JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH, VOL. 115, B01205, doi:10.

1029/2008JB006227, 2010
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Gas isotopic signatures (He, C, and Ar) in the Lake Kivu region
(western branch of the East African rift system):
Geodynamic and volcanological implications
D. Tedesco,1,2 F. Tassi,3,4 O. Vaselli,1,4 R. J. Poreda,5 T. Darrah,5 E. Cuoco,2 and M. M. Yalire6
Received 24 November 2008; revised 28 August 2009; accepted 20 October 2009; published 29 January 2010.

[1] On 17 January 2002, the city of Goma was partly destroyed by two of the several lava
flows erupted from a roughly N-S oriented fracture system opened along the southern flank
of Mount Nyiragongo (Democratic Republic of Congo), in the western branch of the East
African rift system. A humanitarian and scientific response was promptly organized by
international, governmental, and nongovernmental agencies coordinated by the United
Nations and the European Union. Among the different scientific projects undertaken to
study the mechanisms triggering this and possible future eruptions, we focused on the
isotopic (He, C, and Ar) analysis of the magmatic-hydrothermal and cold gas discharges
related to the Nyiragongo volcanic system, the Kivu and Virunga region. The studied area
includes the Nyiragongo volcano, its surroundings, and peripheral areas inside and outside
the rift. They have been subdivided into seven regions characterized by distinct 3He/4He
(expressed as R/Rair) ratios and/or d13C-CO2 values. The Nyiragongo summit crater
fumaroles, whose R/Rair and d 13C-CO2 values are up to 8.73 and from 3.5% to 4.0%
VPDB, respectively, show a clear mantle, mid-ocean ridge basalt (MORB)-like
contribution. Similar mantle-like He isotopic values (6.5–8.3 R/Rair) are also found in
CO2-rich gas emanations (mazukus) along the northern shoreline of Lake Kivu main
basin, whereas the 13dC-CO2 values range from 5.3% to 6.8% VPDB. The mantle
influence progressively decreases in (1) dissolved gases of Lake Kivu (2.6–5.5 R/Rair)
and (2) the distal gas discharges within and outside the two sides of the rift (from 0.1
to 1.7 R/Rair). Similarly, d 13C-CO2 ratios of the peripheral gas emissions are lighter
(from 5.9% to 11.6% VPDB) than those of the crater fumaroles. Therefore, the
spatial distribution of He and C signatures in the Lake Kivu region is mainly produced
by mixing of mantle-related (e.g., Nyiragongo crater fumaroles and/or mazukus gases)
and crustal-related (e.g., gas discharges in the Archean craton) fluids. The CO2/3He
ratio (up to 10  1010) is 1 order of magnitude higher than those found in MORB,
and it is due to the increasing solubility of CO2 in the foiditic magma feeding the
Nyiragongo volcano. However, the exceptionally high 40Ar*/4He ratio (up to 8.7) of
the Nyiragongo crater fumaroles may be related to the difference between He and Ar
solubility in the magmatic source. The results of the present investigation suggest that
in this area the uprising of mantle-originated f luids seems strongly controlled by
regional tectonics in relation to the geodynamic assessment of the rift. These fluids are
mainly localized in a relatively small zone between Lake Kivu and Nyiragongo
volcano, with important implications in terms of volcanic activity.
Citation: Tedesco, D., F. Tassi, O. Vaselli, R. J. Poreda, T. Darrah, E. Cuoco, and M. M. Yalire (2010), Gas isotopic signatures
(He, C, and Ar) in the Lake Kivu region (western branch of the East African rift system): Geodynamic and volcanological implications,
J. Geophys. Res., 115, B01205, doi:10.1029/2008JB006227.
1
Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, United Nations,
Geneva, Switzerland.
2
1. Introduction
Environmental Sciences Department, Naples 2 University, Caserta,
Italy. [2] The western branch (WB) of the East African rift
3
Istituto di Geologia Ambientale e GeoIngegneria, CNR, Rome, Italy. system (EARS), the latter including the Ethiopian and
4
Earth Sciences Department, University of Florence, Florence, Italy. Kenya branches (Figure 1), is an 3000 km long seismi-
5
Environmental and Earth Sciences Department, Rochester University,
Rochester, New York, USA. cally active corridor that borders the mechanically strong
6
Goma Volcano Observatory, Goma, Democratic Republic of Congo. [e.g., Petit and Ebinger, 2000] and thick [e.g., Ritsema et
al., 1998] Archaean Tanzania craton. The eruptive activity
Copyright 2010 by the American Geophysical Union. of the WB is substantially lower than that of the volcanic
0148-0227/10/2008JB006227$09.00

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B01205 TEDESCO ET AL.: He AND C IN THE EASTERN AFRICAN RIFT B01205

Figure 1. Map of the Kivu volcanic province with major tectonic lines and locations of gas sampling
sites.

systems located in the eastern branch of the EARS and can
be related to four main volcanic districts: (1) the Toro-
Ankole region (western Uganda), (2) the Virunga, (3) the
Kivu provinces (at the border between the Democratic
Republic of Congo with Uganda, Rwanda, and Burundi),
and (4) the Rungwe volcanic field (southwestern Tanzania).
[3] The dominant volcanism consists of silica-undersatu-
rated mafic products and includes ultrapotassic, hypersodic,
and carbonatitic compositions [Furman, 2007, and referen-
ces therein]. Presently, the volcanic activity is concentrated
in the middle Miocene Virunga Volcanic Province (VVP),
whose eight main EW-oriented volcanic edifices [e.g.,
Mavonga, 2007] can be grouped as follows: (1) Muhavura
(4127 m above sea level (asl)), Gahunga (3474 m asl) and
Sabinyo (3647 m asl) (eastern group); (2) Visoke (3911 m asl),
Karisimbi (4506 m asl), and Mikeno (4437 m asl) (central
group); and (3) Nyiragongo (3470 m asl) and Nyamuragira
(3056 m asl) (western group).
[4] With the exception of the short-lived eruption of
Visoke in 1956, the westernmost volcanoes have had
frequent historical activity. The Nyamuragira volcano is
characterized by flank eruptions, consisting of frequent

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B01205 TEDESCO ET AL.: He AND C IN THE EASTERN AFRICAN RIFT
K-rich Hawaiian-type lava flows [e.g., Hayashi et al., 1992],
although an active lava lake was present from 1921 to 1938
and then disappeared [e.g., Mavonga et al., 2006]. Since
1928, the Nyiragongo volcano has been known for its
semipermanent active lava lake, whose level, up to our last
visit to the crater (April 2009), has been continuously
changing [Tedesco, 2009]. An important rise of the lava
lake has triggered the lateral eruption on 10 January 1977
[Tazieff, 1979]. Later, an active lake was present in 1982 (up
to 1985) [Durieux, 2002/2003] and again in 1994 – 1995
[Tedesco, 2002/2003]. The Nyiragongo volcano resumed its
activity in January 2002 with an approximately 15 km long
N-S oriented fissure eruption [Komorowski et al., 2002/
2003; Tedesco et al., 2007] generating silica-undersaturated
(SiO2 < 40 wt %) products [Santo et al., 2002/2003;
Chakrabarti et al., 2009]. Two lava flows originated by this
activity entered the city of Goma (500,000 inhabitants in
2002, more than 600,000 in 2008), causing the death of
about 170 people and leaving more than 100,000 homeless
[Tedesco et al., 2007]. The United Nations and European
Union funded several research projects following the 2002
eruptive event, owing to the political and economic impor-
tance that the Nyiragongo volcano plays in such an unstable
area. This study includes an isotopic (carbon, helium, and
argon) survey of gas discharges collected in 2003 and 2005
from the summit crater of the Nyiragongo volcano and the
portion of the rift that extends north and south of Lake Kivu,
including several areas outside the rift (Figure 1). The main
goal of the current research is to constrain the origin of the
various fluid sources in order to investigate the complex
relationships among rift tectonics, mantle degassing, the
existence of different fluid source regions, and the potential
future activity of Nyiragongo volcano.
2. Helium, Carbon, and Argon Isotope Ratios
in Different Fluid Source Regions
[5] The isotopic values of He, C, and Ar of fluid discharges
and fluid inclusions can be considered powerful tracers of
interactions between mantle- and crust-derived fluids in
different geodynamic settings [e.g., Polyak and Tolstikhin,
1985]. In particular, the He isotopic ratio can be used to
intimately define the various sources of fumarolic gases and
to model hydrothermal fluid circulation patterns related to
volcanic and hydrothermal activity [e.g., Giggenbach et al.,
1993; Tedesco and Scarsi, 1998], since 3He is essentially
primordial and retained in the Earth’s interior at the time of its
formation, whereas 4He is mainly derived from the decay of
U and Th series isotopes in both mantle and crust. As a
consequence, 3He/4He ratios higher than the local (crustal)
production rate indicate the presence of degassing of mantle-
derived fluids.
[6] Mantle degassing is intimately associated with mag-
matic activity in ocean basins and continental settings.
Mantle degassing mainly occurs in ocean basins, in corre-
spondence with the formation of oceanic lithosphere
[Clarke et al., 1969] and less commonly in continental
environments [Torgersen, 1989]. Fluids enriched in radio-
genic helium, typically found in the crustal environment, are
characterized by R/Rair values of about 0.01 (where R is the
3
He/4He isotopic ratio measured in the sample and Rair is the
3
He/4He ratio of air equal to 1.39  106 [Mamyrin and
3 of 12
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Tolstikhin, 1984]). The R/Rair values of the mid-ocean ridge
basalt (MORB) and hot spot and plume volcanic fluids are
8 ± 1 and up to 20 or more, respectively [Craig and Lupton,
1976]. Fluids related to continental and arc volcanoes have
a wide range of R/Rair values (between 3 and 8) depending
on the degree of crustal contamination affecting the mantle
source [Poreda and Craig, 1989; Hilton et al., 2002].
[7] Carbon isotopic values of CO2 (hereafter reported as
d13C-CO2 VPDB%) in mantle-related fluids usually range
between 3% and 7% VPDB, depending on the different
geodynamic settings of the volcanic region. Fluids of
magmatic systems producing basaltic lava, such as Etna
and Hawaii, show d 13C-CO2 values approximately 3%
VPDB [Gerlach and Taylor, 1990; Poreda et al., 1992;
Allard et al., 1997]. More positive d13C-CO2 values (0% to
approximately 2% VPDB) in volcanic systems, e.g.,
Vulcano Island [Tedesco and Nagao, 1996; Capasso et al.,
1999], Mt. Vesuvius [Tedesco and Scarsi, 1998, Chiodini et
al., 2001], and Nysiros [Brombach et al., 2003], generally
imply the presence of limestone interactions with the mag-
matic fluid or within the magmatic reservoir. Strongly
negative d13C-CO2 values (20% VPDB) are often relat-
ed to the degradation of organic matter at relatively shallow
depth [O’Leary, 1988; Hoefs, 2008], whereas CO2 produced
by thermometamorphic processes in sedimentary realms
generally shows d13C-CO2 values 0% VPDB [Tedesco,
1997; Tedesco and Scarsi, 1998; Minissale, 2004]. Interme-
diate d 13C-CO2 values between those characterizing the
different fluid source regions can commonly be produced
by mixing processes and/or fractionation effects (e.g., pro-
longed interaction of alkaline waters with a CO2-rich gas
phase) [Tedesco, 1997; Minissale et al., 1997; Chiodini et
al., 1999; Minissale, 2004]. Argon has three stable isotopes,
the two of most interest being ‘‘primitive’’ 36Ar and
‘‘radiogenic’’ 40Ar. There is virtually no primordial 40Ar in
the Earth [Ozima and Kudo, 1972], being entirely produced
by 40K decay. Theoretical calculations, based on the atmo-
spheric 40Ar budget and the estimate of the total 40K content
of the Earth, indicate that approximately half of all 40Ar
produced within our planet since its formation is retained
within the solid Earth [Poreda and Farley, 1992; O’Nions
and Tolstikhin, 1996]. However, 40Ar does not seem to be
homogeneously distributed within the mantle. MORB lavas
are indeed typically characterized by 40Ar/36Ar ratios up to
28,000 [Farley and Poreda, 1993; Sarda et al., 1985], which
are 5 to 10 times higher than those of lower mantle xenoliths,
the latter being comprised between 307 and 1870 [Poreda
and Farley, 1992; Farley and Poreda, 1993; Nagao and
Takahashi, 1993].
3. Mantle Source(s) in the EARS
[8] The Cenozoic volcanism over the eastern and central
African plate shows two distinct relationships with the
mantle: rift- and hot spot-related volcanism [Pik et al.,
2006]. However, the nature of the mantle beneath the EARS
is still a matter of debate, likely due to the fact that the
geophysical data do not provide complete coverage of the
area and uncertainties in the African plate kinematics of
the last 45 Myr do not discriminate whether one or two
diachronous plumes are interacting with heterogeneous lith-
osphere [e.g., Paslick et al., 1995; Simonetti and Bell, 1994;
B01205 TEDESCO ET AL.: He AND C IN THE EASTERN AFRICAN RIFT
Kalt et al., 1997; Ebinger and Furman, 2002/2003; Furman,
2007]. However, He isotope systematics clearly define the
presence of at least one plume at the triple junction of the Gulf
of Aden, the Red Sea, and Ethiopian rift [Marty et al., 1993,
1996; Scarsi and Craig, 1996; Pik et al., 2006], whereas the
determination of a second plume, based on current Pb and He
isotopic data, is ambiguous. Helium isotope systematics,
particularly in lava phenocrysts, have recently provided some
insights about the interactions between mantle and crustal
environments in the EARS [e.g., Marty et al., 1993, 1996;
Darling et al., 1995; Scarsi and Craig, 1996; Graham, 2002;
Pik et al., 2006]. The He isotope signature (R/Rair up to 20) of
fluid inclusions and gas discharges collected in Ethiopia
(Afar), Yemen, and Djibouti [Scarsi and Craig, 1996; Pik
et al., 2006], associated with the Oligocene onward prerift
flood basalts, shows the existence of a lower mantle source
region [Schilling et al., 1992; Deniel et al., 1994], typical of
other volcanic provinces on the Earth, where large volumes
of lavas have been emitted, such as the Deccan and the
Siberian plateau [Basu et al., 1993]. R/Rair values lower than
6 were measured in the same area and are likely due to either
(1) accumulation of 4He in old lavas or (2) crustal contam-
ination that could have affected both old and young lavas
[Marty et al., 1996; Pik et al., 2006].
[9] A distinct type of volcanism, presumably related to
shallow (<400 km) mantle upwelling, characterizes the WB
of the EARS, where R/Rair from 5.7 to 8.9 were measured
[Graham, 2002; Pik et al., 2006]. Similarly, volcanic products
and gas discharges of the Kenya rift [e.g., Darling et al.,
1995] have a MORB-like He isotopic signature.
[10] The only existing He isotopic data in the VVP are
those measured in (1) one sample of dissolved gas collected
from the depth of 320 m in the Lake Kivu (R/Rair = 3) and
(2) one from the several CO2-rich gas vents bordering the
northern shoreline of the lake (R/Rair = 5) (R. Poreda
(personal communication, 2003) as cited by Schoell et al.
[1988] and Tuttle et al. [1990]).
4. Sampling and Analytical Methods
4.1. Description of the Sampling Sites
[11] Fumarolic gas samples were collected within the
Nyiragongo summit crater at platform 1 (Goma 1 and
Goma 2, with outlet temperature of 82°C and 84°C, respec-
tively) and platform 2 (fractures 1 to 8, with outlet temper-
ature ranging from 118°C to 393°C). The two lava platforms
are located at an altitude of 190 and 290 m lower than the
crater rim, respectively (Figure 1). Platform 1 corresponds to
the lava lake level prior to the 1977 eruption, while platform 2
is related to the lava lake level during the 1994 – 1995
eruptive cycle [Durieux, 2002/2003; Tedesco, 2002/2003].
[12] Most of the gas emissions collected in the area
surrounding the Nyiragongo volcano within the rift consist
of the so-called mazukus (the local Kinyarwanda word for
‘‘evil winds’’), which are cold (20°C–26°C) low-flux gas
emanations seeping out from old fractured and altered lava,
or in depressed areas in the Nyamulagira and Nyiragongo
lava fields [Vaselli et al., 2002/2003]. The mazukus are
prevalently located (1) in the vicinity of northern shoreline
of Lake Kivu and (2) close to and within the village of Sake
to the west (Figure 1), the latter being built on historical
lava flows of Nyamulagira volcano.
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[13] Gas samples from hydrothermal discharges consist-
ing of bubbling pools were collected at the following sites:
(1) Rambo, a group of springs (with a discharge temperature
ranging from 50°C to 72°C) located in the Archean crys-
talline basement outcrops of the eastern border of the rift a
few kilometers from the city of Goma on the Rwanda side
of lake Kivu, (2) Mai ya Moto, ‘‘hot water’’ in Swahili
(discharge temperature of 96°C), located north of Nyira-
gongo volcano (Figure 1), (3) Kankule (discharge temper-
atures of 67°C), and (4) Muganzo (discharge temperatures
of 68.5°C), with Kankule and Muganzo both located on the
south side of Lake Kivu (Figure 1), in the volcanic realm of
the dormant Kahusi volcano.
[14] The sampling network also includes three soda
springs: (1) Tingi (30°C), located close to the western rift
border (Figure 1), in a relatively tiny area characterized by
the presence of numerous thermal fluid discharges; (3)
Kisuma (39°C), on the sedimentary hills of Masisi, approx-
imately 50 km west of the rift; and (3) Makera (19°C),
located outside the rift 90 km NW of Goma (Figure 1).
[15] Four samples of dissolved gas were also collected
from different locations within Lake Kivu: (1) two samples
in the main basin at the depth of 320 m, using the facilities
of the local gas methane power plant at Cap Rubona (Figure
1), (2) one at the maximum depth of 475 m, and (3) one at
the maximum depth of 148 m of Kabuno Bay, which is a
relatively small sub-basin located in the most northwest
portion of Lake Kivu (Figure 1).
[16] To complete the sampling network, two samples of
olivine and clinopyroxene phenocrysts from Rumoka crater
(belonging to the Nyamulagira domain) and one sample of
clinopyroxene from Mudja lava tunnel, Nyiragongo realm
were also collected and analyzed. The Rumoka crater,
located half way between Goma and Sake (Figure 1),
erupted in 1912. This perfectly preserved crater is also the
site at its bottom of one of the biggest and most dangerous
mazuku (Table 1). The Mudja lava tunnel is located in the
outskirt of the Mudja village, between the Nyiragongo
crater and the city of Goma (Figure 1).
4.2. Sampling Procedure
[17] Preevacuated 60– 250 mL glass flasks filled with
20 – 100 mL of a 4 N NaOH and 0.15 M Cd(OH) 2
suspension [Giggenbach, 1975; Montegrossi et al., 2001]
were used on line, with (1) a titanium tube and dewar glass
tubes and (2) silicone/tygon tubes connected to a plastic
funnel, to sample gases from fumarolic vents and boiling
pools, respectively [Tassi et al., 2004; Vaselli et al., 2006].
The mazukus were sampled by using a dewar silicon tube
inserted into the vents at a depth between 0.5 and 1 m. The
3
He/4He, 40Ar/36Ar, and He/Ne ratios were determined in
headspace gases of the glass flasks. A further aliquot of gas
in 50 mL preevacuated flasks was also collected from each
site for determining the d 13C-CO2 values. The dissolved gas
samples from Lake Kivu main basin and Kabuno Bay basin
were collected by using 150 mL preevacuated glass flasks,
following the procedure described by Tassi et al. [2008].
4.3. Analytical Procedure
[18] Concentrations of CO2 were determined in the soda
samples by automatic titration with 0.5 N HCl solution,
following the procedure of Montegrossi et al. [2001]. The
B01205 TEDESCO ET AL.: He AND C IN THE EASTERN AFRICAN RIFT B01205

Table 1. Isotopic Values of R/Rair, d 13C-CO2, and 40Ar/36Ar; He/Ne, 40

Ar*/4He, and CO2/3He Ratios; and CO2, 36
Ar, and 4He
Concentrations of Gas Samples From the Lake Kivu Regiona
CO2/3He
R/Ra (R/Rair)c d 13C 40
Ar/36Ar He/Ne 4
He 36
Ar CO2 Ar*/4He
40
(109)
Crater Gas Discharges
Goma 1/2003 7.75 7.76 3.74 350 132 3.3 0.059 614,400 0.98 17.2
Goma 1/2005 7.87 7.95 3.67 310 40 3.1 0.170 686,200 0.83 20.4
Goma 1/2007 7.59 7.65 nd 296 756 2.7 655,410 23.0
Goma 2/2003 7.98 8.04 3.55 318 40 4.3 0.180 512,300 0.96 10.7
Goma 2/2005 5.68 7.99 3.62 296 2.95 2.4 701,000 37.6
Fracture 1 6.19 7.37 3.80 296 1.55 4.6 747,380 18.9
Fracture 2 6.02 6.44 3.95 296 3.73 3.5 596,360 20.4
Fracture 3 4.69 6.22 4.04 296 0.80 4.1 nd nd
Fracture 4 6.38 8.18 3.78 296 1.15 4.6 703,990 17.3
Fracture 6 5.68 8.09 3.87 296 2.95 2.1 519,600 31.3
Fracture 7 5.06 8.73 nd 296 2.11 3.1 537,700 24.7
Fracture 8 5.13 8.63 nd 296 2.18 nd nd
Eastern Rift
Katva 6.28 7.66 5.66 296 4.80 12 470,100 4.5
Bulengo Seminaire 7.22 8.27 5.77 296 6.95 8 658,600 8.2
Nzulu 6.89 7.38 6.76 296 12.94 22 606,700 2.9
Bulengo-Summit 5.79 7.12 nd 296 9.56 20 645,400 4.0
Kanyabishoho 6.04 7.30 5.76 296 5.01 11 608,000 6.6
Kabutembo 6.47 6.64 6.39 296 33.34 11 424,000 4.3
Rumoka crater 5.78 7.42 6.34 296 3.90 9 463,200 6.4
Kanyabihomdo 1 5.49 6.81 5.31 296 4.40 14 483,430 4.5
Kanyabihomdo 2 5.55 7.48 nd 296 3.40 13 496,000 4.9
Ruwasimvani 6.16 8.35 5.29 296 3.40 20 590,230 3.4
Bikumbo 6.64 7.46 nd 296 8.40 19 695,000 4.0
Chalet 4.22 6.45 6.61 296 2.70 9 400,000 7.6
Koshokero 6.64 7.44 nd 296 6.50 14 532,000 4.1
Esco 5.56 6.59 6.55 296 5.45
Himbi 5.81 6.51 5.33 296 7.87 6 445,100 9.2
Western Rift
Sake Birere 6.38 6.93 10.48 296 10.66 31 645,900 2.3
Sake Ecole 6.81 7.65 11.65 295 7.90 21 637,100 3.2
Sake Gisimba 6.64 7.72 10.23 295 6.20 32 590,110 2.0
Sake Spring 6.52 7.25 11.63 295 8.60 28 402,000 1.6
Kabuno Bay 140 m 5.54 5.54 10.29 350 550 11 0.122 964,300 0.61 11.4
Tingi
Tingi 1.68 1.68 6.58 296 523 25 997,400 17.1
Eastern Side
Rambo 1/1 0.19 0.19 8.08 296 54,588 135 911,100 25.6
Rambo 1/2 0.09 0.09 8.08 296 14,284 385 973,600 20.2
Rambo 1/3 0.21 0.21 8.44 384 18,243 221 0.193 973,300 0.08 15.1
Rambo 1/4 0.18 0.18 8.15 374 19,028 245 0.269 915,400 0.09 14.9
Rambo 1/5 0.18 0.18 nd 382 2,198 231 0.211 921,400 0.08 15.9
Rambo 1/6 0.14 0.14 nd 378 27,489 260 0.235 925,300 0.08 18.3
Distal Areas
Kankule (South) 0.68 0.68 6.03 296 8,838 149 981,100 7.0
Muganzo (South) 0.75 0.75 5.90 296 15,900 127 911,200 6.9
Mai ya Moto (North) 0.68 0.67 7.02 296 56 106 995,700 9.9
Kisuma (Northwest) 0.76 0.76 7.87 296 17,976 681 857,800 1.2
Makera (Northwest) 1.09 1.09 7.23 296 998 68 970,100 9.4
Kivu
Lake Kivu (Cap Rubona) 320 m 2.65 2.65 5.43 320 1,154 6 0.105 766,300 0.44 34.7
Lake Kivu (Cap Rubona) 320 m 2.73 2.79 5.44 296 28 5 617,900 32.6
Lake Kivu 475 m 3.17 3.18 5.60 313 157 5 0.112 801,700 0.40 36.4
Inclusionsb
cpx Rumoka crater 6.5 6.50 nd 296 5 22.3 17.3
Fluid
olv Rumoka crater 7.1 7.10 nd 296 8 7.4 28
cpx Mudja lava tunnel 6.7 8.13 nd 296 5 7
a
CO2, 36Ar, and 4He concentrations are in units of mmol/mol; nd, not detected.
b
He and CO2 are in units of cm3 STP  109/g.

13
C/12C ratios in CO2 were determined by mass spectrom-
etry, after a two-step extraction and purification procedures
of the gas mixtures by using liquid N2 and a solid-liquid
mixture of liquid N2 and trichloroethylene. During the
period of analysis, internal (San Vincenzo marble, recom-
mended value: +1.58% VPDB) and international (NBS 19
carbonate, recommended value: 1.95% VPDB) standards
produced values of 1.59 ± 0.04 and 1.95 ± 0.06, respectively.
[19] Gas samples for the isotopic analysis were purified in
a high vacuum line constructed of stainless steel and

5 of 12
B01205 TEDESCO ET AL.: He AND C IN THE EASTERN AFRICAN RIFT
Corning-1724 glass to minimize helium diffusion. Water
vapor and CO2 were cryogenically trapped at 90°C and
195°C, respectively, whereas N2 and O2 were removed by
the reaction with a Zr-Al alloy (SAES-ST707). Argon and
Ne were adsorbed on activated charcoal at 196°C and at
233°C, respectively. SAES-ST-101 Getters (one in the
inlet line and two in the mass spectrometer) reduced the
HD+ background to 1000 ions/s.
[20] Helium isotope ratios and concentrations were ana-
lyzed on a VG 5400 Rare Gas Mass Spectrometer fitted
with a Faraday cup (resolution of 200) and a Johnston
electron multiplier (resolution of 600) for sequential anal-
yses of the 4He (Faraday cup) and 3He (multiplier) beams.
On the axial collector (resolution of 600), 3He+ was
completely separated from HD+, with a baseline separation
of <2% of the HD+ peak. The contribution of HD+ to the
3
He peak was <0.1 ion/s at 1000 ions/s of HD+. For 2 
106 cm3 STP of He with an air ratio (sensitivity of 2 
104 A/torr), the 3He signal averaged 2500 ions/s with a
background signal of 15 cps, due to either scattered 4He
ions or the formation of 4He ions at lower voltage potentials
within the source of the mass spectrometer. Analytical error
for He isotope determination was <0.3%. The 3He/4He
ratios (R) were corrected for the addition of air by employ-
ing the standard air correction calculation [Craig and
Lupton, 1976].
[21] After completion of the He isotopic analysis, 40Ar/36Ar
ratios were measured with the same VG 5400 mass spec-
trometer. Sensitivity for Ar concentration was 4.2  104 A/
torr on the Faraday cup. Precision for the 40Ar/36Ar ratios
averaged 0.2%.
[22] Carbon dioxide concentrations and the ratio of
CO2/3He in olivine phenocrysts were obtained by crushing
under high vacuum between two zirconia plates in an all-
metal ‘‘Nupro-valve’’ crusher assembly. CO2 concentrations
were measured by a capacitance manometer in a calibrated
volume. Helium concentration was measured by compari-
son to an aliquot of Yellowstone MM standard. Reproduc-
ibility and checks on CO2 yield (i.e., loss of CO2 by
adsorption) were made by repeated sequential crushing of
a high concentration CO2 olivine Samoan xenolith (total
CO2 = 0.1 cm3/g, He = 750 cm3/g). Five sequential crushing
steps showed a variation in the CO2/3He ratio of less than
10% (total range) for the five steps and heating of the
crusher to 100° did not release measurable CO2. From this
experiment, we concluded that neither the zirconia surfaces
nor the olivine powder adsorbed significant amount of CO2.
The blanks were <5  105 cm3 and 4  1010 cm3 for
CO2 and He, respectively, for 0.55 g of sample.
5. Results
5.1. Helium Isotopes
[23] The R/Rair values of gases collected at platform 1 and
platform 2 of Nyiragongo summit crater are up to 8.73,
similar to those (8.13 R/Rair) measured in the fluid inclu-
sions of the Mudja lava tunnel. Gases released from
mazukus have relatively high R/Rair values (between 6.51
and 8.35), although located tens of kilometers away from
the central crater (Figure 1) and affected by significant air
contamination, as shown by the relatively low He/Ne ratios
6 of 12
B01205
(Table 1). The fluid discharge collected at Tingi, in the
western peripheral side of the rift (Figure 1), has 1.68 R/Rair,
a value particularly low if compared to those measured in
nearby mazukus of Sake (e.g., Source, Ecole, Birere, and
Gisimba) just 0.5 to 1 km away (Figure 1, Table 1). Rambo
hot springs, located just outside the eastern border of the rift
(Figure 1), show the lowest R/Rair values (ranging between
0.09 and 0.21) of the entire data set (Table 1). The R/Rair
values in dissolved gases of Lake Kivu at depths of 320
(Cap Rubona) and 475 m (lake bottom) are 2.65 – 2.79 and
3.18, respectively, whereas the gas sample collected from
Kabuno Bay basin (Figure 1) has 5.54 R/Rair. The thermal
springs located within and outside the rift north of Nyir-
agongo volcano (Mai ya Moto, Kisuma, and Makera
springs; Figure 1) have 0.67, 0.76, and 1.09 R/Rair, respec-
tively. These isotopic values are similar to those measured at
Kankule and Muganzo (0.68 and 0.75 R/Rair, respectively)
in the southwestern lakeside.
5.2. Carbon Isotopes
[24] The d13C-CO2 values of Nyiragongo crater gas
discharges are between 4.04% and 3.55% VPDB, a
range typical of high-temperature fluids from basaltic sys-
tems [Gerlach and Taylor, 1990; Poreda et al., 1992; Allard
et al., 1997]. Conversely, the d 13C-CO2 values of (1) the
mazukus of the northern shoreline of Lake Kivu main basin
and (2) those located close to Sake village (Figure 1) vary
from 6.76% to 5.29% and from 11.65% to 10.48%
VPDB, respectively. It is worth noting that the d13C-CO2
values of the dissolved gas samples collected from Lake
Kivu main basin (5.43% and 5.60% VPDB at depth of
320 and 475 m, respectively) and from Kabuno Bay basin
(10.29% VPDB), are similar to those of the geographi-
cally analogous mazukus (Figure 1). Tingi spring (Figure 1)
has a d 13C-CO2 value of 6.58% VPDB.
[25] The distal gas discharges located within the rift north
of Nyiragongo volcano (Mai ya Moto springs) and south of
Lake Kivu (Kankule and Muganzo springs) show d13C-CO2
values between 7.02% and 5.90% VPDB, slightly less
negative than those of the thermal fluids discharged outside
the rift (Kisuma and Makera springs at west and Rambo
soda springs at east; Figure 1), where d 13C-CO2 values vary
between 8.44% and 7.23% VPDB.
5.3. Argon Isotopes
[26] The 40Ar/36Ar ratios from the majority of the gas
discharges of the Nyiragongo volcano and its surroundings
are equal to that of air (296), with the exception of (1) the
crater emissions of platform 1 collected in 2003 (Goma 1
and Goma 2 samples; Table 1), (2) the samples collected at
Rambo springs, and (3) the dissolved gas samples of the
deep water of Lake Kivu and Kabuno Bay basins. In these
samples, the 40Ar/36Ar ratios range between 313 and 384,
indicating 10% to 30% of the Ar emanates from a radio-
genic source. By assuming that 36Ar is entirely derived from
air, the concentration of radiogenic Ar (40Ar*) (Table 1) in
the gas samples is commonly calculated, as follows:
h  i
40
Ar* ¼36 Ar 40
Ar=36 Ar 295:5 :
measured
B01205 TEDESCO ET AL.: He AND C IN THE EASTERN AFRICAN RIFT
Figure 2. R/Rair versus d 13C-CO2 binary mixing diagram
for gas discharges collected at the Kivu volcanic province.
Solid squares indicate Nyiragongo crater fumaroles; solid
circles indicate eastern/cenral (rift) mazuku; open triangles
indicate western (rift) mazuku, shaded triangle indicates
Kabuno Bay; inverted triangle indicates Tingi gas discharge;
gray circles indicate Lake Kivu; open squares indicate distal
gas discharge inside and outside the rift; shaded diamonds
indicate Rambo gas discharges.
Obviously, this calculation is meaningful only when the
measured 40Ar/36Ar ratio is more than 5% different from the
atmospheric value.
6. Discussion
6.1. Helium Versus Carbon
[27] On the basis of coupled (R/Rair)c and the d 13C-CO2
values of the sampled gas discharges (Figure 2), seven
different areas of the Nyiragongo volcano-hydrothermal
system were distinguished:
[28] 1. The Nyiragongo summit crater: characterized by
the highest (R/Rair)c values and d 13C ratios typical of
mantle-derived CO2 [e.g., Rollinson, 1993]. The (R/Rair)c
values of the crater fumaroles, which are consistent with an
upper mantle origin for helium [Graham, 2002], are equal
to that measured in the fluid inclusions of the clinopyroxene
and olivine phenocrysts from the Mudja lava flow and the
Rumoka crater (Table 1). Consequently, they likely repre-
sent the most primitive helium of the Nyiragongo volcanic
system. As already mentioned, similar MORB-like [Kurz et
al., 1982; Mamyrin and Tolstikhin, 1984] helium isotopic
ratios were found in hydrothermal fluids of the Kenyan rift
[Darling et al., 1995] and Tanzanian geothermal fields [Pik
et al., 2006].
[29] 2. The area of mazuku gas emissions comprised
between the foot of Nyiragongo volcano and the northern
shoreline of Lake Kivu main basin (Figure 1). These
emissions are characterized by MORB-like helium isotopes
(R/Ra = 8) and d 13C-CO2 values lighter than those of the
Nyiragongo crater gas discharges [Komorowski et al., 2002/
2003; Tedesco et al., 2007].
7 of 12
B01205
[30] 3. The area of the mazuku gas emissions in the
surroundings of Sake and Kabuno Bay basin (Figure 1),
where a MORB-like helium is associated to the lightest
d13C-CO2 of the rift, the latter possibly implying severe
fractionation of carbon isotopes and/or addition of biogenic
CO2.
[31] 4. The Tingi area in the western side of the rift
(Figure 1), which likely represents a transition zone between
mantle and crustal domains, within and outside the rift,
respectively. As already mentioned, the (R/Rair)c value
(1.68) of Tingi gas discharge, corresponding to 21% of
juvenile He represented by the (R/Rair)c value of Mudja fluid
inclusion (8.13), is indeed significantly lower than those of
the nearby Sake gas emissions, but still higher than typical
crustal values. However, the d 13C-CO2 values are only
slightly more negative than typical mantle fluids [Rollinson,
1993].
[32] 5. The outer zone of the rift on the eastern side
(Rambo springs), marked by crustal He signature and d 13C-
CO2 values lighter than those of the mantle. Therefore,
Rambo fluids represent the most plausible crustal end-
member. In the eastern side of the rift, we did not find
any kind of fluid discharges that suggests a transition zone
between mantle and crustal domains similar to those found
on the western side of the rift represented by the Tingi area.
[33] 6. The distal areas of the rift located north of
Nyiragongo volcano (Mai ya Moto springs) and on the
southern shores of Lake Kivu (Kankule and Muganzo
springs, belonging to the extinct Kahusi volcanic province),
with negligible to small contributions from juvenile sources.
This result partly agrees with the low volcanic seismicity
recorded in these areas (Goma Volcano Observatory seismic
catalog, 1985– 2003), compared to the high tectonic, rift-
associated, seismicity, i.e., a 6.1 M earthquake hit the
southwestern part of Lake Kivu on 3 February 2008,
25 km north of Bukavu (Figure 1) [Office for the Coordi-
nation of Humanitarian Affairs, 2008]. Accordingly, the
volcanic edifices of the Kivu volcanic province lying south
of Lake Kivu can be presently considered extinct, as also
supported by the low, air-like He isotopic signature found in
the Bukavu basin [Tassi et al., 2009]. Similar radiogenic-
rich He isotopic ratios were measured in the western thermal
fluids outside the rift, at Kisuma and Makera springs. The
relatively low contribution from mantle-related He mea-
sured in these gas discharges likely results from (1) 3He
trapped within the Quaternary volcanics present in the area
and/or (2) a regional background flux mantle volatile
leaking from the neighbor rift.
[34] 7. Lake Kivu, whose immense gas reservoir, stored at
depth below 225– 250 m [Tietze et al., 1980; Tuttle et al.,
1990; Schoell et al., 1988; Tassi et al., 2009], is produced by
a simple binary mixing between (1) a MORB-type compo-
nent and (2) a crustal source. A simple calculation suggests
that the radiogenic (crustal) and mantle (MORB-type)
components [Kurz et al., 1982; Mamyrin and Tolstikhin,
1984] in Lake Kivu provide 60% and 40% of the total
He stored in the lake, respectively. The extremely high He
concentration at Rambo, 100 times that in mazukus,
indicates that this area is likely a crustal end-member. The
addition of only 0.05% –0.1% of this component to a
juvenile, mazukus-like gas phase would be able to produce
the He isotopic signature of Lake Kivu. This result also
B01205 TEDESCO ET AL.: He AND C IN THE EASTERN AFRICAN RIFT
Figure 3. R/Rair versus 4He (in mmol/mol) binary diagram
for gas discharges collected at the Kivu volcanic province.
Symbols are as in Figure 2. The hyperbolic mixing trend
has been calculated using the following equation: Ax + Bxy +
Cy + D = 0, where A, B, C, and D are the end-members
values for crater and Rambo fluids.
argues that crustal flux into Lake Kivu is likely negligible.
Carbon and He isotopic compositions, when compared to
previous data [Tietze et al., 1980; Tuttle et al., 1990; Schoell
et al., 1988], indicate that no significant and/or measurable
changes have occurred within the lake over the past
25 years, suggesting a stable source of gas emissions to
the lake over this time period. These findings, mentioned for
the first time in this study, have important implications on
the long-term stability of the gas reservoir stored in Lake
Kivu [Schmid et al., 2005, and references therein].
[35] In Figure 3, the values of the (R/Rair)c ratio plotted
versus 4He concentration (in mmol/mol) clearly show a mix-
ing trend between the crater MORB-type (crater fumaroles)
and crustal 4He-enriched (Rambo springs) end-members. It is
worth noting that the mazuku gas samples show a significant
He-shift, indicating a measurable enrichment of the 4He
concentration not accompanied by a significant decrease of
the (R/Rair)c values, as is expected considering that 4He is
essentially related to gas contributions from a crustal source.
To explain this apparent paradox, we propose that the gas
phase discharged from mazukus is produced by the mixing of
an atmospheric component with almost pure CO2 derived
from mantle (or magmatic) degassing [Vaselli et al., 2002/
2003]. Therefore, scrubbing processes due to the interaction
of the uprising CO2-rich component feeding the mazukus
with local groundwater, whose presence is likely related to
the proximity of Lake Kivu, should cause a passive He
enrichment without any significant change of the He isotopic
signature. The solubility of CO2 in water is almost 2 orders of
magnitude higher than that of He [Lide, 2001] and, conse-
quently, we suggest that the scrubbing process is capable of
strongly affecting the ratio of these two gas species. This
scrubbing processes can also cause C isotope fractionation of
mantle-related CO2 [e.g., Vogel et al., 1970; Mook et al.,
1974], which could explain, at least partially, the relatively
lighter d 13C-CO2 values of the mazukus compared with that
8 of 12
B01205
of the crater emissions (Table 1). In fact, CO2(g) dissolution
in neutral-alkaline groundwater, such as those of Lake Kivu,
for example, produces HCO 3(aq) [Schmid et al., 2002/2003]
that can cause a significant carbon fractionation in CO2 up to
7%. Therefore, the removal of only 30% of the CO2 can
change the d13C by more than 2%. Nevertheless, on the
basis of the available data, the previously hypothesized
addition of biogenic CO2, especially for the samples of the
Sake area characterized by a particularly negative d13C-CO2
signature (Table 1), cannot be ruled out. A second unlikely
option is that fluids feeding the lakeside mazukus (Central
Rift and Sake) could be fed from a completely distinct source
at depth, explaining the moderate to large carbon isotope
variations.
[36] The CO2/3He ratio is often used as a diagnostic
parameter to investigate CO2 origin since it typically shows
distinct values in the crust, the mantle and the atmosphere
[e.g., Marty and Jambon, 1987; O’Nions and Oxburgh,
1988]. The values of the CO2/3He ratio in the fumaroles of
the Nyiragongo summit crater are 5– 31  109 (Table 1), up
to 30 times the MORB ratio [Des Marais and Moore, 1984;
Marty and Jambon, 1987] (Figure 4) and consistent with
those measured in clinopyroxene and olivine phenocrysts of
Rumoka crater (up to 3  1010; Table 1). Such an anom-
alous high CO2/3He ratio is not in agreement with the
apparent MORB-like signature of the He and C isotopes
(Figure 2). Instead, this value likely results from the higher
(5 times) CO2 solubility in basanite and foiditic lavas
[Dixon et al., 1997] with respect to that of He, as confirmed
by experimental petrology and analysis of Hawaiian North
Arch basalts [Lux, 1987; Dixon et al., 1995; Dixon and
Stolper, 1995; Dixon and Clague, 2001]. However, the
relatively low CO2/3He ratios of the mazukus (between 1
and 10  109) are related to CO2 scrubbing in shallow
aquifers leading to passive He enrichment, a process previ-
ously invoked to justify the He shift of these gas emissions
(Figure 3). In agreement with this hypothesis, the d13C-CO2
values of the mazuku gases are more negative (about 2%)
than those of the crater fumaroles (Table 1). The relatively
high CO2/3He ratios (up to 36  1010) in the dissolved gas
phase in Lake Kivu and Kabuno Bay basin (Figure 4) may
result from the input into the lake of local CO2-rich ground-
water that has interacted with CO2-dominated mazuku gases.
The CO2/3He ratios (between 1 and 25  109) of the gas
samples in the distal areas of the rift and outside the rift with
helium and carbon isotopic signatures, largely dominated by
crustal interactions and the addition of biogenic CO2, may be
affected by local rock lithology. Because the CO2/3He ratios
that typically characterize crustal fluids exist over a wide
range (from 109 to 1013) [O’Nions and Oxburgh, 1988],
making any conclusions based solely on this parameter can
be difficult.
6.2. Helium Versus Argon
[37] The 40Ar*/4He ratio is a useful indicator of noble gas
fractionation during magma degassing as volatiles are
degassed from the mantle during magmatic processes
[e.g., Marty, 1995; Sarda and Moreira, 2002]. As shown
in Figure 5, the (R/Rair)c and 40Ar*/4He values of the fluid
discharged in the investigated area are produced by the
mixing of two end-members: (1) the magmatic-related
crater fumaroles (R/Rair  8 and 40Ar*/4He of 0.9) and
B01205 TEDESCO ET AL.: He AND C IN THE EASTERN AFRICAN RIFT B01205

Figure 4. CO2/3He versus d13C-CO2 binary diagram for gas discharges collected at the Kivu volcanic
province. Symbols are as in Figure 2. Inset represents, without the possible end-members and at a larger
scale, the variation of our samples.

(2) the radiogenic-rich Rambo springs (R/Rair  0.1 and 6.3. Magmatic Degassing and Gas Fractionation
40
Ar*/4He  0.1 –0.2). Dissolved gases in Lake Kivu plot at [39] There is no attempt to rigorously model the fraction-
intermediate position (Figure 5). It is worth noting that the ation of CO2 and He out of the lava because there are only
40
Ar*/4He ratios of the crater fumaroles are much higher three complete sets of data of samples from the summit
than the 40Ar*/4He ratio produced by the present-day fumaroles. Although we collected the fumarolic gases as
radiogenic decaying process in the mantle (0.27 ± 0.02), close as possible to the lava lake, there is only limited
calculated on the basis of measured K/(U + Th) ratios in knowledge of the original CO2/3He in this lava and even
MORB [Jochum et al., 1983] and the ‘‘bulk earth’’ value of less data on the mantle concentration of He or CO2. On the
0.55 for 4.5 Ga of radiogenic production. In this respect, the basis of the available data, we can only conclusively state
40
Ar*/4He ratio is strongly dependent on the magma
degassing process regulating the partition equilibrium
between the melt and the gaseous phase, because the
solubility of He in the magma melt is about a factor of
4 higher than that of Ar [Lux, 1987]. Thus, if the melt has an
initial ‘‘bulk earth’’ 40Ar*/4He ratio of 0.55 [e.g., Poreda and
Farley, 1992], then the first gas off the magma reservoir will
have a 40Ar*/4He ratio of about 2.2. According to these
considerations, the measured 40Ar*/4He ratios of the Nyir-
agongo crater fumaroles are likely the result of fractionation
during degassing processes caused by the differences in
solubility of He and Ar within the magma. Conversely, the
40
Ar*/4He ratios may differ from the ‘‘bulk earth value’’
because of unique K/(U + Th) (ultra-potassic magmas) ratios
in the source region. The correlations between the highest
excess 40Ar*, coupled with the highest (R/Rair)c of the
region, suggests the measured ratio is the closest to (not
equivalent to) the true signature of the mantle. However, the
coupling of the lowest (R/Rair)c and 40Ar* suggests the
presence of an ubiquitous crustal end-member.
[38] Then the relatively low 40Ar*/4He ratios (0.1 – 0.2) of Figure 5. R/Rair versus 40Ar*/4He binary diagram for gas
Rambo springs, representing the crustal end-member, are discharges collected at the Kivu volcanic province, where
likely related to the typical 4He enrichment of fluids 40
Ar* is the radiogenic argon calculated by using the
circulating in crustal environment [e.g., Torgersen et al., following equation: 40Ar* = 36Ar(40Ar/36Ar  295.5). The
1988; Hu et al., 1998]. theoretical 40Ar*/4He ratio in the MORB (0.27 ± 0.02)
was calculated on the basis of measured K/(U+Th) ratio
[Jochum et al., 1983].

9 of 12
B01205 TEDESCO ET AL.: He AND C IN THE EASTERN AFRICAN RIFT
that given the observed magmatic compositions present at
Nyriagongo, the CO2/3He in the residual melt will increase
with continued degassing because CO2 is 5 times more
soluble than He in these strongly silica-undersaturated lavas
[Dixon et al., 1997]. There is some uncertainty in the CO2
solubility estimate because it is an extrapolation from
experimental measurements in moderately undersaturated
lavas; however, the magma will evolve toward higher
CO2/3He as observed in the summit fumarole collected over
4 years. Thus, the lowest CO2/3He most closely reflects the
magmatic condition after correction for solubility effects.
This interpretation is confirmed by the argon isotope ratio
which decreases from a value of 350 to the air ratio within
2 years, despite the high He/Ne ratio (700). As discussed
above, argon is much less soluble than helium (about a
factor of 4) in all silica-undersaturated lavas and will rapidly
degas from an evolving magmatic system [Lux, 1987]. The
40
Ar*/He ratio of 0.8 in the fumarole differs from the ‘‘bulk
earth’’ value of 0.55 (closed system evolution for 4.5 Ga)
because of the combined effects of solubility and fractional
degassing. A 40Ar*/He ratio of 0.8 reflects a magmatic ratio
of 0.2; if the Nyriagongo magma initially had a ‘‘bulk
earth’’ 40Ar*/He ratio of 0.55, then the fact that the
magmatic value differs from 0.55 would indicate that the
lava has partially degassed. A simple Rayleigh fractionation
calculation suggests that about 25% of the helium and about
5% of the CO2 have escaped. This calculation also suggests
that the original CO2/3He is about 3  1011 or very CO2
rich. Because of the great difference in noble gas and carbon
dioxide solubilities, these ratios change quickly and dra-
matically in degassing Si-undersaturated lavas. Thus, by
2005 and 2007, all of the 40Ar* has degassed leaving behind
only the admixed atmospheric argon.
7. Conclusions
[40] Carbon and He isotopic features of the gas dis-
charges at the Nyiragongo volcanic system and neighboring
areas depict a sharp distinction between zones dominated by
crustal- and mantle-related fluids, respectively. It is a perfect
‘‘didactic’’ case in which each area shows a characteristic
isotopic signature (of He and/or C) in function of the
specific source region (or a mixture of source regions)
feeding that fluid emission site. The summit crater and the
southern flank of the volcano up to the northern shoreline of
Lake Kivu discharge deep-seated fluids, where He and CO2
are dominated by a mantle component. The spatial distri-
bution of mantle and crustal fluids is intimately connected
to the rift tectonics controlling the mantle gas emissions.
The mantle-like R/Rair and d 13C-CO2 values do not agree
with the idea of a second plume related to the VVP.
However, we cannot exclude the presence at depth, within
or bordering the rift, of a Rambo-like 4He-rich crustal fluid,
which could (strongly) dilute the (lower) mantle 3He-rich
fluid. These results agree with other studies characterizing
the African Cenozoic volcanic provinces as upper mantle or
nonplume related, with the only exception of the Ethiopia-
Afar system [e.g., Pik et al., 2006], which is likely related to
the upwelling of a plume region [Ebinger and Sleep, 1998,
George et al., 1998; Nyblade et al., 2000; Furman, 2007].
[41] The high CO2/3He ratios measured in the most
primitive gases collected within the VVP at the fumaroles
10 of 12
B01205
of the summit crater result from increased CO2 solubility in
the foiditic magma that feed Nyiragongo volcano. The high
40
Ar*/4He ratios result from the differences of solubility in
the melt between He and Ar.
[42] The crater fumaroles and the mazuku gas emissions
have similar R/Rair values indicating a common mantle
origin. However, the d 13C-CO2 values seem to show that
the CO2 discharged at the mazukus is fractionated by
scrubbing, although minor addition of biogenic CO2 cannot
be ruled out. Thus, the uprising fluids feeding the mazukus
are exposed to a significant interaction with local ground-
water and meteoric water, which obviously does not occur
along the crater plumbing system. As already suggested by
previous investigation [Tedesco et al., 2007], this could also
imply that crater and mazuku fluids are not fed by the same
reservoir, but more likely by two totally independent
reservoirs, one located beneath the crater, the second several
kilometers away in the region between Nyiragongo and
Lake Kivu. As a consequence, volcanic activity at Nyir-
agongo volcanic system could involve eruptive episodes
from the central crater and/or fissures within the flanks of
the volcanic edifice or through peripheral cones. These
results indicate that these activities may also take place
anywhere else in the active ‘‘corridor’’ described by both
the R/Rair and d 13C-CO2 isotopes. This means that future
volcanic episodes could occur close or even within the
heavily populated city of Goma or at the bottom of Lake
Kivu without necessarily being accompanied by a signifi-
cant increase or variation of activity inside the main
Nyiragongo crater. This possible (and horrifying) scenario
has important implications for future studies and for assess-
ing volcanic hazards related to the activity of the entire
Nyiragongo (Virunga volcanic system).
[43] Acknowledgments. The authors wish to thank the United
Nations agency of OCHA and GVO personnel for their help and support
in the field. The International Red Cross is thanked for providing the boat
used to sample the dissolved gases from Lake Kivu and Kabuno Bay. This
project has been partly financed by UN-OCHA (O. Vaselli) and the GVO
(D. Tedesco). This work is dedicated to Jacques Durieux, our friend, who
made our lives better and richer. We miss him so much. Thanks to him, we
had our spectacular and unforgettable trips within the Nyiragongo crater.
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E. Cuoco and D. Tedesco, Environmental Sciences Department, Naples 2
University, Via Vivaldi 43, I-81100 Caserta, Italy. (dtedesco@unina.it)
T. Darrah and R. J. Poreda, Environmental and Earth Sciences
Department, Rochester University, Rochester, NY 14627, USA.
F. Tassi and O. Vaselli, Earth Sciences Department, University of
Florence, Via G. La Pira 4, I-50125 Florence, Italy.
M. M. Yalire, Goma Volcano Observatory, Avenue du Mt Goma, Goma,
Democratic Republic of Congo.