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FlowMaster and its calculations are based on the principles outlined in this section:
! Uniform Flow
! Critical Flow
! Gradually Varied Flow Analysis
! Weir Flow
! Orifice Flow
! Pressure Pipe
! Inlet Hydraulics
(5.1)
The material lining the flow channel usually determines the flow resistance or roughness factor, C. However, the ultimate value
of the C component may be a function of the channel shape, depth, and velocity of flow. The hydraulic radius, R, is a strict
function of the channel shape. For every geometric shape, R can be readily calculated by dividing the cross-sectional flow area
by the wetted perimeter, once a depth is known or assumed. The energy slope, S, is constant under the uniform flow
assumption.
Since average velocity is constant under uniform flow (constant discharge and area conditions), combining equation 5.1 with the
continuity equation:
Q = VA (5.2)
x y (5.3)
Q = ACR S
Note: Hydraulic radius is related to flow area, so further reduction of this equation for specific
geometries is often possible.
FlowMaster offers the four variations of the general uniform flow equation listed below. These equations differ from each other
by the computation and nature of C and in the values assigned to x and y.
! Manning's Formula
! Kutter's Formula
! Hazen-Williams Formula
! Darcy-Weisbach Formula
(5.4)
S.I. Units
(5.5)
Equations for U.S. customary units and the S.I. system are shown below:
(5.6)
Note: Kutter's roughness coefficients are the same as Manning's roughness coefficients.
(5.7)
(5.8)
S.I. Units
(5.9)
U.S. Customary Units
This recommendation has not been widely accepted since the solution to the equation is difficult, and not readily computed by
simple desktop methods. With the computerization of this method, the Darcy-Weisbach Formula will likely gain greater
acceptance, since it successfully models the variability of effective channel roughness with channel material, geometry, and
velocity. Thus, many engineers view this formula as the most accurate method for modeling uniform flow.
The roughness component in the Darcy-Weisbach equation is a function of both the channel material and the Reynolds Number,
which varies with V and R. Like Kutter's Equation, both x and y are equal to 1/2. The familiar form of the equation, which is
applicable to circular pipes with full flow only, is:
(5.10)
This equation is adapted for channel geometries other than full circular by the relation:
D = 4R (5.11)
(5.12)
The Darcy-Weisbach friction factor (f) can be found using the Colebrook equation for fully developed turbulent flow. Roughness
height, k, is a physical property of the channel material. Equations for free surface and full flow closed conduits are shown
below.
(5.13)
Free Surface
(5.14)
(5.15)
The quantity V2/2g is also known as the velocity head. The specific energy equation used in FlowMaster is valid only for small
slopes (< 10%). It also neglects the effects of the velocity variation across the flow section; that is, the velocity coefficient, a, is
assumed to equal 1.0.
At critical depth, the velocity of flow is also equal to the wave celerity (i.e. the speed at which waves will ripple outward from a
pebble which is tossed into the water). The Froude number, F, is defined as the ratio of actual velocity to wave celerity. This
number is only defined for sections that have a free surface; it is undefined for closed conduits or closed top irregular channels
when flowing full.
(5.16)
When F is less than one, the flow is said to be subcritical (velocity slower than wave celerity). When F is greater than one, the
flow is said to be supercritical (velocity faster than wave celerity). When F is equal to one, the flow is said to be critical. A
diagram showing these flow ranges appears below.
Figure 5-1: Specific Energy Curve
The requirement that wave celerity equals actual velocity at critical flow conditions means that critical depth can be computed by
varying depth of flow until F equals 1.0. Specifically, FlowMaster uses the following function, and solves by iterating over depth
until f (y) = 0:
(5.17)
In hydraulic applications, energy is often represented as energy per unit weight, resulting in units of length. Using these length
equivalents gives engineers a better feel for the resulting behavior of the system. When using these length equivalents, the state
of the system is expressed in terms of head. The energy at any point within a hydraulic system is often represented in three
parts:
These quantities can be used to express the headloss or head gain between two locations using the energy equation.
(5.21)
The components of the energy equation can be combined to express two useful quantities, which are the hydraulic grade and
the energy grade.
The HGL Convergence Test value is also used in the standard step gradually varied flow profiling algorithm. If two successive
depth iterations are within this absolute test value, the step is solved.
! Chézy's Equation
! Kutter's Equation
! Manning's Equation
! Darcy-Weisbach Equation
! Swamee and Jain Equation
! Colebrook-White Equation
! Hazen-Williams Equation
Friction losses are generally based on the relationships between fluid velocity, section roughness, depth of flow, and the friction
slope (headloss per unit length of conduit).
Note: Kutter's roughness coefficients are the same as Manning's roughness coefficients.
(5.23)
(5.24)
Substituting this roughness into Chézy's equation, we obtain the well-known Manning's equation:
Note: Manning's roughness coefficients are the same as the roughness coefficients used in Kutter's
equation.
(5.25)
(5.26)
For section geometries that are not circular, this equation is adapted by relating a circular section's full flow hydraulic radius to its
diameter:
(5.27)
(5.28)
Note: The Kinematic Viscosity is used in determining the friction coefficient in the Darcy-Weisbach
Friction Method. The default units are initially set by Haestad Methods.
The friction factor is dependent on the Reynolds number of the flow, which is dependent on the flow velocity, which is dependent
on the discharge. As you can see, this process requires the iterative selection of a friction factor until the calculated discharge
agrees with the chosen friction factor.
(5.29)
(5.30)
Free Surface
(5.31)
(5.32)
Note: Based on the gradually varied flow analysis, different portions of any given pipe may be under
different flow regimes.
The hydraulic grade in a flow section depends heavily on the tailwater conditions, pipe slope, discharge, and other conditions.
The basic flow regimes that a pipe may experience include:
! Pressure Flow
! Uniform Flow and Normal Depth
! Critical Flow, Critical Depth, and Critical Slope
! Subcritical Flow
! Supercritical Flow
! In order for the cross-sectional area to remain the same, the depth of flow must be constant throughout the length of the
channel. This requires that the friction slope equal the constructed slope. This depth is called normal depth.
! Since the hydraulic grade line parallels the invert of the section and the velocity does not change, the energy grade line is
parallel to both the hydraulic grade line and the section invert under uniform flow conditions.
In prismatic channels, flow conditions will typically approach normal depth if the channel is sufficiently long.
(5.33)
This is a relatively simple computation for simple geometric shapes, but can require iterative calculation for more complex
shapes (such as arches). Some sections may even have several valid critical depths, making numerical convergence more
difficult.
Critical depth refers to the depth of water in a channel for which the specific energy is at its minimum.
Critical slope refers to the slope at which the critical depth of a pipe would be equal to the normal depth.
! Slope Classification
! Zone Classification
! Profile Classification
Any pipe can qualify as only one of these slope types for a given discharge. For differing flows, though, a pipe may change
between qualifying as a mild, critical, and steep slope. These slopes do not relate to just the constructed slope, but to the
constructed slope relative to the critical slope for the given discharge.
! Zone 1 is where actual flow depth is above both normal depth and critical depth.
! Zone 2 is where actual flow depth is between normal depth and critical depth.
! Zone 3 is where actual flow depth is below both normal depth and critical depth.
(5.34)
The friction loss is computed based on the average rate of friction loss along the segment and the length of the segment. This
relationship is as follows:
(5.35)
The conditions at one end of the segment are known through assumption or from a previous calculation step. Since the friction
slope is a function of velocity, which is a function of depth, the depth at the other end of the segment can be found through
iteration. There are two primary methods for this iterative solution, the Standard Step method and the Direct Step method.
The hydraulic phenomenon that occurs when the flow passes rapidly from supercritical to subcritical flow is called a hydraulic
jump. The most common occurrence of this within a gravity flow network occurs when there is a steep pipe discharging into a
particularly high tailwater, as shown in the following figure.
There are significant losses associated with hydraulic jumps, due to the amount of mixing and hydraulic turbulence that occurs.
These forces are also highly erosive, so engineers typically try to prevent jumps from occurring in gravity flow systems, or at
least try to predict the location of these jumps in order to provide adequate channel, pipe, or structure protection. The program
does not perform any specific force analyses that seek to precisely locate the hydraulic jump, nor does it identify the occurrence
of jumps that might happen as flows leave a steep pipe and enter a mild pipe. Rather it performs analyses sufficient to compute
grades at structures.
Steep pipes tend to interrupt the backwater analysis, and reset the hydraulic control to critical depth at the upstream end of the
steep pipe. A frontwater analysis may be needed for a steep profile (such as an S2), with the backwater analysis recommencing
from the upstream structure.
Certain situations are considered to be invalid downstream control by FlowMaster. The following criteria must be met to enable a
valid downstream control:
Note: An error message will be displayed if the input data does not satisfy these requirements.
Certain situations are considered to be invalid upstream control by FlowMaster.The following criteria must be met to enable a
valid downstream control:
Note: An error message will be displayed if the input data does not satisfy these requirements.
(5.36)
i = 0 corresponds to the case of a suppressed rectangular weir, for which the channel width is equal to the weir opening length,
and yields the equation:
(5.37)
(5.38)
Coefficients for sharp-crested V-notched weirs vary with the angle of the notch and with head depth.
Cipolletti weirs are trapezoidal with 1:4 slopes to compensate for end contraction losses. The equation generally accepted for
computing the discharge through an unsubmerged sharp-crested Cipolletti weir with complete contraction is:
(5.39)
S.I. Units
(5.40)
U.S. Customary Units
If the sharp-crested weir is submerged as illustrated in the figure above (with H2 > 0), then the flow Q that would be obtained
1
without submergence, using one of the equations above, is corrected as follows to obtain the flow Q over the weir1:
(5.41)
1Brater, Ernest F. and Horace Williams King, Handbook of Hydraulics, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1976.
In order to model Embankment or Roadway overtopping, the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) has developed a
methodology that can be found in the manual FHWA, HDS No. 5, Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts, 1985, which uses the
general broad-crested weir equation.
(5.42)
The overtopping discharge coefficient C is a function of the submergence using the equation:
d
(5.43)
The variables K and C are defined in the following figures, reproduced from the manual FHWA, HDS No.5, Hydraulic Design of
t r
Highway Culverts, 1985. The first two figures are used by FlowMaster to derive the base weir coefficient C resulting from deep
r
and shallow overtopping, respectively. The submergence correction K is determined implicitly using the third figure.
t
Figure 5-10: Discharge Coefficient C , for H /L > 0.15
r r
Figure 5-11: Discharge Coefficient C , for H /L ≤ 0.15
r r
(5.44)
Model these weirs by using the Generic Weir in FlowMaster, entering the appropriate coefficient. The weir coefficient is a
function of the upstream head and the shape of the weir.
Copyright and Trademark Information
Orifice Flow
(5.45)
(5.46)
Model a sluice gate by using the Generic Orifice in FlowMaster, entering the appropriate coefficient.
Balancing the energy at the two ends of a pressure pipe, the energy equation can be reduced to:
(5.50)
The energy grade is the sum of the hydraulic grade and the velocity head (V2/2g). This is the height to which a column of water
would rise in a pitot tube. The plot of the hydraulic grade in a profile is often referred to as the energy grade line, or EGL.
Note: Pavement drainage requires consideration of gutter flow and inlet capacity. The design of these
elements is dependent on storm frequency and the allowable spread of storm water on the
pavement surface.
FlowMaster performs hydraulic computations for analyzing or sizing one inlet at a time. For
analyzing or designing an entire storm sewer network, Haestad Methods offers StormCAD,
which also follows the HEC-22 methodology for inlet computations.
The methodology used by FlowMaster to perform pavement drainage and inlet computations is described in Chapter 4 of the
HEC-22 manual: Urban Drainage Design Manual, 1996. This chapter is included as Pavement Drainage. Related charts can be
found in Engineer's Reference. Most of the information presented in HEC-22 Chapter 4 was originally published in the 2nd
edition, August 2001 Pub No FHWA-NHI-01-021FHWA, and AASHTO's Model Drainage Manual, 1991.
This section presents an overview of the HEC-22 methodology used by FlowMaster. For more information, refer to Pavement
Drainage or the HEC-22 documentation.
In the case of a uniform cross-slope (gutter slope S equal to pavement slope S ), the relationship between the gutter flow Q
w x
and the flow spread T is obtained by applying the Manning's equation, assuming normal flow:
(5.51)
d = TS (5.52)
x
Q =E Q (5.53)
w 0
Q = Q – Q = (1 – E )Q (5.54)
s w 0
E = 1 – (1 – W /T)2.67 (5.55)
0 g
In the case of a composite gutter section, the coefficient E , as well as the variables Q and Q , are defined as:
0 w s
Q =E Q (5.56)
w 0
Q = Q – Q = (1 – E )Q (5.57)
s w 0
(5.58)
The continuously depressed gutter is also sometimes defined by a gutter depression, a, defined as:
(5.59)
SI Units
(5.60)
Gutter depression is the depression of the gutter relative to the street cross-slope projection. It is also identified as a
continuously depressed gutter because the gutter is depressed along its full length.
(5.61)
(5.62)
For details on each type of inlet, refer to the HEC-22 Manual, Chapter 4 (see Pavement Drainage).
The gutter depression is the depression of the gutter relative to the pavement normal cross-
slope named a on the figure below, which shows a gutter and inlet cross section. It is also
referred to as a continuously depressed gutter.
The local depression is the depression at the location of the inlet (a' in the figure below). It does
not exist in the gutter upstream or downstream of the inlet. It is measured from the gutter slope.
Figure 5-18: Continuous Gutter Depression and Local Depression
Figure 6.6 illustrates the concept of local depression versus gutter depression used by HEC-22, with:
Inlets located on a grade (S > 0) are characterized by an efficiency, E, for a given set of conditions:
L
(5.64)
The flow that is not intercepted is called carryover or bypass flow. It is defined as follows:
Q =Q–Q (5.65)
b i
As previously defined, the total gutter flow, Q, is composed of a frontal flow Q and a side flow Q .
w s
The ratio R of frontal flow intercepted to total frontal flow is expressed as:
f
R = 1 – K (V – V ) (5.66)
f cf 0
Also, R cannot exceed 1.0. The splash-over velocity, V is a function of the grate type and the
f 0
grate length, L.
Q =RQ
wi f w
(5.67)
Q =R Q (5.68)
si s s
Q =Q Q (5.69)
i wi + si
Q =Q–Q (5.70)
b i
E = R E + R (1 – E ) (5.71)
f 0 s 0
Or,
E = Q /Q (5.72)
i
Copyright and Trademark Information
Curb Inlet on Grade
The curb opening length L that would be required to intercept 100% of a flow Q on a pavement with a uniform cross slope is
r
computed as:
(5.73)
In order to account for a locally or continually depressed gutter, an equivalent cross slope, S , is computed.
e
(5.74)
SI Units
(5.75)
Where S' = Gutter cross-slope at inlet location—measured from pavement cross-slope (m/m, ft/ft)
w
S = Gutter cross-slope upstream of inlet—does not account for local depression (m/m, ft/ft)
w
a = Total depression at inlet location—includes local and continuous gutter depression (mm, in)
total
W = Larger of the gutter width and local-depression width (m, ft)
The curb opening length L that would be required to intercept 100% of a flow Q on a pavement with a composite cross slope at
T
the location of the inlet is:
(5.76)
The efficiency E of a curb opening shorter than the required length for total interception is:
(5.77)
The efficiency of a Slotted Inlet on Grade with an opening width greater than or equal to 45 mm (1.75 in) is calculated using the
same equations as for a curb opening inlet of the same length.
! The grate and the curb opening are placed side by side. In this case, the flow interception by the curb opening is
negligible, and the capacity of the combination inlet is identical to that of the grate alone.
! The curb opening is extended upstream of the grate in order to intercept debris that could otherwise clog the grate inlet.
The flow intercepted by the combination inlet is calculated as the flow intercepted by the curb opening upstream of the
grate inlet, plus the portion of the remaining flow intercepted by the grate.
Grate inlets alone are not recommended, as clogging of the grate is likely to occur.
In contrast with inlets on grade, the efficiency of an inlet located in sag is always assumed to be 1.0 (or 100%).
(5.78)
The intercepted flow Q is conservatively calculated at any flow depth by using the lesser of the intercepted flows computed
i
using the weir or orifice equation:
(5.80)
This accounts for the three stages: weir flow, orifice flow and transitional flow.
Curb inlets are divided into 3 categories, based on their throat geometry: horizontal (most common), vertical, and inclined, as
defined in the figure below.
d≤h (5.81)
In the case of a depressed curb opening (local depression) or a continuously depressed gutter, the previous condition becomes:
(5.82)
The intercepted flow Q by a curb-opening inlet operating as a weir, with a locally or continuously depressed gutter, is:
iw
Q =C (L + 1.8W)d1.5 (5.83)
iw w1
However, if L is greater than or equal to 3.6 m (12 ft), then the following equation is used, which is the same as the equation for
curb-opening inlets without depression:
Q =C Ld1.5 (5.84)
iw w2
d ≥ 1.4h (5.85)
i
The intercepted flow Q by a curb-opening inlet (depressed or undepressed) operating as an orifice is:
io
(5.87)
Q = min(Q , Q ) (5.88)
i iw io
Copyright and Trademark Information Slot Inlet in Sag
Slot inlet in sag includes:
! Weir Flow
! Orifice Flow
! Transitional Flow
Q = C Ld1.5 (5.89)
iw w
Where C = Weir coefficient—varies with flow depth and slot length (typically 1.4 SI, 2.48 U.S. customary)
w
d = Water depth at curb, measured from normal cross slope (m, ft)
L = Slot length (m, ft)
Q = 0.8LW(2gd)0.5 (5.90)
io
Q = min(Q , Q ) (5.91)
i iw io
Q = C Pd1.5 (5.92)
iw w
At higher flow depths, both the grate inlet and the curb-opening inlet are operating as orifices.
Note: The clear opening area of the grate depends on the opening ratio of the grate (HEC-22 defines
an opening ratio for each grate type), as well as the clogging factor you specify.
Note that since the HEC-22 manual is not very explicit about this type of inlet in sag, some assumptions were made in order to
define the flows for this inlet.
The flow Q intercepted by a sweeper inlet is the sum of the flow Q as calculated above for an equal length combination inlet of
i ie
length L (where L is the length of the grate) and the flow Q intercepted by the additional length L (upsteam of the grate) of the
ic
curb opening.
Q =Q +Q (5.94)
i ie ic