Tribology International 94 (2016) 490–501

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Tribology International
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/triboint

Effectiveness of vegetable oil based nanofluids as potential cutting

fluids in turning AISI 1040 steel
R. Padmini a,n, P. Vamsi Krishna b, G. Krishna Mohana Rao c
a
Department of Industrial Engineering, GITAM Institute of Technology, GITAM University, Visakhapatnam – 530045, India
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIT Warangal–506004, India
c
Department of Mechanical Engineering, JNTUH, Hyderabad – 530085, India

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The present work focuses on the performance of vegetable oil based nanofluids on machining perfor-
Received 27 April 2015 mance during turning of AISI 1040 steel through minimum quantity lubrication (MQL). Different samples
Received in revised form of nanofluids are formulated using dispersions of nanomolybdenum disulphide (nMoS2) in coconut (CC),
3 September 2015
sesame (SS) and canola (CAN) oils at varying nanoparticle inclusions (npi) and examined for basic
Accepted 6 October 2015
properties. Machining parameters are measured during machining. It is observed that basic properties
Available online 23 October 2015
have increased with increase in npi, except absorbance. 0.5%CC þnMoS2is found to exhibit better
Keywords: machining performance compared to all the lubricant conditions. Cutting forces, temperatures, tool wear
Vegetable oils and surface roughness are approximately reduced by 37%, 21%, 44% and 39% respectively by using
Nanofluids
CC þnMoS2 at 0.5% npi compared to dry machining.
nMoS2
& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Machining performance

1. Introduction to traditional cutting fluids. Solid lubricants like graphite, calcium

In spite of cooling and lubricating functions, conventional
cutting fluids when applied as lubricants during machining result
in various techno-environmental problems. Though conventional
cutting fluids are widely used by industries in several applications,
they do create problems which cause skin related ailments to
operators exposed to such an environment [1,2]. They also pose a
check to ecological balance owing to their non-biodegradable
characteristics [3,4]. By way of quantity of cutting fluids used by
manufacturing companies approximately 38 million metric tonnes
of lubricants were utilized globally with an estimated raise of 1.2%
for every ten years [5]. Thus, in order to reduce the bulk usage of
conventional cutting fluids and also to minimise their adverse
effects on environment and operators, alternatives to these fluids
are being rigorously explored by research community. Dry
machining, cryogenic cooling, solid lubricant based machining,
minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) technique followed by
application of vegetable oils and nanofluids are some of the
alternatives being explored in the attempt to replace conventional
cutting fluids.
Solid lubricant assisted machining has emerged to be an
effective way to improve machining performance when compared
n
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: padhmini.r@gmail.com (R. Padmini),
vamsikrishna@nitw.ac.in (P. Vamsi Krishna),
kmrgurram@jntuh.ac.in (G. Krishna Mohana Rao).
fluoride, boric acid and MoS2 are endowed with good tribological
characteristics. One of the significant phenomena which char-
acterises these materials is the presence of weak atomic interac-
tions between their layered lattice structures, leading to low-
strength shearing. In the present modern manufacturing era,
nanointegrated manufacturing has gained ample impetus to ren-
der sustainability and result in ecologically harmless engineering
processes. Nanofluids have high thermal conductivity, heat trans-
fer coefficient, viscosity; flash and fire points when compared to
base fluids [6]. Nanoparticles when added to base fluid in small
proportions that is 5% by volume or even less can enhance the
thermal conductivity of the base fluid to a greater extent. Another
important aspect is the environmental effects of the application of
nanofluids due to their toxic nature especially when they are used
as cutting fluids in machining. Researchers across the globe have
worked from this perspective and revealed interesting facts.
Nanofluids obtained by dispersing very small quantities of nano-
particles in base fluids can be applied at machining zone through
MQL technique. This would result in very small mist which does
not show any impact on human health. The remains of nanocut-
ting fluid applied through MQL are too low to be disposed ahead
unlike flood supply [7]. Nanoparticles possess enhanced thermo-
physical properties owing to their large surface to volume ratio,
which when dispersed in small proportions by volume in base
fluids like biodegradable fluids (vegetable oils), result in for-
mulations which imbibe the eco-friendly and user friendly aspects

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.triboint.2015.10.006
0301-679X/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 R. Padmini et al. / Tribology International 94 (2016) 490–501
of the base fluid which are not harmful to the environment like
conventional cutting fluids.
Vegetable oils which are operator friendly possess various other
advantages like biodegradability, ease of availability and afford-
ability. Coconut oil, sunflower oil, canola oil, sesame oil etc., are
being explored by researchers in various machining applications as
cutting fluids. Coconut oil for instance has high oxidative stability
and more than 90% of fatty acids of coconut oil are saturated.
Viscosity index of coconut oil is 130 while its flash point is 294 °C
[8]. Thus, in view of these properties vegetable oils are being
researched exclusively in the process of search for eco-friendly
alternatives to conventional cutting fluids in machining applica-
tions. The usage of new formulations of cutting fluids when applied
through MQL technique offers economical and operational advan-
tage. Thus in order to assimilate the positive aspects of vegetable
oils, nanosolid lubricants, and MQL technique vegetable oil based
nanocutting fluids are experimented in the present work.
2. Review of literature
Investigations have been initiated and are in process to combat
the harmful effects of using conventional cutting fluids as cool-
ants/lubricants in machining operations. In this context several
avenues are being explored by researchers globally. Solid lubri-
cants have created a remarkable trend as one of the preferred
alternatives for conventional cutting fluids in machining applica-
tions. Some of the widely available solid lubricants which have
been explored by investigators in machining operations are gra-
phite, calcium fluoride, boric acid, molybdenum disulphide etc.
Researches attempted to identify the reasons behind lubricity of
molybdenum disulphide (MoS2) and inferred that the good fric-
tional behaviour of MoS2 can be attributed to the basic physical as
well as chemical properties of the surface layers of the solid
lubricant [9]. Performance of boric acid was assessed by applying it
at machining zone in turning experiments and it was observed
that cutting forces, cutting temperatures and tool flank wear got
reduced while surface finish improved with reduced particle size
when compared to other lubricating conditions as reported by
Krishna and Rao [10]. Improvement in surface finish was found to
be approximately 7% by using solid lubricants when compared to
dry machining during hard turning of bearing steel at varying
cutting conditions and varying tool geometry using mixed ceramic
inserts [11]. Venugopal and Rao [12] attempted to experimentally
study the significance of applying graphite as a solid lubricant
during grinding silicon carbide material with diamond wheel.
When compared to dry grinding it was observed that graphite
assisted grinding resulted in low grinding force components under
various grinding conditions and by using different grinding
wheels. Shaji and Radhakrishna [13] reported that it was possible
to obtain improvement in grinding process performance by way of
reduction in tangential force and surface roughness when com-
pared to conventional grinding. Graphite and MoS2 were exclu-
sively tested for their lubricity during end milling of AISI 1045
steel by using milling tools of varying geometry by Reddy and Rao
[14]. They noted that MoS2 assisted milling performed better than
graphite and wet milling by, reducing specific energy consumption
to an extent of 28%, reduction in cutting forces, lowering friction
generated at tool–work interface, improving surface quality.
Owing to ease of availability, low cost and being bio-degradable
vegetable oils are one of the preferred alternatives for conven-
tional cutting fluids. The application of vegetable oils as cutting
fluids can be attributed to the consistent alignment of oil's lubri-
city to the specimen or workpiece being machined [15].
Improvement in tool life, reduction in tool wear and cutting forces
was reported by the application of new formulations of vegetable
491
oils while investigating the effect of the same on surface integrity
as well as part accuracy during reaming and tapping of AISI 316L
grade stainless steel [16]. Alves and de Oliveira [17] experimented
with castor oil in grinding operation and found that wheel wear,
grinding forces and surface roughness reduced and the new
vegetable based cutting fluid (VBCF) was biodegradable as well.
Similar improvement in machining performance using rapeseed
oil was reported by Ion et al. [18]. Researchers examined the
influential role of vegetable oil based cutting fluids on carbide
tool's flank wear and surface roughness of AISI 304 grade auste-
nitic stainless steel by the application of different types of cutting
fluids including coconut oil in turning operations and reported
reduction in tool flank wear and surface roughness using VBCFs
when compared to other environments [19]. The significance of
extreme pressure (EP) additives in two types of vegetable oils
namely sunflower and canola in the turning of AISI 304L steel on
cutting and feed forces was examined by Cetin et al. [20]. Results
revealed that as rate of EP increased, cutting and feed forces
reduced while surface roughness got increased. They concluded
that VBCFs are potential cutting fluids which are capable of
replacing conventional cutting fluids in turning operations. Ojolo
et al. [21] investigated the role of coconut, ground nut, palm kernel
oils and shear butter on during cylindrical turning of mild steel
(MS), aluminium (Al) and copper (Cu) materials. Variation in
cutting force with respect to varying cutting conditions for 4 oils
and 3 materials was recorded. They reported that, the perfor-
mance of vegetable oils is suitable for metal working applications
but the influence of these oils in reducing cutting forces depends
on workpiece material as well.
In addition to the investigations on application of vegetable oils
as cutting fluids in machining many investigations were oriented
towards the viability of application of nanofluids as cutting fluids
in various machining applications. Researchers conducted studies
and developed models to estimate the thermal conductivity and
heat transfer rate of nanofluids [22–24]. Putra et al. [25] reported
through their work that thermal conductivity and heat transfer
capacity of nanofluids are high which aid in reduction of cutting
temperatures. After thorough analysis of research works on ther-
mal and tribological aspects of nanofluids including their poten-
tiality in acting as cutting fluids in machining, Krajnik et al. [26]
inferred that through proper priming nanofluids can perform
better than conventional cutting fluids with respect to thermal
conductivity, convective heat transfer coefficient, critical heat flux
and viscosity. Xuan and Li [27] inferred through their experimental
work that nanofluids show great potential in enhancing the heat
transfer process owing to increase in thermal conductivity due to
suspended ultrafine particles. The volume fraction, shape,
dimensions and properties of nanoparticles affect their thermal
conductivity. Shaikh et al. [28] evaluated the effective thermal
conductivity of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) heat-treated nanofibers
(HTTs), and exfoliated graphite (EXG) powder dispersed in poly-
alpha-olefin (PAO) oil and they found that per cent enhancement
in the thermal conductivity of the three nanofluids over the PAO
oil was maximum for the CNT-based nanoparticle suspension
followed by the EXG and HTT. Srikant et al. [29] examined the
application of nanofluids using copper oxide (CuO) particle sus-
pensions in water miscible fluids in turning and found substantial
reduction in cutting temperatures owing to enhanced thermal
properties of nanofluids.
Researchers have attempted to assess machining performance
by using MQL technique as an alternative to flood supply in various
machining operations for different workpiece materials to avoid the
usage of cutting fluids in bulk and minimise environmental hazards.
Varadarajan et al. [30] reported that MQL technique lead to
improvement in machining performance by reduction in cutting
forces, temperature, cutting ratio, tool–chip contact length and
492 R. Padmini et al. / Tribology International 94 (2016) 490–501

substantial improvement in surface finish and increase in tool life Table 1

when compared to dry and conventional lubricant supply envir- Composition of vegetable oils.
onments while turning hardened steel. Attanasio et al. [31] signified
(a) % of saturated and unsaturated acids in vegetable oils
that MQL lead to reduction in induced thermal shock and aided in
enhancement of surface integrity of workpiece under high tool Vegetable oils % Saturated % Mono-unsaturated % Poly-unsaturated
pressure during turning. Diniz et al. [32] carried out experimental
investigations to examine the effect of MQL mode on tool flank CC 91 6 3
SS 7 65 28
wear and surface roughness during turning of SAE 52100 hardened CAN 15 41 42
steel and noted that reduction in these parameters was possible by
using dry and MQL machining when compared to wet environment. (b) Fatty acids profiles of three types of vegetable oils
Shen et al. [33] carried out extensive research to estimate the
Ve- Linoleic acid Oleic acid Palmatic acid Stearic acid Fatty acids
influence of nanofluids prepared from Al2O3, ZnO and nanodia-
get- (U-SFA) (U-SFA) (SFA) (SFA) (length)
mond particles in MQL grinding operation and reported encoura- able
ging results in terms of reduction in grinding forces and improve- oils
ment in surface finish through MQL technique. Khan and Dhar [34]
reported significant reduction in tool wear, dimensional inaccuracy CC 2 8 11 3 MCFA [8–12
carbons]
and surface roughness through MQL due to reduction in the cutting SS 41 39 8 5 LCFA [14–22
temperature along with positive change in the chip–tool and work– carbons]
tool interactions, during turning of AISI 1060 steel using vegetable CAN 21 61 4 2 LCFA [14–22
oil supplied technique at varying cutting conditions. Thus MQL is carbons]
found to be one of the preferable alternatives to reduce the detri-
nanosuspensions thus obtained are subjected to thorough soni-
mental effects of using cutting fluids in bulk. Affirmative results by
cation for a period of one hour. The suspensions thus prepared are
way of improvement in machining performance were reported by
placed in a bath type ultra sonicator for 60 min [40]. After soni-
Krishna et al. [35] who compared the performance of boric acid
suspensions in SAE-40 oil and vegetable oil. cation it is observed that the particles are uniformly distributed
Thus, the present work is motivated by the affirmative aspects without any agglomeration. The nanofluids thus prepared are
of vegetable oil based nanocutting fluids applied to machining tested for basic properties prior to their application as cutting
zone through MQL technique. The author’s earlier investigations fluids in turning operation.
revealed that the performance of vegetable oil based nanofluids is
better than dry cutting conditions, conventional cutting fluid, pure 3.3. Basic properties of nanofluids
oils and microfluids in terms of reduction in cutting forces, cutting
temperatures, tool flank wear and surface roughness while turning To interpret the thermal behaviour of nanofluids flash and fire
AISI 1040 steel at constant cutting conditions [36]. Thus the pre- points are determined using Cleaveland open cup tester. In the
sent work is an attempt to report and discuss the results of present work kinematic viscosity of base fluids and nanofluids is
experimental investigations carried out to inspect the significance measured using Redwood Viscometer-II [41]. Though machining
of applying nanocutting fluids. Nanofluids obtained from temperatures are high, in order to know the trend of viscosity with
nMoS2dispersions in three vegetable oils namely coconut oil (CC), temperature and compare the nanofluids, this range (30–50 °C)
sesame oil (SS) and canola oil (CAN) are compared with dry, was selected. A hydrometer is used to measure the density of base
conventional cutting fluid (CCF) and pure oils in terms of fluids and effective density of nanofluids [42]. The values are
machining performance. compared with those obtained from correlation shown in Eq. (1)
[43].
ρnf ¼ ð1  ϕÞρf þ ϕρs ð1Þ
3. Experimentation
where ρnf is the nanofluid density (g/cm3), ρs and ρf are the
3.1. Vegetable oils densities of the solid particles and base fluid, respectively and ϕ is
the volume fraction.
The chemical composition and fatty acid profiles of vegetable Thermal conductivity of base fluids and nanofluids is measured
oils (VO) are the primary reasons behind their performance as at different temperatures by the use of steady-state thermal con-
cutting fluid. The percentage of saturated fatty acids (SFA), unsa- ductivity apparatus (PA Hilton Ltd., England); temperature range:
turated fatty acids (U-SFA) and their profiles of VO considered in 25–65 °C. Specific heat and heat transfer coefficient are evaluated
the present work are shown in Table 1(a) and (b) respectively from empirical relations shown in Eqs. (2) and (3) [23,24].
[37,38]. Molecular structures of vegetable oils are termed as tria- C pnf ¼ ϕC ps þ ð1  ϕÞC pf ð2Þ
cylglicerides. They contain long chain and medium chain of fatty
acids (LCFA and MCFA) which are joined at the hydroxyl groups Nu ¼ hDK f 1 ¼ 0:45Re0:5 Pr 0:33 ð3Þ
(OH) through ester linkages. The length of the chain of these fatty
acids ranges from 14 to 22 (long chain) carbons and 6 to 12 where Cpnf is the specific heat of nanofluids ϕ (J/kg K), is the
(medium chain) carbons. volume fraction, Cps is the specific heat of solid particles, Cpf is the
specific heat of base fluid, Re and Pr are Reynold's number and
3.2. Formulation of nanofluids Prandtl number respectively, h the heat transfer coefficient (W/
m2 K), D is the diameter of the workpiece ‘m’.
nMoS2 is procured from Nanobeach (New Delhi) and vegetable To know the stability of colloidal formulations thus obtained,
oils are obtained from local market. Nanofluids are formulated by various techniques available are sedimentation method, cen-
using nMoS2 suspensions in CC, SS and CAN at 0.25%, 0.5%, 0.75% trifugation method, light scattering technique, Zeta potential
and 1% npi. At first pre-measured quantity of nMoS2is taken in a analysis and particle size distribution. It has been reported that,
beaker and the required quantity of VO (100 ml) is slowly added performance effectiveness of nanofluids in machining does not
while manually mixing both to obtain a uniform suspension. The consistently increase along with increase in npi, though their
 R. Padmini et al. / Tribology International 94 (2016) 490–501
Fig. 1. Experimental set up.
Table 2
Machining environment.
Machine tool
Machining operation
Material of workpiece
Tool holder
Cutting tool
Cutting speed (m/min)
Feed (mm/rev)
Depth of cut (mm)
Lubricant environment
Supply mode
Flow rate
Duration of machining
% of nanoparticle
inclusions
thermal and physical properties reflect an increasing trend [29,35].
In order to confirm this aspect, in the present work absorbance is
thus tested to assess whether the nanoparticles get dispersed
uniformly to give rise to a stable formulation or not at higher npi.
Thus stability assessment is done using a double beam UV-
spectrophotometer [45].
3.4. Machining
Experiments are carried out on PSG-124 lathe machine (Fig. 1),
at varying cutting conditions and at 4 percentages of nanoparticle
inclusions. Machining conditions are selected to suit the tool–
workpiece combination and MQL flow rate of 10 ml/min [35,36].
AISI 1040 steel workpiece under different types of nanofluid
lubricant environments is subjected to turning operation. Table 2
reflects the details of machining operation carried out as a part of
the present work.
The nanofluid is taken in a container, located collinear to the
axis of machining. Due to self-weight and atmospheric pressure
the cutting fluid flows in the downward direction [35]. A nozzle is
used to control the flow rate of nanofluid. Flow rate of nanofluid is
measured and set to 10 ml/min.
Cutting forces are measured online using Kistler dynamometer
5070 which is fixed to the lathe tool post, and the forces are
tracked using dynoware software. An Embedded thermocouple
(chromelalumel, K-type shielded; range: 0–1200 °C) which is
calibrated is used to measure the cutting tool temperatures at a
nodal point5 mm from the tool tip [29]. Digital temperature
indicator is used for recording and displaying the temperature of
493
PSG-124 lathe
Turning
AISI 1040 steel (∅35 mmn508 mm Hardness:
30 72 HRC, heat treated)
PSLNR 2020 K12
CNMG120408NC6110 coated carbide
40, 60, 100
0.14, 0.17, 0.2
0.5 (Constant)
Dry, CCF, Pure oils, CC þ nMoS2; SS þ nMoS2 and
CAN þ nMoS2
MQL
10 ml/min
12 min
0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75,1
the hot junction of thermocouple. Surf test SJ-301 (stylus material:
diamond; tip radius: 5 mm) is employed for measurement of
average surface roughness (Ra). Tool wear is measured by using
SC30 optical microscope and the readings are recorded by using
Olympus analysis software. Tool wear and surface roughness are
measured offline for each turn, 3 readings for each lubricant
condition are measured and the average is considered to avoid
discrepancies in measurement.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Basic properties
Tables 3 and 4 show physical and thermal properties of sus-
pensions of nMoS2 in base fluid at varying npi. It can be observed
that flash and fire points, effective density and kinematic viscosity
are found to increase with increase in npi (Table 3(a)–(c)). Effective
density of nanofluids influences Reynold’s number, Nusselt number
and specific heat [46]. Effective density of nMoS2 in CC and CAN is
found to be approximately same because the difference between
corresponding base fluids’ densities is very marginal both in
experimental and theoretical values, while SSþnMoS2 is found to
possess least effective density. Measured and calculated values of
density are compared and an average error of 0.39% is observed
(Table 3(b)). Referring to Table 3(c) it can be traced that kinematic
viscosity decreases with increase in temperature while it increases
with increase in npi. The reason being intermolecular forces of
attraction being weakened at high temperatures leading to decrease
494 R. Padmini et al. / Tribology International 94 (2016) 490–501

Table 3
Physical properties of nanofluids.

(a). Flash and Fire points (°C)

Basefluid/nanofluid Point Percentage of nanoparticle inclusions in base fluid (%)

(°C) 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1

CC þ nMoS2 Flash 235 264 283 345 360

Fire 278 285 300 360 375

SS þ nMoS2 Flash 315 345 357 365 378

Fire 349 358 362 372 390

CAN þ nMoS2 Flash 263 268 271 285 291

Fire 284 296 305 317 329
(b). Effective density of nanofluids (g/cm3)

Basefluid/nanofluid % npi Calculated Measured Difference % Error

CC þ nMoS2 0 0.924 0.921 0.003 0.32

0.25 0.9343 0.931 0.00299 0.32
0.5 0.9446 0.942 0.00299 0.32
0.75 0.9548 0.952 0.00298 0.31
1 0.965 0.962 0.00297 0.31

SS þ nMoS2 0 0.919 0.915 0.004 0.44

0.25 0.9292 0.925 0.00399 0.43
0.5 0.9394 0.935 0.00398 0.42
0.75 0.9495 0.946 0.00397 0.42
1 0.9596 0.956 0.00396 0.41

CAN þ nMoS2 0 0.928 0.924 0.004 0.43

0.25 0.9383 0.934 0.00399 0.43
0.5 0.9486 0.945 0.00398 0.42
0.75 0.9588 0.955 0.00397 0.41
1 0.9689 0.965 0.00396 0.41
(c). Kinematic viscosity (cm2/s)

Base fluid/ Temperature (°C) Percentage of nanoparticle inclusions in base fluid (%)
nanofluid
(°C)0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1

CC þ nMoS2 30 0.32 0.371 0.568 0.58 0.592

35 0.285 0.316 0.354 0.368 0.429
40 0.236 0.253 0.362 0.385 0.393
45 0.217 0.225 0.248 0.276 0.294
50 0.179 0.19 0.21 0.24 0.271

SS þ nMoS2 30 0.421 0.437 0.45 0.48 0.54

35 0.392 0.428 0.439 0.437 0.491
40 0.341 0.359 0.375 0.391 0.416
45 0.293 0.318 0.34 0.363 0.371
50 0.268 0.279 0.291 0.317 0.345

CAN þ nMoS2 30 0.52 0.529 0.547 0.56 0.581

35 0.41 0.425 0.431 0.445 0.478
40 0.33 0.35 0.378 0.392 0.451
45 0.29 0.31 0.33 0.36 0.416
50 0.25 0.28 0.321 0.342 0.39
(d). Values of statistical parameters obtained from Andrade Eq. (4)

Base fluid A B C SD RSS R2

CC  2.2828  7.0717  0.0333 0.000731629 1.07056E 06 0.9899

SS  1.6133  17.1280  0.0354 0.000825117 1.36164E  06 0.9903
CAN  4.324 4.4800  6.6400 0.00047497 4.51194E  07 0.9986

in this rheological property while these forces tend to be high as npi
increase resulting in enhancement in viscosity. When viscosity is
low, heat dissipation capacity of nanofluid increases and when it is
high the ability of a nanofluid to form a consistent film between
contact surfaces gets enhanced [48]. Referring to Table 3(c) in case
of CCþ nMoS2, from base fluid (0% npi) to higher npi (from 0% to
0.25% and from 0% to 1%) viscosity is found to increase from 13.7%
to 45.9% respectively while it is from 3.6% to 22% for SSþ nMoS2 and
1.7% to 10% for CANþnMoS2 respectively at 30 °C.
In order to comprehend the temperature dependence of visc-
osity, the plots obtained for CC, SS and CAN using Andrade
 R. Padmini et al. / Tribology International 94 (2016) 490–501 495

Table 4
Thermal properties of nanofluids.

(a). Thermal conductivity (kW/m K)

Basefluid/nanofluid Percentage of nanoparticle inclusions (%)

0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1

CC þnMoS2 0.1815 0.1826 0.1834 0.1847 0.1859

SS þnMoS2 0.1764 0.178 0.1781 0.1785 0.1801
Can þ nMoS2 0.1786 0.1792 0.1819 0.1823 0.1841
(b). Specific heat (J/kg K)

Basefluid/nanofluid Percentage of nanoparticle inclusions (%)

0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1

CC þnMoS2 2100 2104.078 2108.134 2112.171 2116.188

SS þnMoS2 1630 1635.193 1640.359 1645.501 1650.616
Can þ nMoS2 1910 1914.552 1919.079 1923.585 1928.069
(c). Heat transfer coefficient (kW/m2 K)

Nanofluid Speed Percentage of nanoparticle suspensions (%)

(m/
min) 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1

CC þnMoS2 40 156.0028 158.0007 160.9466 161.0668 161.7425

60 191.0636 193.5105 197.1185 197.2657 198.0933
80 220.6213 223.4467 227.6129 227.7828 228.7385
100 246.6621 249.821 254.4789 254.669 255.7374

SS þnMoS2 40 138.3962 138.7995 139.1719 140.2535 140.9354

60 169.5 169.994 170.4501 171.7747 172.6099
80 195.7217 196.2922 196.8188 198.3483 199.3127
100 218.8235 219.4613 220.0502 221.7602 222.8384

Can þ nMoS2 40 142.1602 142.6976 143.9487 144.2076 144.8724

60 174.1099 174.7682 176.3004 176.6175 177.4318
80 201.0448 201.8049 203.5742 203.9403 204.8806
100 224.775 225.6248 227.6029 228.0122 229.0634

equation (Eq. (4)) are shown in Fig. 2(a)–(c) [49]. It is observed that
viscosity is decreasing with increase in temperature for all the cases.
Table 3(d) reflects the statistical parameters of Andrade's model of
viscosity. The value of coefficient of correlation R2, is approximately
0.99, which reflects appropriate dependence of viscosity on tem-
perature and is in agreement with experimental data.

improvement is not observed. Two reasons might have influenced
ln η ¼ A þ B=T þC n T ð4Þ
where η is the dynamic viscosity in (Pa S or kg/m s); T is the tem-
perature in K; A, B and C are correlation constants.
Thermal conductivity has increased with increase in npi in
vegetable oils (Table 4(a)). CC þnMoS2 is found to possess higher
value of thermal conductivity among all the samples considered.
This can be attributed to Brownian motion and large surface area
of nMoS2 due to which thermal conductivity is enhanced when
added to base fluids [44,50]. This phenomenon is more significant
in CC than other base fluids owing to higher thermal conductivity
of CC when compare to SS and CAN as shown in Table 4(a). Specific
heat and heat transfer coefficient have increased with an increase
in npi for all the cases (Table 4(b) and (c)). The enhancement in
specific heat of nanofluids with increase in npi may be due to the
presence of a film of nanoparticle in conjunction with the base
fluid due to which specific heat gets enhanced with increase in npi
[51]. Heat transfer coefficient is high for CC þnMoS2 when com-
pared to SSþ nMoS2 and CANþ nMoS2. This can be attributed to
higher value of thermal conductivity of CC when compared to SS
and CAN. Inherently, Brownian motion and nanoparticle migration
aid in enhancement of heat transfer coefficient of nanofluids [52].
Maximum enhancement in thermal conductivity, specific heat and
heat transfer coefficient in case of CC þnMoS2 is 2.5%, 0.98% and
3.54% from base fluid respectively.
Absorbance of nMoS2 suspensions in the three base fluids is
shown in Fig. 3. It is observed that absorbance has increased up to
0.5% npi and not beyond. Sonication time was enhanced to two
hours and stability was checked, still at higher npi significant
this phenomenon. One being, increase in specific density and
viscosity of nanofluids with increase in npi. Due to which agglom-
eration of nanoparticles at higher npi takes place resulting in non-
uniform dispersion in lubricant [35,52]. The other reason being
influence of Van der Waals forces of attraction and repulsive forces
(electrical double layer), which persist amidst the particles when
they advance each other. A suspension is said to be stable if the
latter dominate the former [53]. This mechanism could possibly be
the reason behind better absorbance of almost all the types of
nanofluids considered in the present work up to 0.5%. Absorbance
has not further increased or in fact it has decreased because of the
dominance of Van der Waals forces over repulsive forces resulting
in aggregation of nanoparticles which settle down and the colloids
(nanofluids) are not stable any more. These factors can be imputed
to the better absorbance of CCþnMoS2 when compared to other
nanofluids.
4.2. Machining performance
After examining the basic properties of nanofluids, machining
performance is assessed by comparing variation in various
machining parameters with respect to speed feed and machining
time at varying npi.
496 R. Padmini et al. / Tribology International 94 (2016) 490–501

Fig. 2. (a–c) Variation of viscosity with temperature obtained from Andrade equation.

4.2.1. Cutting forces
The variation of main cutting force (Fz) recorded online is shown in
Fig. 4 for all the nanofluids under test. Since Fz accounts for power
consumption and specific energy consumption during machining, this
component is considered in the present work. Variation in main cut-
ting force at 0.25% npi, with variation in speed and feed at constant
depth of cut (d.o.c) is presented in Fig. 4(a) and (b).Variation in main
cutting force with npi (0%, 0.25%, 0.5%, 0.75%, 1%) is presented in Fig. 4
(c) when other conditions are kept constant. The performance of
VBNCF (vegetable oil based nanocutting fluids) with and without npi is
compared to that of dry and conventional cutting fluid assisted turn-
ing. At 0.25% npi, the order of performance of nanofluids is observed to
be CCþnMoS2, SSþnMoS2 and CANþnMoS2 at varying speed and
feed (Fig. 4(a) and (b)).Though an increasing trend in cutting forces
with increase in npi is observed, it is found that, when compared to
0.75% and 1% npi the increase in cutting forces up to 0.5% is low (Fig. 4
(c)). This reflects that, the ability of nMoS2 in reducing main cutting
force sustains up to 0.5% npi and does not increase further with
increase in npi for CC, SS and CAN. MoS2 imbibes a fullerene-like
structure at nanolevel and exposure of sulphur atoms of MoS2 to metal
 R. Padmini et al. / Tribology International 94 (2016) 490–501 497

surface with strong adhesion to form a consistent film conjunctively
producing good friction reducing effect [35].
Among the three base oils CC is observed to reduce cutting
forces to a better extent in conjunction with nMoS2 compared to
other nanofluids. The possible reason being, levels of un saturation
varies for different oils, lubricity of vegetable oils can be attributed
to this structure, which enables the polar fatty acid chains to result
in lubricating films when in contact with metallic surfaces [39]. CC
has strong intermolecular interactions with the ends having
electrical charges in contrast, due to which dense and homo-
genous molecules capable of taking pressure during machining get
stuck to metallic surfaces resulting in a consistent lubricant layer
which persists longer even at high temperatures. The film for-
mation ability of is found to be more pronouncing with CC which
comprise of MCFA and which have high amounts of SFA [20].
Another reason which influences reduction in cutting force is
viscosity of nanofluids. When viscosity is low heat dissipation
capacity of nanofluid increases and when viscosity is high the

Fig. 3. Absorbance of nanofluids with varying npi.

Fig. 4. (a) Variation of main cutting force with speed (feed: 0.14 mm/rev; time: 16 min; d.o.c: 0.5 mm; npi: 0.25%). (b) Variation of main cutting force with feed (speed: 60 m/
min; time: 16 min; d.o.c: 0.5 mm; npi: 0.25%). (c) Variation of main cutting force—Fz (N) under varying npi of nMoS2 (0–1%) in corresponding oils (CC, SS and CAN) (speed:
60 m/min; feed: 0.14 mm/rev; d.o.c: 0.5 mm).
498 R. Padmini et al. / Tribology International 94 (2016) 490–501
Fig. 5. (a) Variation of cutting temperatures with speed (feed: 0.14 mm/rev; time: 16 min; d.o.c: 0.5 mm; npi: 0.25%). (b) Variation of cutting temperatures with feed (speed:
60 m/min; time: 16 min; d.o.c: 0.5 mm; npi: 0.25%). (c) Variation of cutting temperatures under varying npi of nMoS2 (0–1%) in corresponding oils (CC, SS and CAN) (speed:
60 m/min; feed: 0.14 mm/rev; d.o.c: 0.5 mm).
ability of a nanofluid to form a consistent film separating both the
surfaces in contact during machining gets enhanced [52,53].
Owing to this reason, coefficient of friction between the surfaces in
contact reduces which in turn leads to reduction in cutting forces.
With this affirmative lubricant property, nMoS2 suspensions when
dispersed in CC result in reduction in coefficient of friction which
aids in reducing cutting forces. Improvement in machining per-
formance at 0.5% npi can be attributed to stability of nanofluids.
nMoS2 suspensions tend to be more stable in CC for a longer
period when compared to other fluids. It is observed that stability
increased up to 0.5% npi for approximately all the samples under
test and did not show any significant increase at higher npi. Due to
these factors, on an average CCþ nMoS2 at 0.5% npi has resulted in
reduction of cutting forces to an extent of 35% compared to other
nanofluids.
4.2.2. Cutting temperatures
The cooling ability of nanofluids is presented through variation in
cutting temperatures with respect to speed, feed and npi (Fig. 5(a)–(c)).
Cutting temperatures have increased along with increase in speed and
feed. Among all lubricating conditions, CC resulted in low cutting
temperatures. CC with high % of SFA and MCFA, at higher temperatures
enables formation of a high strength layer of lubricant which separates
the surfaces in contact [37,38]. Because oils with MCFA having shorter
hydrocarbon chain lengths (Table 1(b)) exhibit better wettability than
long chain fatty acids. Thus their interfacial properties are enhanced,
which play vital role in lubricant application [54]. The phenomenon of
formation of VO film on the metallic surface is more significant in case
of vegetable oils like CC which have MCFA unlike SS and CAN which
possess LCFA.
Increase in thermal conductivity and heat transfer coefficient
enhances the heat dissipation capacity of nanofluids, thus redu-
cing cutting temperatures at machining zone. As discussed earlier
in thermal properties of nanofluids (Table 4), thermal conductivity
and heat transfer coefficients of CC þnMoS2 are high when com-
pared to SS þnMoS2 and CANþ nMoS2. At higher temperatures,
nMoS2 softens and accelerates film formation resulting in
enhanced heat transfer capacity of base fluid. Owing to these
reasons, nMoS2 with base oils tends to reduce cutting tempera-
tures. It is found that this phenomenon is not very commanding in
reducing the cutting temperatures at higher npi (specifically
beyond 0.5%). Heat dissipation capacity of the nanofluids may
reduce due to increase in density and viscosity with increase in
npi. Coefficient of friction at the machining zone increases as a
result and also the nanofluid may not reach the surfaces in contact.
On the total CCþ nMoS2 at 0.5% is found to reduce cutting tem-
peratures by 12.2% better than other cases due to conjunctive
effect of chemical structure of CC, improved thermal conductivity
and heat transfer coefficient of nanofluid.
4.2.3. Tool wear
Variation of tool wear with speed and feed is presented in Fig. 6
(a) and (b) while (c) represents variation of the same with varying
npi. Tool wear is found to increase with increase in speed, feed and
machining time and at 0.25% among the three nanofluids,
CCþ nMoS2 is found to be effective in reduction of tool wear when
compared to other cases at same machining conditions as seen
 R. Padmini et al. / Tribology International 94 (2016) 490–501 499

Fig. 6. (a) Variation of tool flank wear with speed (feed: 0.14 mm/rev; time: 16 min; d.o.c: 0.5 mm; npi: 0.25%). (b) Variation of tool flank wear with feed (speed: 60 m/min;
time: 16 min; d.o.c: 0.5 mm; npi: 0.25%). (c) Variation of tool flank wear under varying npi of nMoS2 (0–1%) in corresponding oils (CC, SS and CAN) (speed: 60 m/min; feed:
0.14 mm/rev; d.o.c: 0.5 mm).

from Fig. 6(a) and (b). Referring to Fig. 6(c) CC þnMoS2 more
specifically at 0.5% npi has shown better reduction in tool wear.
Machining is influenced by the high amounts of heat generated at
the two deformation zones, namely primary and secondary. This
heat induces high temperatures in tool and workpiece. Endowed
with better thermal conductivity, enhanced heat transfer rate,
CC þnMoS2 reduced cutting temperatures as discussed in Section
4.2.2 and thus leads to low tool wear. Because of lamellar structure
of nMoS2, SFA and MCFA of CC, stable film of nano-lubricant per-
sists and due to low shear resistance along the interface it sepa-
rates the tool–work interfaces, which reduces plastic contacts
tending to lower the tool wear [37,38,47]. However, with increase
in npi, in VO may result in the formation of a thick film and result
in agglomeration of nanoparticles resulting in poor stability. This
may increase the coefficient of friction which leads to obstruction
during machining. In view of this aspect, CC þnMoS2 at 0.5% is
found to reduce tool wear to an extent of 27% better than other
conditions.
4.2.4. Surface roughness
Quality of machined surface is judged by surface roughness. It
can be noticed from Fig. 7((a) and (b)) that surface roughness has
increased with speed and feed at 0.25% npi for all the samples at
constant cutting conditions and by applying CCþ nMoS2Variation
of surface roughness with varying npi is shown in Fig. 7(c). 0.5%
CCþ nMoS2 has shown better reduction of surface roughness
when compared to other nanofluids at varying npi. Lubricating
action of CC is found to be better when compared to SS and CAN
because of which performance of CC with nMoS2 has resulted in
better machining performance nMoS2 has high chemical affinity
towards ferrous surfaces and tends to cover the valleys between
asperities and pores [47]. Due to low coefficient of friction of
nMoS2 in collation with the improved cooling and lubrication of
nanofluid, imparts better surface quality to the workpiece by
reducing cutting temperature, cutting forces and tool wear. Pre-
sently, 0.5% CC þnMoS2 is noticed to improve surface finish by
22.5% than its peers at varying npi.
5. Conclusions
Experimental investigations to examine the performance of
nMoS2 in CC,SS and CAN oils are carried out. Basic properties of the
nanofluids increased with npi. Consistent increase in basic proper-
ties with varying npi does not mean that the same behaviour
should be exhibited by nanofluids during machining. It is observed
that 0.5% nMoS2 in CC performed better than other lubricating
conditions. In fact all the nanofluids exhibited better machining
500 R. Padmini et al. / Tribology International 94 (2016) 490–501
Fig. 7. (a) Variation of surface roughness with speed (feed: 0.14 mm/rev; time: 16 min; d.o.c: 0.5 mm; npi: 0.25%). (b) Variation of surface roughness with feed (speed: 60 m/
min; time: 16 min; d.o.c: 0.5 mm; npi: 0.25%). (c) Variation of surface roughness under varying npi of nMoS2 (0–1%) in corresponding oils (CC, SS and CAN) (speed: 60 m/
min; feed: 0.14 mm/rev; d.o.c: 0.5 mm).
performance compared to dry, CCF and pure oil assisted turning.
The following conclusions are drawn from experimental results:
 Flash and Fire points, specific density, thermal conductivity,
specific heat and heat transfer coefficients are observed to
increase with increase in npi for all nanofluids.
 Absorbance is found to increase with increase in npi up to 0.5%
and slightly decreased with more increase in npi.
 On the total, 0.5% CC þnMoS2is found to reduce cutting forces,
cutting temperatures, tool wear and surface roughness com-
pared to all other lubricating conditions.
 By the application of CC þnMoS2 at 0.5% npi, reduction in cut-
ting forces is observed to be 37% compared to dry machining.
Cutting temperatures have increased with time and it is found
that they are reduced to 21% by applying CCþ nMoS2 at 0.5% npi
than dry machining. CCþ nMoS2is observed to be effective in
tool wear reduction by 44% when compared to dry machining
and 39% effective in reducing surface roughness.
Funding statement
This research has not received any specific grant from any
funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Acknowledgements
The support extended by the technical staff of departments of
mechanical and industrial engineering of GITAM University,
Visakhapatnam and JNTU Hyderabad is highly acknowledged.
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