Article

Finite Element Modelling and Validation of

Thermomechanical Behaviour for Layered
Aluminium Parts Made by Composite Metal
Foil Manufacturing
Javaid Butt * , Mohammad Ghorabian, Abed Ahmed and Hassan Shirvani
Anglia Ruskin University, Chelmsford, Essex CM1 1SQ, UK; mohammad.ghorabian@anglia.ac.uk (M.G.);
abed.ahmed@anglia.ac.uk (A.A.); hassan.shirvani@anglia.ac.uk (H.S.)
* Correspondence: javaid.butt@anglia.ac.uk; Tel.: +44-1245-683-983




Received: 7 November 2018; Accepted: 10 December 2018; Published: 12 December 2018


Abstract: The paper presents finite element modelling and thermomechanical analysis on the tensile
properties of layered aluminium 1050 metal foil parts made by composite metal foil manufacturing.
In this paper, a three-dimensional finite element model was developed and validated through
experiments to analyse thermal effects on the tensile properties of 200-µm-thick aluminium 1050 metal
foils. The effects of thermal stress and strain were studied by carrying out transient thermal analysis
on the heated plates used to join the 200-µm-thick metal foils together using a special brazing
paste. A standard tensile test at ambient temperature was carried out on the resulting layered dog
bone specimens to analyse the thermal effects on the individual layers of metal. The investigations
were precisely designed to assess the effect of heat provided amid the brazing operation to join the
metal thwarts together as a layered structure and whether it assumed a part in affecting the tensile
properties of the final products when contrasted to a solid aluminium 1050 dog bone specimen of the
same dimensions. Corrosion testing was also carried out on dog bone specimens made from varying
thickness foils (50 µm, 100 µm, and 200 µm) of aluminium 1050 to assess the effect of corrosion on the
tensile strength and elongation. The results showed that the specimens did not face the problem of
galvanic corrosion of the foil–bond interface. Microstructural analysis was also carried out to analyse
the fracture modes of the tested specimens after corrosion testing.

Keywords: additive manufacturing; thermal stress and strain; metal foils; tensile test; corrosion test;
microstructural analysis; transient thermal analysis

1. Introduction
Additive manufacturing (AM) technologies have made quite a name for themselves in recent
years largely due to their capability to produce complex geometries from computer-aided design
(CAD) data. A wide variety of commercial AM techniques are currently available that make use of
different materials to produce parts [1–5]. AM processes kept evolving with time and started using
other materials than the ones initially intended for their use. These advancements have opened new
research opportunities, and the manufacturing industries have capitalized on them by continuing the
work and proposing new ways to use different materials. The manufacturing industries were always
focused on the production of metal parts, and using AM methods gave them new prospects that were
not at their disposal while using subtractive and machining techniques. This led to the modification of
several AM methods so that they could provide customized, cost-effective, and high-quality metal
parts in a timely manner. However, metal AM methods are also limited in terms of the materials that
they can use and are being widely researched so that more materials can be added to this list. There

J. Compos. Sci. 2018, 2, 68; doi:10.3390/jcs2040068 www.mdpi.com/journal/jcs

J. Compos. Sci. 2018, 2, 68 2 of 18

are only a handful of AM processes capable of producing metal parts, with direct metal laser sintering
(DMLS) and electron beam melting (EBM) being at the top of the commercially available methods.
Metal AM methods can be classified based on the energy source they use, the way feedstock is joined,
and the type of feedstock (powder, wire, or sheet). There are four broad classifications of the metal
AM processes. They include powder bed systems, powder feed systems, wire feed systems, and sheet
laminates. As the name suggests, powder bed and powder feed systems make use of metallic powder.
These methods have their limitations, especially in terms of the powder cost, and have been widely
researched over the years [6–9]. Wire feed AM is a promising technology and has come into existence
majorly due to the high cost of metal powders that are used for powder bed and powder feed systems.
The cost of wire feedstock is much less than metallic powder, but the process is not without flaws.
Residual stress and distortion from excessive heat input, poor accuracy of the part due to the stair
stepping effect, and relatively poor surface finish of the final parts are notable. These systems require
careful monitoring of process parameters such as deposition width, layer thicknesses, wire diameter,
wire feed rate, and welding speed to achieve correct part dimensions and surface finish [10,11]. The use
of metal sheets, on the other hand, adds flexibility to the process, and they are readily available in the
market. Laminated object manufacturing (LOM) has been modified to use metal foils, as it previously
used paper sheets. The new process was termed metal foil LOM, but it suffers from the staircase effect,
distortion, and poor surface quality [12,13]. Ultrasonic consolidation (UC) is another AM technique
that has made quite an impact in recent years. UC requires optimization of its parameters and the use
of a milling operation to machine the part after joining, which results in the waste of material [14,15].
All the methods have their individual issues, but in general, cost of operation, time for a single build,
and surface quality are at the top of the list.
This study clearly indicates that the production of affordable, time-effective, and high-quality
metal parts holds great interest for both the academic and industrial sectors. Therefore, the principles
of LOM and brazing were integrated together to form a process that is more “additive” in nature,
termed composite metal foil manufacturing (CMFM). This process has shown consistent results for the
manufacture of metal and metal composite products [16–20]. CMFM offers several advantages over
both experimental metal AM methods (e.g., UC and metal foil LOM), such as minimal optimization
of process parameters and minimal post processing. These advantages extend to commercial metal
AM methods (e.g., DMLS and EBM) as well, because the feedstock (metal foils) is lower in price.
DMLS and EBM make use of metallic powder, and depending upon the type of material, the cost
varies. The price of the powder is a function of the grain size and required mechanical properties
of the final products as well. Such requirements and the recommendation of large companies such
as EOS (for DMLS machines) and ARCAM (for EBM machines) to buy their metal powder for their
machines to achieve better mechanical properties for the parts increase the cost of the raw material
considerably. The process of CMFM can work with a variety of metals and make composites out of
them. Even the parts made from the same material are composites of the material and brazing paste.
In the current work, aluminium 1050 grade H14 1/2 hard temper foils and a special brazing paste were
used. The focus of this paper was to analyse the effect of heat that was supplied to the aluminium 1050
layered part being built during the brazing cycle for final joining (Section 3.1) and whether it affected
the tensile properties of the part (Section 3.2).
In general, aluminium has good corrosion resistance because of its oxide layer. However, it is
important to assess the bond–foil interface, as any corrosion could result in serious issues (Section 3.3).
The most common types of aluminium corrosion are galvanic corrosion and pitting. Galvanic corrosion
of aluminium occurs when there is contact with a more noble metal, and at the same time, there
is an electrolyte between the metals. Therefore, 80% zinc and 20% aluminium brazing paste was
carefully chosen for this research, as this alloy has a similar electrode potential to aluminium and
would therefore minimise, if not eliminate, galvanic corrosion. For aluminium, pitting is by far the
most common type of corrosion. It occurs only in the presence of an electrolyte (either water or
moisture) containing dissolved salts, usually chlorides. The corrosion generally shows itself as an
 J. Compos. Sci. 2018, 2, x 3 of 18

J. Compos. Sci. 2018,

fraction 2, 68
of the metal’s thickness. Penetration may be greater in water and soil. As the products of 3 of 18
corrosion often cover the points of attack, visible pits are rarely evident on aluminium surfaces [21].
Microscopic inspection is the best way to observe pitting of aluminium, and it was utilised to assess
extremely small collection of pits that, in the open air, reach a penetration of a minor fraction of the
the fractured surface of one of the tensile tested parts after corrosion testing (Section 3.4).
metal’s thickness. Penetration may be greater in water and soil. As the products of corrosion often
cover2. the points of Procedure
Experimental attack, visible pits are rarely evident on aluminium surfaces [21]. Microscopic
inspection is the best way to observe pitting of aluminium, and it was utilised to assess the fractured
Four dog bone specimens were produced and tested according to British and international
surface of one of
standards. the tensile
Aluminium tested
1050 parts
metal blockafter
was corrosion testingone
used to machine (Section 3.4).
of the specimens. The other three
specimens (S1, S2, and S3) were made from 200-μm-thick aluminium foil, 1050 grade with a H14 ½
2. Experimental Procedure
hard temper, and a special brazing paste that contained 80% zinc and 20% aluminium by weight
suspended
Four dog in a strong
bone flux. It had
specimens an produced
were operating range
and between 410 and 470to°CBritish
tested according [22]. Because of such
and international
high temperatures, it became essential to analyse the effect of heat provided
standards. Aluminium 1050 metal block was used to machine one of the specimens. The other by the heating plates and three
whether it adversely affected the mechanical integrity of the parts made by CMFM. For that purpose,
specimens (S1, S2, and S3) were made from 200-µm-thick aluminium foil, 1050 grade with a H14
ANSYS 19.1 was utilised to carry out 3D transient thermal analysis on the dog bone specimens, with
1/2 hard temper, and a special brazing paste that contained 80% zinc and 20% aluminium by weight
the elements of the analysis being shown in Figure 1. An experiment was also conducted by placing
suspended in a strong on
two thermocouples flux.theItpaste-coated
had an operating range between
foils sandwiched between 410 and
two 470 ◦ C
heating [22].toBecause
plates of such
record the
high temperature
temperatures, values. The plates could be operated simultaneously as well as individually. The average and
it became essential to analyse the effect of heat provided by the heating plates
whether it adversely
temperature values affected
from thethe mechanical
experiment wereintegrity
usedoftothe parts made
undertake by structural
static CMFM. For that purpose,
analysis to
ANSYS 19.1 was
investigate theutilised
effect ofto carry out
thermal 3D
stress transient
and strain. thermal analysis on the dog bone specimens, with
Corrosion
the elements of thetesting
analysis was conducted
being shownon in dog bone
Figure specimens
1. An madewas
experiment fromalso
different thicknesses
conducted by placing
(50 μm, 100 μm, and 200 μm) of aluminium 1050 H14 ½ hard temper foils of aluminium
two thermocouples on the paste-coated foils sandwiched between two heating plates to record the 1050 to assess
the effectvalues.
temperature of corrosion on thecould
The plates foil–bond interface.simultaneously
be operated Microstructural asanalysis
well aswas also carriedThe
individually. out average
to
investigate the fracture mechanism of the parts made by CMFM and the one machined out of
temperature values from the experiment were used to undertake static structural analysis to investigate
aluminium 1050 block.
the effect of thermal stress and strain.

Figure1.1.Elements
Figure of transient
Elements of transientthermal
thermal analysis.
analysis.

Corrosion
2.1. testing
Modelling was conducted
for Numerical Analysis on dog bone specimens made from different thicknesses (50 µm,
100 µm, and 200 µm)
Brazing was of
thealuminium
joining method H14 1/2 hard
1050employed temperfor
by CMFM foils of aluminium
bonding the metal1050
foils to assess and
together, the effect
of corrosion
the paste being utilized worked between 410 and 470 °C. Although this temperature was lower than the
on the foil–bond interface. Microstructural analysis was also carried out to investigate
fracture
that mechanism of the
of the melting parts made
temperature for by CMFM and
aluminium (660 the
°C),one machined
it lay within theoutannealing
of aluminium 1050 block.
temperature

2.1. Modelling for Numerical Analysis

Brazing was the joining method employed by CMFM for bonding the metal foils together, and
the paste being utilized worked between 410 and 470 ◦ C. Although this temperature was lower than
that of the melting temperature for aluminium (660 ◦ C), it lay within the annealing temperature range.
J. Compos. Sci. 2018, 2, 68 4 of 18

Therefore, it was very important to understand its effect on the integrity of the final product. A 3D
model was created in ANSYS 19.1 to carry out transient thermal analysis on the 2.9-mm-thick dog
J. Compos. Sci. 2018, 2, x 4 of 18
bone specimen sandwiched between two stainless steel heated plates. Each plate was 150 mm long,
40 mm wide,
range. and 8 mm
Therefore, thick,
it was and
very was fitted
important with three its
to understand FIREROD
effect on cartridge heaters
the integrity of the(Watlow, Montana,
final product.
USA)Ato3D allow for uniform heating of the part. The analysis was carried out by setting
model was created in ANSYS 19.1 to carry out transient thermal analysis on the 2.9-mm-thick only one plate at
a temperature ◦
of 470 C.sandwiched
The reasonbetween
for doing
dog bone specimen twothat was to
stainless allow
steel for aplates.
heated gradual
Eachincrease
plate wasin 150
temperature
mm
fromlong,
one end
40 mm of wide,
the product
and 8 mm rather
thick,than rapid
and was heating
fitted fromFIREROD
with three both sides in a small
cartridge amount
heaters of time.
(Watlow,
Montana, USA) to allow for uniform heating of the part. The analysis was carried
Excessive heat could have been detrimental to the product, especially with an overall thickness of only out by setting only
one Large
2.9 mm. plate atparts
a temperature of 470 °C.
with a thickness The5reason
over for doing
mm should that was to with
be processed allowboth
for aplates,
gradualbut
increase in
for anything
temperature from one end of the product rather than rapid heating from both sides in a small amount
less than 3 mm, it is recommended to use only one plate [23,24]. This simulation was a useful tool and
of time. Excessive heat could have been detrimental to the product, especially with an overall
allowed the production of parts in a consistent manner. The material properties for aluminium and the
thickness of only 2.9 mm. Large parts with a thickness over 5 mm should be processed with both
brazing paste are given in Table 1.
plates, but for anything less than 3 mm, it is recommended to use only one plate [23,24]. This
simulation was a useful tool and allowed the production of parts in a consistent manner. The material
Table
properties for aluminium and Mechanical
1. the and thermal
brazing paste properties
are given in Tableof
1. materials.
Materials
TableProperties
1. Mechanical and thermal properties of materials.
Al 1050 Brazing Paste
Materials
Properties
Yield Strength (MPa) 105–145 45
Al 1050 Brazing Paste
Tensile Strength (MPa) 120 60
YieldModulus
Young’s Strength (MPa)
(GPa) 105–145
69 45 60
Tensile Strength
Thermal Conductivity (MPa)·◦ C))
(W/(m 120
205 60900
Young’s
Specific Heat (J/(kg·◦(GPa)
Modulus C)) 69
130 60480
Thermal Conductivity (W/(m·°C)) 205 900
Specific Heat (J/(kg·°C)) 130 480
2.2. Experiment for Heating Time
2.2. Experiment
Each for Heating
single layer Time
of aluminium 1050 was 200 µm thick, with an additional layer of brazing paste
that was 100Eachµm in thickness.
single The overall
layer of aluminium 1050thickness
was 200 μm ofthick,
the specimen was 2.9 mm
with an additional layer(according to British
of brazing paste
standards discussed
that was 100 μm inin the next section).
thickness. Twothickness
The overall K-type thermocouples
of the specimen waswith2.9
anmm
operating range
(according of −100 ◦ C
to British
◦ C were discussed
to 500standards wrapped and in the nexttosection).
fixed Two K-type
the paste-coated thermocouples
layers with
of foils using an operating
heat-resistant range tape,
Kapton of as
shown −100 °C to2. 500
in Figure They°Cwere were wrapped
connected to aand
datafixed
loggertoDatataker
the paste-coated layers Pty
DT80 (Datataker of Ltd.,
foils Melbourne,
using
heat-resistant Kapton tape, as shown in Figure 2. They were connected to a data logger
Australia), and the run time of the experiment was the same as the simulation. The average temperature Datataker
DT80 (Datataker Pty Ltd, Melbourne, Australia), and the run time of the experiment was the same as
from the two thermocouples was compared to the temperature obtained from the numerical simulation
the simulation. The average temperature from the two thermocouples was compared to the
to validate it. The experimental temperature values were also utilized to assess thermal stress and strain
temperature obtained from the numerical simulation to validate it. The experimental temperature
on the dog bone
values specimen
were also (Section
utilized to assess3.2.1).
thermal stress and strain on the dog bone specimen (Section 3.2.1).

Figure
Figure 2.2.Experimental
Experimental setup
setupfor
forheating
heatingtime.
time.
 J. Compos. Sci. 2018, 2, 68 5 of 18
J. Compos. Sci. 2018, 2, x 5 of 18

2.3.
2.3.Tensile
TensileTest
TestforforDog
DogBone
BoneSpecimens
Specimens
Dog
Dogbone
bonespecimens
specimens were
were produced and tested
testedaccording
accordingtotoBS BSENENISOISO6892-1:2009
6892-1:2009 [25].
[25]. AllAll
the
the specimens (CMFM parts and machined aluminium part) were tested at ambient
specimens (CMFM parts and machined aluminium part) were tested at ambient temperature. They temperature.
They
werewere 2.9 mm
2.9 mm thick,
thick, 87.5 87.5
mm mmlong,long,
12.5 12.5
mm mm wide,
wide, and and
had had a gauge
a gauge length
length of 50ofmm
50 mm (Figure
(Figure 3).
3). The
The composite
composite specimens
specimens (produced
(produced by by CMFM)
CMFM) consisted
consisted of of
1010200-μm-thick
200-µm-thickaluminium
aluminiumfoils
foilsand
and9
9100-μm-thick
100-µm-thick paste
paste layers
layers stacked alternatively on each
each other.
other. The
The tensile
tensiletest
testwas
wascarried
carriedout
outon
onan an
INSTRON
INSTRON55825582testing
testingmachine
machineatata acrosshead
crossheadspeed
speedofof5 5mm/min.
mm/min.

Figure 3. Dimensions of dog bone specimens.

Figure 3. Dimensions of dog bone specimens.
2.4. Corrosion Test of Dog Bone Specimens
2.4. Corrosion Test of Dog Bone Specimens
The corrosion test was performed in accordance with BS EN ISO 11130:2010 [26]. The aluminium
The corrosion
1050 samples, madetest
fromwas performed
foils in accordance
of varying thicknesseswith BS EN
(50 µm, ISO
100 µm, 11130:2010
and 200 µm)[26]. while
The aluminium
keeping
1050
the samples,
overall madeto
thickness from foils of varying
a maximum of 2.7 mm thicknesses (50 μm, 100
(to accommodate all μm, and 200 thicknesses),
the different μm) while keeping
were
the overallinthickness
immersed a solution to of
a maximum of 2.7 chloride
35 g of sodium mm (to accommodate
dissolved in 1allliter
the of
different thicknesses),
distilled water for 24were
h.
immersed inthey
Afterwards, a solution of 35 for
were dried grams24 hofand
sodium
thenchloride
tested ondissolved in 1 liter5582
the INSTRON of distilled
testing water for at
machine 24 ah.
Afterwards,
crosshead speedthey
of were dried according
5 mm/min for 24 h andto BSthen
ENtested on the INSTRON 5582 testing machine at a
ISO 6892-1:2009.
crosshead speed of 5 mm/min according to BS EN ISO 6892-1:2009.
2.5. Microstructural Analysis
2.5. The
Microstructural Analysis out the microstructural analysis was to study the fracture modes of the
reason for carrying
testedThe
specimens
reason after the corrosion
for carrying out thetesting. The thermal
microstructural properties
analysis of study
was to materials
the have always
fracture modes been
of an
the
interesting topic ofafter
tested specimens research, but in this
the corrosion case the
testing. Thepresence of a composite
thermal properties made the
of materials study
have evenbeen
always morean
complex. There were two different types of materials, aluminium metal foil that stayed in
interesting topic of research, but in this case the presence of a composite made the study even more its original
state of solid
complex. and were
There brazing
two paste that changed
different types of state due toaluminium
materials, heating. This analysis
metal helped
foil that to investigate
stayed if
in its original
there
statewas a difference
of solid in the
and brazing microstructure
paste that changedofstate
the fractured surfaces
due to heating. ofanalysis
This the layered specimens
helped after
to investigate
they hadwas
if there gonea through
differencecorrosion testing.
in the microstructure of the fractured surfaces of the layered specimens after
they had gone through corrosion testing.
3. Results and Discussions
3. Results and Discussions
3.1. Distribution of Temperature
3.1. Transient
Distribution of Temperature
thermal analysis showed the temperature distribution on the heated plates and the
2.9-mm-thick composite dog bone specimen (Figure 4). It also helped in building parts in an
Transient thermal analysis showed the temperature distribution on the heated plates and the
appropriate amount of time rather than overheating them. A balance was required between heating
2.9-mm-thick composite dog bone specimen (Figure 4). It also helped in building parts in an
time and temperature, and an oversight could have led to some deleterious results, such as:
appropriate amount of time rather than overheating them. A balance was required between heating
I.timeTheandflux in the paste
temperature, and could have burned
an oversight off, led
could have andtoitsome
would not haveresults,
deleterious been able
such to
as:make a
strong bond;
I. The flux in the paste could have burned off, and it would not have been able to make a strong
II. Overheating would have resulted in pitting of the foils and increased thermal stress, as well as
bond;
strain; and
II. Overheating would have resulted in pitting of the foils and increased thermal stress, as well as
strain; and
 J. Compos. Sci. 2018, 2, x68 6 of 18

III. A change in material properties could have made the products useless for any engineering
II. A change in material properties could have made the products useless for any engineering application.
application.
The bottom plate was
was setset to ◦ C, and the top plate was at room
The bottom plate to aa temperature
temperature value
value of of 470
470 °C, and the top plate was at room
◦
temperature (20 °C). Figure 5 shows the distribution of temperature on the
temperature (20 C). Figure 5 shows the distribution of temperature on plate that
the plate that was
was set
set at
at room
room
after 40
temperature after 40 s.s.AsAsisisevident,
evident, thethe temperature
temperature waswas higher
higher in the
in the middle
middle as compared
as compared to
to the
the sides, because the specimen to be heated was placed there and the
sides, because the specimen to be heated was placed there and the transfer of heat was transfer of heat was through
conduction, which
conduction, whichisisaafaster
fastermode
modeofofheat transfer.
heat The
transfer. Thereason for for
reason running
runningthe the
simulation for 40
simulation fors 40
wass
that that
afterafter
about 20 s,20the temperature reached ◦
410410C,°C,atatwhich
was about s, the temperature reached whichthetheoperating
operatingrange
rangefor
for the
the brazing
paste began (410–470 ◦ C). Since bond integrity is a function of the processing time, therefore, to ensure
(410–470 °C). function of the processing time, therefore,
a strong bond, a shorter brazing cycle with fast heat-up and a very short holding time at maximum
temperature was utilized [27]. This left 20 s, after which the maximum temperature on the dog bone
specimen sandwiched
sandwiched between
between the plates reached 435 °C. ◦ C. This was also the recommendation from

the paste manufacturer (that within the operating range, the holding holding time
time should
should be
be around
around 10–20
10–20 s).
s).
This numerical simulation has been validated by an experiment experiment that ran for 40 s to assess whether
the part could be produced in that time or not. The The temperature
temperature curve (with respect to time) obtained
from this simulation was compared
compared to to the
the one
one obtained
obtained fromfrom the
the experiment
experiment as as well.
well.

Figure
Figure 4.
4. Temperature distribution on
Temperature distribution on the
the plates
plates and
and the
the dog
dog bone
bone specimens.
specimens.

3.2. Validation for Heating Time

The variation of temperature with time (transient) is governed by the following unsteady equation:

1 ∂T ∂2 T ∂2 T ∂2 T q
= 2 + 2 + 2 + . (1)
α ∂τ ∂x ∂y ∂z k

k q
In Equation (1), α = ρc = thermal diffusivity, and k is the heat source.
In the current scenario, a composite of aluminium and brazing paste was being produced.
The equation had to be solved for each layer separately, and then the boundary conditions could
be applied. Thermal expansion of the two materials would have also resulted in a different set
of conditions. The density and viscosity of the brazing paste had to be incorporated as well.
J. Compos. Sci. 2018, 2, 68 7 of 18

These parameters could be solved analytically, but the thermal contact resistance between the layers
was a big issue. When it was introduced, then the analytical solution became significantly more
complex. Numerical solutions could, however, be obtained in a relatively simple manner, but such
simulations should be validated by experimentation. The numerical simulation described in Section 3.1
formed the basis for the experiment that was run for 40 s. This was the same time as the simulation,
and the experiment served as validation to demonstrate the usability of numerical means to produce
parts made by CMFM. This eliminated trial and error and allowed for the manufacture of metal parts
easily. The 2.9-mm-thick layered dog bone specimen was sandwiched between two stainless steel
plates. The bottom plate was set at 470 ◦ C, and it was at the set temperature when the paste-coated foils
were placed on it. Two K-type thermocouples were attached to the top of the dog-bone specimen with
the help of heat-resistant tape. The thermocouples were connected to a data logger that collected the
data for 40 s. The average temperature from the two thermocouples and the temperature taken from
the simulation were plotted with respect to time and are shown in Figure 6. It is evident that there was
good agreement between the finite element analysis (FEA) and experimental results. This experiment
validated the applicability of numerical simulations to produce parts using CMFM. The temperature
values obtained from the experiment are used to analyse thermal stress and strain in the same dog
bone specimen through numerical means in the next section.
J. Compos. Sci. 2018, 2, x 7 of 18

Figure 5. Temperature distribution of the OFF plate.

Figure 5. Temperature distribution of the OFF plate.

3.2.
3.2.1.Validation
Thermalfor Heating
Stress and Time
Strain
The variation
Measuring of temperature
thermal with requires
stress and strain time (transient)
the use ofisexpensive
governedand
by sophisticated
the followingequipment,
unsteady
equation:
but since the numerical simulation was validated to present good agreement with the experimental
results, the temperature values obtained from the thermocouples were used as boundary conditions in
= + + + . (1)
the static structural environment of ANSYS 19.1 to analyse thermal stress and strain. In the present
case,In
heat was being ◦ C) by conduction to the paste-coated
Equation (1), transferred from thediffusivity,
= = thermal hot plate (set
andat 470
is the heat source.

aluminium foils and was uniform throughout. Due to the continuous contact, the heat was moving
In the current scenario, a composite of aluminium and brazing paste was being produced. The
from a hot area (heated plate) to a colder area (dog bone specimen) until they were both at the
equation had to be solved for each layer separately, and then the boundary conditions could be
applied. Thermal expansion of the two materials would have also resulted in a different set of
conditions. The density and viscosity of the brazing paste had to be incorporated as well. These
parameters could be solved analytically, but the thermal contact resistance between the layers was a
big issue. When it was introduced, then the analytical solution became significantly more complex.
Numerical solutions could, however, be obtained in a relatively simple manner, but such simulations
J. Compos. Sci. 2018, 2, 68 8 of 18

same temperature. Aluminium is a very good conductor of heat, with a thermal conductivity value
of 205 W/(m·◦ C), whereas the brazing paste also has a reasonably good value of 130 W/(m·◦ C).
The temperature data obtained from the heating experiment was used as input for static structural
analysis. All the 19 layers (10 aluminium and 9 paste layers) were subjected to varying degrees of
temperature with the first layer, which was in contact with the heated plate, reaching and then staying
at the maximum temperature value for a longer period compared to the last layer, which was in contact
with J.the plate kept at room temperature.
Compos. Sci. 2018, 2, x 8 of 18

500
450
400
Temperature (°C)

350
FEA
300
250
Exp
200
150
100
50
0
0 10 20 30 40 50

Time (s)

Figure
Figure 6. Comparisonbetween
6. Comparison betweenfinite
finite element
element analysis
analysisand
andexperimental results.
experimental results.

3.2.1 focus
The Thermal wasStress anddog
on the Strainbone specimen, but it was also important to assess the thermal stress
and strainMeasuring
on the entire
thermalstructure
stress and (paste-coated
strain requires aluminium foils sandwiched
the use of expensive between
and sophisticated two stainless
equipment,
steel but
plates)
sincetothe
ensure that the
numerical appropriate
simulation values were
was validated beinggood
to present captured. Figure
agreement with7 shows the von Mises
the experimental
stressresults,
valuesthe ontemperature
the hot plate, valueswithobtained from the thermocouples
the minimum values being in were
theused as boundary
centre where the conditions
paste-coated
in the static structural environment of ANSYS 19.1 to analyse thermal
layers were placed and the maximum values being at the edges. The strain values in Figure stress and strain. In the present8 also
case, heat was being transferred from the hot plate (set at 470
showed the same picture, with the minimum values being in the middle and the maximum being°C) by conduction to the paste-coated
aluminium foils and was uniform throughout. Due to the continuous contact, the heat was moving
on the edges of the hot plate. Even though the maximum values were quite high, they did not affect
from a hot area (heated plate) to a colder area (dog bone specimen) until they were both at the same
the mechanical integrity of the dog bone specimen because they were far away from the specimen
temperature. Aluminium is a very good conductor of heat, with a thermal conductivity value of
and were localized.whereas
205 W/(m·°C), The von theMises
brazing stress
pasteonalso
thehas
topaand bottomgood
reasonably of thevalue
dog ofbone130 specimen
W/(m·°C). (without
The
the two stainlessdata
temperature steelobtained
plates) from
is shown in Figures
the heating 7 and 8.
experiment wasIt used
is interesting
as input for to note
static that the stress
structural
was higher
analysis.onAllthetheside adjacent
19 layers (10 to the cold and
aluminium plate as compared
9 paste layers) were to the hot plate.
subjected The reason
to varying layofin the
degrees
metallurgy of thewith
temperature aluminium
the firstfoil thatwhich
layer, led towasresidual stresses.
in contact withThese were plate,
the heated the stresses
reaching thatand
remained
then in
staying at the maximum temperature value for a longer period compared
a solid material after the original cause of the stresses had been removed. In other words, residual to the last layer, which was
in contact
stresses with the plate
in a structural kept at
material orroom temperature.
component were those stresses that existed in the object without
The focus was on the dog bone specimen, but it was also important to assess the thermal stress
the application of any service or other external loads. There are several causes for the presence of
and strain on the entire structure (paste-coated aluminium foils sandwiched between two stainless
residual stresses in a material. Manufacturing processes are the most common causes of residual
steel plates) to ensure that the appropriate values were being captured. Figure 7 shows the von Mises
stress. Virtually all manufacturing and fabricating processes such as casting, welding, machining,
stress values on the hot plate, with the minimum values being in the centre where the paste-coated
moulding, heat treatment,
layers were placed and plastic
the maximumdeformation during
values being at bending,
the edges.rolling, or forging
The strain values inintroduce residual
Figure 8 also
stresses
showed the same picture, with the minimum values being in the middle and the maximum being onsteps,
into the manufactured object. The manufacturing process for aluminium foil has several
including refining,
the edges of thesmelting, rolling,
hot plate. Even and finishing,
though the maximum all capable
values were of inducing
quite high,residual
they didstresses within
not affect the the
mechanical
foil. In addition integrity of the dog
to that, residual bonecan
stress specimen because
be caused they wereyielding
by localized far awayoffrom
the the specimen
material, and of a
because
sharpwere localized.
notch, or from The von Mises
certain surfacestress on the top such
treatments and bottom
as shotofpeening
the dog bone specimen
or surface (without the
hardening. Among
two stainless steel plates) is shown in Figures 7 and 8. It is interesting
the factors that are known to cause residual stresses are the development of deformation gradients to note that the stress was
higher on the side adjacent to the cold plate as compared to the hot plate. The reason lay in the
in various sections of the piece by the development of thermal gradients, volumetric changes arising
metallurgy of the aluminium foil that led to residual stresses. These were the stresses that remained
in a solid material after the original cause of the stresses had been removed. In other words, residual
stresses in a structural material or component were those stresses that existed in the object without
the application of any service or other external loads. There are several causes for the presence of
residual stresses in a material. Manufacturing processes are the most common causes of residual
stress. Virtually all manufacturing and fabricating processes such as casting, welding, machining,
J. Compos. Sci. 2018, 2, 68 9 of 18

during solidification or from solid state transformations, and from differences in the coefficient of
thermal expansion in pieces made from different materials, which was the case here as solid aluminium
and brazing paste (that changed phase from semiliquid to liquid and then solid) were being joined
together. Thermal residual stresses are primarily due to differential expansion when a metal is heated
or cooled. The two factors that control this are thermal treatment (heating or cooling) and restraint.
Both the thermal treatment and restraint of the component must be present to generate residual
stresses. When any object is formed through cold working, there is the possibility for the development
of residual stresses [28]. Figure 9 shows that the von Mises stress on the side of the dog bone specimen
adjacent to the hot plate was at the minimum value. This goes to show that the heat treatment during
CMFM did not increase the stresses, but rather relieved them in the foil. The reason is the fact that the
brazing paste underwent phase transformation from semisolid (original state) to liquid (in its operating
range) and to solid (after cooling), and therefore any thermal stress between the layers relaxed. This is
evident from the lowest values on the grid. On the other hand, Figure 10 shows that the stress was
slightly higher at the edges as they formed areas for stress concentration, but most of the sample was
still at the lowest possible values in the grid. In this case, the stresses were relieved, but not to the
same extent as the side adjacent to the hot plate, hence the reason for stress concentrations on the
edges. This was because the side adjacent to the hot plate stayed at a higher temperature gradient for
a longer period. In addition, the annealing temperature of aluminium is around 412 ◦ C [29], which
was also responsible for relieving stresses. The same held true for thermal strain due to heat as well.
Figure 11 shows the thermal stress for the side adjacent to the hot plate, with values ranging from
1.9 × 10−3 to 5.0 × 10−3 compared to the higher values ranging from 7.2 × 10−3 to 2.6 × 10−2 , with the
edges showing the maximum strain for the side of the specimen adjacent to the cold plate (Figure 12).
The reason is again the relaxation of the material due to the application of heat that resulted in lower
strain values
J. Compos. for2,the
Sci. 2018, x side of the specimen subjected to more heat for a longer period. 10 of 18

Figure 7.
Figure 7. Hot plate showing
Hot plate showing thermal
thermal stress.
stress.
J. Compos. Sci. 2018, 2, 68 10 of 18
Figure 7. Hot plate showing thermal stress.

J. Compos. Sci. 2018, 2, x Figure8.8.Hot

Figure Hot plate
plate showing
showing thermal
thermalstrain.
strain. 11 of 18

Figure9.9.Thermal
Figure Thermal stress
stress on
on the
the foil
foil adjacent
adjacentto
tothe
thehot
hotplate.
plate.
J. Compos. Sci. 2018, 2, 68 11 of 18
Figure 9. Thermal stress on the foil adjacent to the hot plate.

J. Compos. Sci. 2018, 2, x

Figure 10. Thermal stress on the foil adjacent to the cold plate. 12 of 18
Figure 10. Thermal stress on the foil adjacent to the cold plate.

Figure
Figure 11.
11. Thermal
Thermal strain
strain on
on the
the foil
foil adjacent
adjacent to
to the
the hot
hot plate.
plate.
J. Compos. Sci. 2018, 2, 68 12 of 18
Figure 11. Thermal strain on the foil adjacent to the hot plate.

Figure 12. Thermal strain on the foil adjacent to the cold plate.
Figure 12. Thermal strain on the foil adjacent to the cold plate.

3.3. Results from the Tensile Test of the Dog-Bone Specimens

The numerical simulation showed 40 s for the manufacture of a 2.9-mm-thick dog bone specimen
for tensile testing. This time was validated by the manufacture of the specimen in 40 s. Three dog bone
specimens were manufactured for tensile testing after the experimental validation. Generally, tensile
testing is routinely practiced and does not involve a high number of precautions, but because parts
made by CMFM are composites, it became important to take every factor into account. Such factors
included the gauge length of the specimen, the rate of loading, the capacity of the machine, clamping
issues, the effect of humidity, and temperature. The gauge length was kept at 50 mm according to
the standard (BS EN ISO 6892-1:2009), and the rate of loading was 5 mm/min to allow for a slow
application of tensile force to obtain a smooth curve as an output. A 5 kN load cell was used with the
INSTRON 5582 (Norwood, MA, USA), which could record the fracture loads of the tested specimens.
Proper clamping is very important, which is why wedge action grips were used. As the axial load
increased, the wedge acted to increase the squeezing pressure applied to the specimen. The test
was carried out at ambient temperature and humidity according to the standard. The force versus
displacement curves for the specimens are shown in Figure 13. The Al 1050 specimen made by
machining fractured at a load value of 4.483 kN, whereas the parts made by CMFM using 200-µm-thick
aluminium 1050 foils fractured at much higher values (S1 = 4.754 kN, S2 = 4.745 kN, and S3 = 4.763 kN).
The increase in the fracture value for the CMFM specimens was approximately 6% compared to the
parent metal, and they showed good consistency as well. It was already established in Section 3.2.1 that
residual stresses did not play a negative part and did not affect the mechanical integrity of the parts
made by CMFM. This, coupled with the higher fracture load values from the tensile test, show that the
heat added to the foils during the joining operation (brazing) made them stronger due to the chemical
reactions taking place between the foil and the paste. Furthermore, it should be noted that aluminium
followed its characteristic curve, with a prominent elastic and plastic region. The CMFM parts, on the
and S3 = 4.763 kN). The increase in the fracture value for the CMFM specimens was approximately
6% compared to the parent metal, and they showed good consistency as well. It was already
established in Section 3.2.1 that residual stresses did not play a negative part and did not affect the
mechanical integrity of the parts made by CMFM. This, coupled with the higher fracture load values
from theSci.
J. Compos. tensile
2018, test,
2, 68 show that the heat added to the foils during the joining operation (brazing)13 made
of 18
them stronger due to the chemical reactions taking place between the foil and the paste. Furthermore,
it should be noted that aluminium followed its characteristic curve, with a prominent elastic and
other hand,
plastic hadThe
region. a very
CMFMsmallparts,
plastic
onregion but had
the other high
hand, fracture
had a veryload values.
small Aluminium
plastic region butishad
a ductile
high
material and underwent plastic deformation before fracturing, but the parts made
fracture load values. Aluminium is a ductile material and underwent plastic deformation before by CMFM were
brittle and but
fracturing, did the
notparts
undergo
madea large
by CMFMplastic deformation
were brittle andbefore fracturing.
did not undergo aThe fracture
large plasticmodes of the
deformation
tested specimens are shown in Figure 14.
before fracturing. The fracture modes of the tested specimens are shown in Figure 14.

4
Force (kN)

Al 1050 S1
3

S2 S3
2

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Displacement (mm)

Figure 13.
13.Comparative
Comparativetensile test test
tensile between Al 1050
between Al and
1050composite metal foil
and composite manufacturing
metal (CMFM)
foil manufacturing
J. Compos. Sci. 2018,
specimens.
(CMFM) 2, x
specimens. 14 of 18

Figure 14. Fracture

Figure 14. Fracture modes:
modes: (a)
(a) Al
Al 1050;
1050; (b)
(b) CMFM
CMFM specimen.
specimen.

3.4. Results
3.4. Results from
from Corrosion
Corrosion Test
Test of
of Dog
Dog Bone
Bone Specimens
Specimens
Galvanic corrosion
Galvanic corrosion isis aa major
major concern
concern with
with aluminium,
aluminium, and and any
any corrosion
corrosion in in the
the bond–foil
bond–foil
interface would have seriously undermined the strength of the dog bone specimens. This test
interface would have seriously undermined the strength of the dog bone specimens. This test was
was
performed to assess the effect of corrosion on the tensile strength and elongation of
performed to assess the effect of corrosion on the tensile strength and elongation of the specimensthe specimens made
by CMFM.
made The composite
by CMFM. aluminium
The composite dog bone
aluminium dogspecimens were put
bone specimens in aput
were cylindrical container
in a cylindrical for 24 h.
container
There
for 24 were three
h. There specimens,
were the first made
three specimens, frommade
the first aluminium 1050 foils of
from aluminium 105050 µm
foilsinofthickness,
50 μm inthe second
thickness,
made from 100-µm-thick foils, and the third made from 200-µm-thick foils. At any
the second made from 100-μm-thick foils, and the third made from 200-μm-thick foils. At any given given time, only one
specimen was immersed in the distilled water and NaCl solution. The pH of the
time, only one specimen was immersed in the distilled water and NaCl solution. The pH of the solution was checked
using pHwas
solution strips when the
checked specimen
using waswhen
pH strips put inthe
thespecimen
containerwasand put
whenin itthe
was taken out.
container andThe value
when was
it was
taken out. The value was 7.0 in both cases, which was in the acceptable range. Afterwards, the dog
bone specimens were tested on the tensile testing machine at a speed of
5 mm/min and yielded a similar fracture mode (Figure 15) as previously tested specimens
(Section 3.3) that had not been tested for corrosion. In our previous work [30], dog bone specimens
made from foils of varying thickness were tensile tested as-built, and a comparison between those
performed to assess the effect of corrosion on the tensile strength and elongation of the specimens
made by CMFM. The composite aluminium dog bone specimens were put in a cylindrical container
for 24 h. There were three specimens, the first made from aluminium 1050 foils of 50 μm in thickness,
the second made from 100-μm-thick foils, and the third made from 200-μm-thick foils. At any given
time, only
J. Compos. Sci. one
2018, specimen
2, 68 was immersed in the distilled water and NaCl solution. The pH 14 of ofthe
18
solution was checked using pH strips when the specimen was put in the container and when it was
taken out. The value was 7.0 in both cases, which was in the acceptable range. Afterwards, the dog
7.0 in both
bone cases, which
specimens was intested
were the acceptable
on the range. Afterwards,
tensile the dog
testing bone specimens
machine at a were speedtested of
on the tensile testing machine at a speed of 5 mm/min and yielded
5 mm/min and yielded a similar fracture mode (Figure 15) as previously tested specimensa similar fracture mode (Figure 15)
as previously
(Section tested
3.3) that hadspecimens (Section
not been tested for3.3) that had
corrosion. Innot
ourbeen testedwork
previous for corrosion. In ourspecimens
[30], dog bone previous
work
made from foils of varying thickness were tensile tested as-built, and a comparison between and
[30], dog bone specimens made from foils of varying thickness were tensile tested as-built, thosea
comparison between those tests and the ones performed after corrosion testing
tests and the ones performed after corrosion testing (Figure 16) is shown in Table 2. The upper half (Figure 16) is shown
in the
of Table 2. The
table shows upper half of from
the results the table shows thework
our previous results from
[30], our previous
whereas the lowerworkhalf [30],
shows whereas the
the tensile
lower half shows the tensile test results performed after corrosion testing. The fracture
test results performed after corrosion testing. The fracture loads, ultimate tensile strength (UTS), and loads, ultimate
tensile strength
elongation values(UTS),
wereand elongation
quite values
similar. The were quite
positive valuesimilar.
in TableThe positive that
2 indicates valuethe
in UTS
Tablewas
2 indicates
greater
that the UTS was greater after corrosion testing, whereas the negative values
after corrosion testing, whereas the negative values indicate that it was smaller. Good consistency indicate that it was
smaller. Good consistency was observed for the tests done under different
was observed for the tests done under different conditions, which shows the efficiency of the CMFMconditions, which shows
the efficiency
process. of the CMFM
The results clearly process.
indicate The
that results clearly indicate
the bond–foil interfacethatfor the bond–foil
parts made byinterface
aluminium for parts
1050
foils and brazing paste did not suffer from galvanic corrosion, which is also backed up by also
made by aluminium 1050 foils and brazing paste did not suffer from galvanic corrosion, which is our
backed uptests
previous by our previous
on T-peel tests on T-peel
aluminium aluminium
specimens [21]. specimens [21].

Figure 15.
15. Fractured
FracturedCMFM
CMFMspecimen tensile
specimen tested
tensile after
tested being
after immersed
being in distilled
immersed waterwater
in distilled and NaCl
and
J. Compos. Sci.solution.
solution.
NaCl 2018, 2, x 15 of 18

4
Force (kN)

3
Al 1050
2 0.1mm
0.2mm
1

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Displacement (mm)

Figure 16. Comparative tensile test for foils of different thicknesses.

Table 2. Comparative tensile test results before and after corrosion testing.

Fracture Total Ultimate Tensile

Test Specimens Difference in UTS (%)
Load (kN) Elongation (%) Strength (UTS) (MPa)
Al 1050 4.48 21.5 132.8 Compared to Al 1050
Before
0.05 mm 4.92 2.6 145.8 9.8
corrosion
0.1 mm 4.85 2.8 143.8 8.3
J. Compos. Sci. 2018, 2, 68 15 of 18

Table 2. Comparative tensile test results before and after corrosion testing.

Fracture Load Total Ultimate Tensile

Test Specimens Difference in UTS (%)
(kN) Elongation (%) Strength (UTS) (MPa)
Al 1050 4.48 21.5 132.8 Compared to Al 1050
Before corrosion 0.05 mm 4.92 2.6 145.8 9.8
testing 0.1 mm 4.85 2.8 143.8 8.3
0.2 mm 4.75 3.1 140.8 6.0
Compared to
corresponding foil parts
0.05 mm 4.9 2.5 145.2 −0.4
After corrosion
0.1 mm 4.88 2.6 144.6 +0.5
testing
0.2 mm 4.71 2.8 139.5 −0.9

3.5. Results from Microstructural Analysis

The aim of this test was to analyse the microstructure of the fractured surfaces that had undergone
corrosion testing. It was established in Section 3.3 that the bond–foil interface was not affected by
corrosion, and therefore the microstructure of the parts made by CMFM did not differ very much from
the parent aluminium. The difference was along the lines that parent aluminium is ductile, whereas
composites made by CMFM are brittle in nature. Aluminium showed inclusions that acted as tiny
stress concentrations, as can be seen in Figure 17. They either fractured or separated from the matrix,
nucleating
J. Compos. Sci. voids
2018, 2,that
x grew and linked up, ultimately causing fracture. 16 of 18

Figure 17.
Figure 17. SEM
SEM analysis
analysis of
of 1050
1050 aluminium
aluminium at
at 1000
1000×.
×.

The fractured surface in Figure 18 showsshows the

the dog
dog bone
bone specimen
specimen made
made from
from 200-μm-thick
200-µm-thick foils.
foils.
distilled water
It was tensile tested after immersion in distilled water and
and NaCl
NaCl solution
solution to
to assess
assesscorrosion
corrosion damage.
damage.
It clearly shows the aluminium foil between two layers of brazing paste (Figure 18a). The inclusions
were seen
that were seenininthe
thecase
case
ofof solid
solid aluminium
aluminium are are
stillstill visible
visible in Figure
in Figure 18b,not
18b, but buttonot
the to theextent
same same
extent [31,32].
[31,32]. The The paste
paste madean
made an intermetallic
intermetallicbondbondwithwiththe metal, and the result
the metal, and thewas aresult
high-strength
was a
product that had
high-strength betterthat
product tensile
hadproperties compared
better tensile to the
properties parent metal
compared to theand did not
parent metalsuffer
andfrom the
did not
issues from
suffer of galvanic corrosion.
the issues of galvanic corrosion.
It was tensile tested after immersion in distilled water and NaCl solution to assess corrosion damage.
It clearly shows the aluminium foil between two layers of brazing paste (Figure 18a). The inclusions
that were seen in the case of solid aluminium are still visible in Figure 18b, but not to the same extent
[31,32]. The paste made an intermetallic bond with the metal, and the result was a
high-strength product
J. Compos. Sci. 2018, 2, 68 that had better tensile properties compared to the parent metal and did not
16 of 18
suffer from the issues of galvanic corrosion.

Figure 18.SEM
Figure18. SEManalysis
analysisof
ofCMFM
CMFMpart:
part:(a)
(a)Fractured
Fracturedfoil
foilat
at500 ×; (b) fractured foil at 1000
500×; ×.
1000×.

4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
This paper presented a 3D finite element model that demonstrated the effect of heat supplied to
This paper presented a 3D finite element model that demonstrated the effect of heat supplied to
the specimens during the brazing operation. The temperature readings from the numerical model were
the specimens during the brazing operation. The temperature readings from the numerical model
validated by running an experiment that involved recording the average temperature values from two
were validated by running an experiment that involved recording the average temperature values
thermocouples attached to the specimen as it was being heated to be joined. The two temperature
from two thermocouples attached to the specimen as it was being heated to be joined. The two
curves (FEA and experimental) showed good agreement, indicating that numerical means could be
temperature curves (FEA and experimental) showed good agreement, indicating that numerical
utilized to assess the time required to produce parts using the process of CMFM. This will prove to be
means could be utilized to assess the time required to produce parts using the process of CMFM. This
very helpful in producing parts with different thicknesses and geometries. The data obtained from the
will prove to be very helpful in producing parts with different thicknesses and geometries. The data
experiment was used as input to investigate thermal stress and strain induced in the final product as
obtained from the experiment was used as input to investigate thermal stress and strain induced in
a result of the heat applied during brazing. The analysis showed lower values of thermal stress and
strain on the face of the dog bone specimen facing the hot plate, due to residual stresses being relieved
as the annealing temperature of aluminium was reached during the brazing operation. This shows that
heat provided during the process of CMFM did not adversely affect the product. It was investigated
further by undertaking a tensile test. Four dog bone specimens (one from aluminium 1050 block and
three from CMFM) were made and tested according to British and international standards. The tensile
test at ambient temperature showed that the parts made by CMFM fractured at load values that were
approximately 6% higher than that of the parent aluminium, demonstrating that the heat applied
during brazing increased the tensile strength of the part due to work hardening.
Galvanic corrosion is a problem with aluminium parts, and any issues with the bond–foil interface
would have negatively affected the strength. Hence, three dog bone specimens made from foils of
various thicknesses (50 µm, 100 µm, and 200 µm) were immersed in a solution of distilled water and
NaCl for 24 h and then tensile tested. The results were compared to previous work that showed
equivalent ultimate tensile strength and elongation values, showing that the parts made by CMFM
did not suffer from galvanic corrosion. Microstructural analysis showed the presence of voids and
inclusions, but to a lesser extent due to the brittle nature of the parts made by CMFM.

Author Contributions: J.B. conceptualized the idea, defined the methodology, conducted the experiments and
wrote the first draft of the manuscript; M.G. and A.A. worked on the finite element analysis; H.S. worked on the
validation as well as manuscript review and editing.
Funding: This research did not receive any external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
J. Compos. Sci. 2018, 2, 68 17 of 18

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