International Journal of Applied Engineering Research ISSN 0973-4562 Volume 15, Number 1 (2020) pp.

101-107
© Research India Publications. http://www.ripublication.com

Numerical Simulation and Experimental Validation of Thickness

Distribution in Single Point Incremental Forming for Drawing Quality Steel

Zeradam Y.1, Krishnaiah A.2

1, 2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University College of Engineering (A),
Osmania University, Hyderabad-500 007, India

Abstract using aluminum sheets and comparatively neglected to

Incremental sheet forming (ISF) is a relatively new sheet
metal forming technology suitable for small batches and rapid
prototypes. It can be executed in CNC machining centers,
industrial robots, or by a machine specifically designed for the
process. The principal objective of this study was to
investigate the thickness distribution in single point
incremental sheet forming (SPIF) of deep drawing quality
steel (DDQ). In this study, a truncated cone was used to
predict thinning. A combined numerical simulation,
experimental investigation, and theoretical prediction
methodological approach were used for the study. The
thickness of the experimentally formed geometry has been
measured at various points along the length. Furthermore, the
thickness distribution has been computed theoretically based
on the sine law and numerical simulation by using a finite
element code ABAQUS. To see if the methods gave the same
measurement, the data were plotted and comparisons were
made. Error analysis was made between measured and
theoretical, measured and simulation, simulation, and
theoretical. The results showed that there is a good agreement
between the numerical simulation and the experimental
studies on the thickness distribution. It is evidently clear from
the findings that numerical simulation can successfully predict
thinning.
Keywords: Deep Drawing Steel, Forming force, Incremental
forming, SPIF, Thickness distribution, Thinning
1. INTRODUCTION
Single point incremental sheet forming is an emerging process
for manufacturing sheet metal parts and it is well suited for
small batch production or prototyping. In SPIF sheet is
formed into the desired final part by a series of small
incremental deformations until the part fully formed.
This process has drawn the attention of many researchers in
the past decade due to its enormous advantages when
compared with conventional forming processes like deep-
drawing, stretch forming and spinning. Greater process
flexibility and enhanced formability, lower forming forces, no
need for forming dies are its major advantages.
Incremental forming technology cannot be considered as a
mature one since many aspects related both to the process
mechanics and the industrial suitability have to be explained
in a most effective way [1].
Based on the quantitative literature review made by [2], most
of the studies on the process focused on the experimental
approach. Furthermore, the Majority of researchers focused on
investigate other sheet materials [3]-[8]. However major
contributions to steel materials such as Extra deep drawing
steel (EDD) and stainless steel have reported [9]-[11].
There are a few limitations of this process, out of these
limitations; sheet thinning is the most critical limitation.
Hence, it becomes very necessary to study sheet tinning in ISF
[1].
SPIF has enormous applications. However, thickness thinning
has always been an obstacle to the wide application of
incremental forming [12].
Most of these studies on the thickness distribution of SPIF
have mainly been restricted to Aluminum alloys. This study,
therefore, set out to assess thickness distribution in SPIF of
deep drawing quality steel (DDQ).
2. MATERIAL CHARACTERIZATION
Three kinds of drawing quality steels that are commonly used
in the automotive industry. These include drawing quality
steel (DQ), a deep drawing quality steel (DDQ), and extra
deep drawing quality steel (EDDQ).
Single Point Incremental forming processes presented in this
work was achieved with a drawing quality (CR2) cold-rolled
steel sheet with a sheet thickness of 1 mm. The chemical
composition of CR2 Steels is comprised 0.12 percent of
Carbon maximum, 0.5 percent of manganese maximum,
0.035 percent of Sulphur maximum, 0.04 percent of
Phosphorous maximum, and remaining percentage is of iron
(Fe) with negligible impurities. The chemical composition and
Mechanical properties of CR2 steel are described in Tables 1
and 2 respectively.
Table 1 Composition of Drawing Quality Steel
Quality Constituent, Percent, Max
Designation Name C Mn S P
CR2 Drawing 0.12 0.5 0.035 0.04
Three Dog bone specimens were produced and tested
according to ISO 6892-1:2009 [1]. All the specimens tested at
ambient temperature. They were 1 mm thick, 20 mm wide,
and had a gauge length of 80 mm (Figure 1). The tensile test
was carried out on universal testing machine at a constant
crosshead speed.

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© Research India Publications. http://www.ripublication.com

Table 2. Mechanical properties of Drawing Quality steel

Quality Yield Stress Tensile Strength Elongation Percent, Hardness ,
Re, MPa Rm, MPa A, Min Max
Designation Grade Lo = 80 mm HRB HR(30T)
CR2 D 240 Max 370 Max 30 65 60

3. METHODS
The flow chart (Fig.2.) depicted the process that was used for
the experimental and numerical studies.

(a)

Figure 2. The method used for the FEM simulation

and experimental study.

(b)
Fig. 1(a) Tensile test dimensions and (b) specimens before
and after testing
Stress and strain are computed from measurements in a
tension test of the tensile force, F, and the elongation, ∆L
(load-displacement data). The engineering stress, σ, and
strain, ε, are defined as in (1) and (2).Where AO is the initial
cross sectional area and LO is the initial gauge length.
 eng  F / A O
 eng  L / LO
The stress strain data has been used to get the True stress-
strain data using (3) and (4).
4. TOOLPATH DEFINITION
Truncated Cone with an initial opening of 100mm and depth
of 30mm was the geometry chosen to verify the thickness
distribution (thinning).
Contour toolpath was defined by using the Mastercam
environment. Surface Finish Contour tool-paths perform
multiple cuts at constant Z step depths. It has adopted for the
multiple forming at constant step depth in SPIF.
The G-code created was extracted to coordinate points by
using the Excel approach to define the displacement
(amplitude versus time) data for the numerical simulation [9].
The parameters used for the definition of toolpath for the
(1) chosen sample parts are described in Table 3. Fig. 3 shows the
sample toolpath defined for the chosen parts.
(2)
Table 3. Parameters for the toolpath definition
Part Parameters

  ln 1   eng 
Truncated Step Depth Feed Tool Wall
(3) Cone (mm) Rate (mm/m) Diameter Angle
(mm)
   eng ( eng  1) (4).
1 1000 12 50º

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© Research India Publications. http://www.ripublication.com

A. Checking for convergence

Fig. 3. Toolpath definition for the Truncated Cone
The computation time required for the simulation of the SPIF
process by an implicit method is double the time taken for
simulation by using an explicit method even for small parts.
However, the prediction of accurate geometry remains a
problem in the simulations done by the explicit method. The
explicit methods, however, become unstable and diverge
rapidly over large time increments [13].
Time scaling and mass scaling are used to minimize the
computational time. Mass scaling is done by increasing the
density of material and time scaling is done by artificially
increasing the velocity of the tool.

5. NUMERICAL SIMULATION Time Increment: A bounded solution is obtained only when

the time increment (∆t) is less than the stable time increment
The numerical simulation is carried on a computer machine (∆tmin). If ∆t ≥ Δtmin, the solution will be unstable and
equipped with an Intel® Core™ i7–3632QM Quad-Core oscillations will occur in the model’s response [14]. The
processor (2.20 GHz) and the Windows 7 Professional (64-bit stability limit is the ratio between the characteristic length of
platform) operating system. the element and the Wave speed.
In this study, ABAQUS is the software used for the finite t  Le / Cd (5)
element simulation combined with the characteristics of SPIF.
ABAQUS implicit requires long computational time. Because Where element length, Le, and the dilatational wave speed of
of this, the ABAQUS explicit method has chosen for the the material, Cd.
conduct of the Numerical Simulation.
For finite element simulations, the blank is modeled as a Cd  ((  2 ) /  ) (6)
square of 200 mm X 200 mm X 1 mm in size and is fixed at
Where;
its four edges (Fig. 4). Blank is defined as a deformable body
and meshed with shell elements (S4R). It is a 4-node, Lam's constants can be defined in terms of Young's modulus,
quadrilateral, stress/displacement shell element with reduced E, and Poisson's ratio ν.
integration and a large-strain formulation. The initial element
size is taken as 2 mm. The friction coefficient of 0.15 has used   E / ((1  )(1  2 )) (7)
between the tool and the forming sheet.
  E / 2(1  ) (8)

Kinetic Energy versus Internal Energy: In either mass

scaling or time scaling, the kinetic energy should be
monitored to ensure that the ratio of kinetic energy to internal
energy does not get too large typically less than 10% [15].
The criterion that kinetic energy must be small relative to
internal energy has been satisfied in the numerical
simulations. Fig. 5 shows the Kinetic energy to internal
energy ratio in forming the Truncated Cone.

IE VS KE
1200000
1000000
800000
Energy

600000 IE
KE
Fig. 4. Single point incremental forming model. 400000
200000
0
Hemispherical forming tools of 12mm diameter have chosen 0 100 200 300 400
and defined as analytical rigid part. Table 2 depicts the blank
material properties, the elastic behavior specified in numerical Time
simulations. To define the displacement, the position vs time
data was introduced to ABAQUS software. The Gauss Fig. 5. Internal energy combined with kinetic energy history
quadrature was used for the shell section integration.

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© Research India Publications. http://www.ripublication.com

B. Thickness contour
The Sheet thickness (STH) distribution form the numerical
simulation is shown in Fig. 6. Based on the result
0.68mm(32%) thinning is achieved.

Fig. 8. Forming tools with 12mm diameter

The Truncated Cone is successfully formed as exhibited in

Fig. 6. Thickness distribution contour for the formed part Fig. 9. On the part formed scarring was generated on the cone.
The scarring (transition line) is created on the points that one
contour completed and the other contour is commenced.
6. FABRICATION OF THE TRUNCATED CONE This result is also reported by other studies i.e. a profile
milling tool path works well for all parts but has a major
drawback since scarring is created where the tool steps down
The validation test for the sample Truncated Cone part was in the vertical direction [16].
carried out on a 3-axis milling machine. The experiment was
conducted at the Central Institute of Tool Design, Hyderabad,
Telangana, India. Fig. 7. Depicts the configuration used for
the conduct of the experiment i.e the Fixture, Forming tool,
CNC mill, and Clamping device.
In the process, all process parameters, such as federate, step
depth and tool diameter, were strictly equal to those in the
simulation model.

Fig. 9. Truncated Cone formed by using ϕ12mm tool, 1mm

step depth and 1000mm/min feed rate

7. THEORETICAL THINNING
If to and tf are the initial and final thickness of the part with
wall angle α with horizontal then the final thickness can be
predicted by using the sin law [15]. After the stable thinning
Fig. 7. CNC Mill and Fixture used for the conduct of the an interrupted excessive thinning can occur and the result can
experiment deviate from the sin law.

t f  to  sin(90   ) (9)
As shown in Fig.8, the tool used was made from hardened
High-speed steel (HSS). After hardening, it was ground in The sine law given in equation 9 can be utilized to predict the
cylindrical grinding and then CNC profile grinding was done. achievable wall thickness. Based on the sine law the predicted
In order to reduce friction and increase material formability, final thickness is;
oil was applied as a lubricant. The forming tool, as well as the
surface of the blank, was lubricated.
t f  1sin(90  40)  0.643 mm

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© Research India Publications. http://www.ripublication.com

8. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The average thickness is 0.840 mm and the thinning rate is
16%, for the FEM simulation model and the average thickness
This section has attempted to provide a brief summary of the
is 0.839 mm and the thinning rate is 16.1%, for the fabricated
numerical simulation and experimental investigation
part.
(measured) results relating to the thickness distribution within
the given displacement. The simulation and experimental results of the wall thickness
distribution are shown in Tables 4 and 5. The simulation
The thickness distribution from the numerical simulation was
results were found to be close to the experimental results. The
evaluated using the view section function. As shown in Fig.
minimum thinning measured is 0.735mm for simulation and
10, the part is symmetrically cut along the Y–Z section;
0.723 mm for the experimental investigation.
“STH” is selected to display the wall thickness. Twenty-five
measurements were taken from twenty-five nodal points along
the path.
Table 4: Thickness distribution data from the numerical
simulation
S.No Forming Wall Thickness
Distance (mm) (mm)
1 0 0.973
2 4.14 0.916
3 8.67 0.828

Fig. 10. Cut part and the nodal points in which thinning 4 13.64 0.755
measurement was taken. 5 18.86 0.738
6 24.09 0.746
The fabricated part was cut symmetrically and the thickness
7 29.15 0.771
values were obtained using a 0.001 precision digital
micrometer. Measurement was taken at 25 equivalent 8 34.24 0.735
positions with the numerical simulation (Fig. 11).
9 39.42 0.764
10 41.86 0.828
11 46.2 0.946
12 50.28 0.979
13 54.31 0.983
14 58.33 0.977
15 62.39 0.955

a) 16 66.72 0.859
17 69.11 0.797
18 74.2 0.738
19 79.45 0.739
20 84.66 0.743
21 89.95 0.741
22 95.13 0.756
23 100.09 0.831
b) 24 104.63 0.915
Fig.11. a) Symmetrically cut part and b) The wall thinning 25 108.8 0.974
measuring Method for the experimentally formed part.

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© Research India Publications. http://www.ripublication.com

Table 5: Thickness distribution data from the Experimental thickness of the wall remains uniform until the bottom part in
investigation both cases. While the thickness at the bottom region shows
some variation between the two.
S.No Forming Distance Wall Thickness
The error between the measured versus simulated is 1.2% and
(mm) (mm) the measured versus theoretical predicted by the sine law is
8% as given in Table 6.
1 0 0.967

2 4 0.933

3 9 0.808

4 14 0.766

5 19 0.735

6 24 0.738

7 30 0.734

8 34 0.736

9 39 0.723 Fig. 12. Comparison between FEM simulation, experimental

and theoretical results of thickness distribution.
10 42 0.78

11 46 0.959
Table 6: Error between the theoretical, simulation and
12 50 0.979 experimental results

Measured Theoretical Simulated % error % error

13 54 0.983
Thickness Thickness Thickness between between
14 58 0.985 measured vs measured
theoretical vs
15 62 0.975 simulated
0.723mm 0.643mm 0.735mm 8% 1.20%
16 66 0.92

17 70 0.78 9. CONCLUSIONS
18 74 0.761 The purpose of the current study was to assess thinning both
in the FEM model and experimental studies during SPIF of
19 80 0.751 deep drawing steel. The results lead to the following
conclusions:
20 84 0.751
• More starching of the sheet can be possible since the
21 90 0.754 minimum thinning achieved in both FEM simulation
and experiment results was higher than the minimum
22 95 0.75 value of thinning predicted by the sine law (0.643mm).
23 100 0.825 • The obtained result from the numerical simulation is in
good agreement with the measured value, i.e. 1.2%
24 104 0.901 error is observed. From this, we can conclude that FEM
simulation can successfully predict thinning.
25 109 0.983
• The thickness distribution contour in the numerical
simulation showed that the minimum thinning is
The thickness distribution of the deformed shape obtained 0.686mm but the minimum thickness noticed from the
from the FEM simulation model is compared with the twenty-five nodal points found to be 0.735mm. This
measured values from the experiment and the theoretical shows that there is none uniform distribution of
value predicted by the sine law as shown in Fig.12. thickness on the simulated part.

From Fig. 12, it can be observed that the thickness of the wall More work will need to be done to get a more uniform
reduces with forming dept in both FEM simulation and distribution of thinning and to determine the formability limit
experimental study. The combined plot also shows that the of deep drawing steel.

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© Research India Publications. http://www.ripublication.com

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