nervous system are
used for
communication to
maintain
homeostasis.

 Both of these
1) Glands
systems use  Pineal gland
chemicals as  function is not completely known.
messengers  resembles a pine cone
(endocrine  located beneath the  end of corpus callosum
system uses  it usually shrinks  why 1/5th  during puberty
hormones).  Hormone melatonin
 Communication - produced by the pineal gland and it suppresses
through the gonadotropin releasing hormones from the hypothalamus
endocrine system is  Regulates biological rhythms
much slower to
start, is less 2) Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland
specific as to its target, and takes longer to end than  The pituitary gland has two parts:
communication by the nervous system.  Anterior pituitary
 Posterior pituitary
Communication of the Nervous and Endocrine Systems
-Communication through the endocrine system is much  The hypothalamus
slower to start, is less specific as to its target, and takes  Plays a major role as a gateway for the brain to control
longer to end than communication by the nervous system. the endocrine system
 The hypothalamus is connected to the pituitary gland’s
two parts by a stalk called the infundibulum.
(passageway)
 Posterior Pituitary hormones-
 Antidiuretic hormone and (ADH) and oxytocin
 Delivered by axonal transport

Part (a) shows the neuron communicates by using action

potentials to deliver neurotransmitter substance to a
specific target tissue.
Part (b) shows that endocrine cells secrete hormones that
travel through the bloodstream and are delivered to target
tissues with specific receptors.

I. ANATOMY
 A gland may be a separate structure all on its own, or it
may be groups of cells within an organ that function
together to produce hormones.
 Hormones are chemicals that travel to their target
tissue and tell them to do something.
 A target tissue has receptors for a hormone based on
shape.
Hormones for hypothalamus
- Growth hormone -releasing hormone
- Thyrotropin-releasing hormone
-Corticotropin - releasing hormone
-Gonadotropin releasing hormone
Hormones from Anterior Pituitary
- Growth hormone ( bone,muscle,adipose tissue)
-Thyroid stimulating hormone ( Thyroid)
-Adrenocorticotropic hormone (Adrenal cortex)
-Luteinizing hormone and follicle Stimulating hormone ( Ovary and Testis)
Location of the Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland
  Elongated organ
posterior to the
stomach
 Exocrine
functions:
 Secretes digestive
enzymes
 Carried by
pancreatic duct
into small
intestine
Endocrine function:
 Islets of
Langerhans
secrete three
hormones Pancreas ducts are
Hypothalamus-Pituitary Relationship  Glucagon: raises used for digestive
blood glucose secetions only.
 Insulin: lowers
blood glucose
6) Adrenal Glands
 Sit as a cap to the kidney
 2 adrenal glands, one atop each kidney( superior and
medial)
 Glands consist of two portions:
 Inner adrenal medulla
 Outer adrenal cortex
Parts of Adrenal Gland
A.Adrenal cortex
 The adrenal
 cortex is the
 (b) The hypothalamus anterior pituitary relationship , in outer layer of
which releasing hormones from the endocrine cells in the adrenal
the hypothalamus and their capillaries and travel to the gland.
blood in a blood vessel to capillary bed in thee anterior  Produces over 25
pituitary different
 ©ADH and oxytocin are produced by neuron cell bodies hormones
in the hypothalamus , travel through axons , and are classified in
released and stored in the posterior pituitary until they three major
are needed , at which time they are released from there categories:
into the blood 
3) Thyroid Gland Mineralocorticoids
 Resembles a bow tie  Glucocorticoids
 Located below the larynx  Androgens
 Two lobes connected by anterior isthmus B. Adrenal medulla
 Thyroid hormone = (T4 and T3) - increase metabolism in  Middle of adrenal gland
tissues.  Sympathetic nervous (fear,pain and stress)
 Iodine is necessary for production in the thyroid and to
mantain homeostasis. Anatomy of the Endocrine System
Functions: 1) Ovaries and Testes
 Increases metabolic rate  Gonads
 Promotes protein synthesis  Females: ovaries
 Enhances neuron function
 Calcitonin ( Not referred to as thyroid hormone)  Produce ovary and sex hormones estrogen and
 Another hormone produced by the thyroid gland progesterone
 Stimulate the deposition of calcium in the bone.  Development of secondary sex characteristics
 Lowers blood calcium by stimulating calcium deposition by  Males: testes
osteoblasts in bones  Produce sperm and sex hormone testosterone
4) Parathyroid Gland  Dormant through brith and puberty
 4 parathyroid glands  Other Tissues
 Small glands on posterior  Heart = atrial natriuretic hormone
surface of thyroid gland  The digestive system = several hormones
 Two glands on each lobe  Uterus- makes prostaglandis hormones that targets the
 Parathyroid Hormone kidney to regulate urine production.
(PTH) 2) Hormones
Increases the concentration  There are three categories of hormones based upon
of blood calcium levels three chemical composition: steroids, amino acid derivatives,
ways: and proteins.
 Promotes calcium  The composition of a hormone affects how it relates to
removal from bones by
osteoclasts and inhibits a receptor.
calcium deposition by 3) Steroid Hormones
osteoblasts  Derived from cholesterol (help mantain homeostasis)
 Inhibits excretion of  An example: estrogen The ability of the steroid hormones to
pass thrrough cell membanes allows
calcium by kidneys  They can pass through for the clinical delivery of these
 Promotes calcium Parathyroid the cell membrane to reach hormones through the skin.
absorption into blood by Birth control patch is applied to the
glands
emedded on receptors within the cell. skin delivers doses of estrogen and
intestine the posterior progesterone though the skin.
 Prevents loss of calcium to urine in the kidney surface of the
thyroid gland. 4) Amino Acid Derivatives
5)Pancreas  Derived from amino acids (building blocks of protein)
Medical administration of
epinephine and insulin must
be done by injection.
 
Hypothalamus
release
thyrotropin-
releasing
hormone which
 An example: epinephrine, goes to taregt
Example: neural stimulation of a gland occurs when sympathetic
tissue.
 thyroid hormone and melatonin neurrons atimulte adrenal medulla to secrete epinephrine.
 Anterior pituitary
 Although some of these  Another hormone stimulating a gland 
releases TSH.
The thyroid
hormones may pass through the cell membrane, epinephrine Example: GnRh hormones from the hypothalamus resultsreleases
secretiona thyroid
cannot – it must bind to a receptor on the outside of the cell of FSH and LH. hormone which
membrane. travels to target
Example:A substance other than a hormone stimulating tissues. a
5) Protein Hormones gland.  TH stimulate cells
 Derived from chains of amino acids Example:pancrea stimulates insulin if glucose levels aretohigh. increease
 An example: insulin, TSH,FSH,LH,GH,PTH,ADH  Hormone secretion is regulated by negative feedback. metabolism
 These hormones are too large to pass through the plasma  A hormone is secreted when the concentration  Travelsofto aanteior
membrane.
substance is too low or too high. pituitary whee it
6) Target Tissues  The hormone causes body cells to bring the substance inhibits the
 Receptors for hormones can be on the cell membrane or further secretion
inside the cell. level back to normal.
 Water soluble hormones bind to receptors on the outside of  Once normal levels are reached, hormone secretionfoand FSH.
the cell. concentration decreases.  -thyroid hormne
 Activates second messenger systems Negative Feedback Inhibition of the Hypothalamus and travels to
 Lipid soluble hormones (steroids) bind receptors inside of the Pituitary Gland by the Thyroid Gland hypothalamuus
were it inhibits
cell.  Regulation of Hormone Secretion and Distribution secretion of tH.
Location of Receptors for Protein Hormones  T h y r oi d
 Protein hormones bind to the receptors of the cell plasma proteins
membraane and they fit into reveptors on the basis of their
specific shapes. in the blood, so
 The hormones willl initaiate a response. not all of the
 Second messnger systen it is to be used if it iss to occur inside hormone enters
the cell the cell at once
Location of Target Tissue – timed release
  P r o t e i n h
Protein hormone fits
into the receptor on
because they
the cell memebrane , cannot enter a
causing a chemical cell.
reaction that forms a
 Transport and Actions of Protein
molecule CAMP( aand Steroid Hormones
second messenger)
The second
messenger
stimulatees changes
inside the cell as th
function of the
hormone .IN this
case,molecule A
changes to B, which
cause molecule C to
change to D.

Location of
Receptors for
Steroid
Hormones

A steroid hormone
passes through the
cell membrane and
fits into a receptor  Receptor Regulation
inside the nucleus  Up-regulation is the increase in the number of receptors
to stimulate protein for a given hormone.
synthesis.  Increases the cell’s sensitivity to a hormone and
 Targe therefore increases the effects of the hormone.
t  Down-regulation is the decrease in the number of
receptors for a given hormone.
Tissues  Decreases the cell’s sensitivity to a hormone and
The location of the target tissue is relevant to the delivery therefore decreases the effects of the hormone.
method of a hormone.  Response to high levels of hormone
 Autocrine = cell stimulates itself and secretion of Up-Regulation of Receptors
hormone (ex. Prostaglandins)
 Paracrine = nearby cells without entering the blood
(ex.endocinr cells - hydrochloric acid)
 Endocrine = hormone enters the blood.
 Pheromone = chemicals ignite a response outside the
body in another individual
II. Physiology
 Regulation of Hormone Secretion and Distribution
 Three modes:
 Neural stimulation of a gland

Down-Regulation of Receptors
 Hormone Elimination
 Hormones can be eliminated 4 ways
 Excretion – kidneys remove hormone
 Metabolism – enzymes break down the hormone
 Active transport - reuptake (hormone can be recycled)
 Conjugation – liver combines the hormone with water-
soluble substance for excretion
 Half-life is the length of time it takes for one-half of a
substance to be eliminated from the circulatory system.
 Functions: Four Scenarios
1) Scenario 1 – Insulin and Glucagon Secretion
 Hormones such as insulin and glucagon are used to
maintain homeostasis.
 Uses negative feedback( liver converts into glycogen
( storage molecule for glucose)
 Insulin is released after a meal to allow glucose to enter
the cells from the blood.
 Glucagon is released many hours later when glucose
levels fall below the normal range to restore normal
levels in the blood.
2) Scenario 2 – The consequences of reduced melatonin at
puberty
 Normally the pineal gland reduces melatonin output at
puberty.
 Melatonin inhibits GnRH.
 Melatonin hels regulate daily bilogical rhythms.
 GnRH stimulates release of FSH and LH.
 FSH stimulates the production of estrogen by the
ovaries producing secondary sex characteristics.
 LH stimulates ovulation.
3) Scenario 3 - Adrenal cortex degeneration: Addison’s
disease
 Aldosterone - major mineralcorticoid hormone that
helps mantain homeostasis by controlling fluid and
electrolyte balance.
 Corticosol- major glucocorticoid used to breakdown fat
and proyein to make blood and deals with stress.
 Dehydroepandosterone(DHEA) is an androgen
produced by the adrenal cortex which is alo a precursor
of testosterone.
 With low cortisol, the ability to use fat and protein as
fuel is reduced along with the ability to deal with stress,
and inflammation.
 The effects of decreased DHEA are minimal because the
adrenal cortex is not the main source of testosterone.
The majority of the testosterone comes from the testes.
 Hypothalamus releases ACTH that tarvels to the adrenal
cortex.
4) Scenario 4 - Hormonal Regulation of Childbirth
 The endocrine system can use positive feedback
mechanisms.
 The fetal head pushes on the cervix, sending a nerve
impulse to the posterior pituitary.
 Oxytocin is released, causing the muscles of the uterus
to contract.
 Contraction causes further stimulation of the fetal head
on the cervix and response gets progressively stronger
as the cycle repeats.
 Oxytocin’s Effect on Childbirth
 Effects of Aging on the Endocrine System
 In general, the levels of hormones decline with age.
 Even if the levels of some hormones remain high with
age, the sensitivity of the target tissue often decreases
with down-regulation of receptors.
 Testosterone declines at the age of 80
 Common Diagnostic Tests for Endocrine System
Disorders
1. Blood tests- are used to determine hormone levels in
the blood so as to detect certain endocrine conditions.
2. Computerized Tomography (CT) -is used to evaluate
internal structures for evidence of tumors and other
anatomical abnormalities.
3. Dual-Energy-X-ray Absorptiometry Scan (DEXA)- uses
low-dose radiation to measure bone density in hip and
vertebrae.
4. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) or Nuclear
Magnetic Resonance (NMR) -is used to visualize
internal soft tissue structures.
5. Urinalysis -evaluates physical, chemical, and
microscopic changes in the urine.
6. X-ray- is used to evaluate dense structures in the body,
such as bone.
II.Pathology
 Diabetes Mellitus
 Diabetes mellitus is a problem with insulin in blood
glucose regulation. It has two forms: type 1 and type 2.
 Symptoms for both types are excessive thirst
(polydipsia), excessive urine production (polyuria), and
glucose in the urine (glucosuria).
 If uncontrolled, both types may lead to life-threatening
complications.
 Type 1 Diabetis Mellitus
 Diagnosed before age 30
 Unknown ause of disease
 Need to nject insulin to mantain homeostasis
 Type 2 Diabets Mellitus
 Inability to respoind to the insulin produced by the
pancreas
 Insulin and medical treatment
 Glucosoria-lost in urine
 Polyuria-urine output is increased
 Polydipsia- excessive thirst
 Polyphagia- excessive hunger and increased appetite
 Hyperglycemia-too much sugar in blood
 Glucometer - measures the blood glucose level
  Grave’s Disease
 Graves’ disease is an autoimmune disorder
 It is characterized by hypersecretion of thyroid hormone
 Hypothyroidism
 Treatment is readiation or surgically be removed
 Symptom : fatigue,weight gain,an enlarged thyoid
glandontolerance of colf temp,joint and muscle
pain,constiption,impaired fertility ,depression and slow
heart rate.
 Blood test to detech TSH levels and presence of throid
anti-bodies
 Myxedema-hypothyroidism
 Triggered by infection or a trauma
 Hashimoto’s Disease
 Hashimoto’s disease is an autoimmune disorder
 It is characterized by hyposecretion of thyroid hormone
 Diabetes Insipidus  Chronic inflammation of the thyroid gland
 Diabetes insipidus is a problem of insufficient ADH  Cushing’s Disease
secretion from the posterior pituitary. The symptoms  Graves’ disease is a collection of health problems
are excessive thirst and excessive urine production. related to excess cortisol levels in the blood
 Growth Disorders  It is due to hypersecretion of adrenocorticotrophic
 Growth disorders are a problem of GH secretion from (ACTH) from the pituitary gland
the anterior pituitary.  Cushing’s Syndrome
 Gigantism
 Hypersecretion of GH before epiphyseal plates close.
 Accelerated bone growth
 Pituitary dwarfism
 Hyposecretion of GH during childhood whhicch might
result to bain inkuty or birth defect.
 Acromegaly
 Pituitary Dwarfism
 Acromegaly

 Part (a) is a photo of the central obesity and

abdominal striae seen in Cushing’s syndrome.
 Part (b) is a photo of the moon face seen in an
individual with Cushing’s syndrome.
 Addison Disease- adrenal cortex degeneration

 Goiters
 Goiters can result from
hyposecretion or
hypersecretion of thyroid hormone.
 Endemic goiter-Iodine deficiency
 Toxic goiter- enlarged thyroid gland
 Graves’ disease-most common condition
 White blood cells will invade and fit into receptor and
act like TSH
Effects of hyposecretion
 Weight loss
 Increased appetite
 Bouts of diarrhea
 Soft skin
 Exophthalmos
 Endemic Goiter