Ultrasonic Machining

Non-traditional machining processes

17-Nov-16
 History
• The roots of ultrasonic technology can be traced
back to research on the piezoelectric effect
conducted by Pierre Curie around 1880.

• He found that asymmetrical crystals such as quartz

and Rochelle salt (potassium sodium titrate)
generate an electric charge when mechanical
pressure is applied.

• Conversely, mechanical vibrations are obtained by

applying electrical oscillations to the same crystals.
 History
• One of the first applications for Ultrasonic was
SONAR (an acronym for sound navigation ranging). It
was employed on a large scale by the U.S. Navy
during World War II to detect enemy submarines.

• Frequency values of up to 1GHz (1 billion cycles per

second) have been used in the ultrasonic industry.

• Today's Ultrasonic applications include medical

imaging (scanning the unborn fetus) and testing for
cracks in airplane construction.
 Ultrasonic waves
• The Ultrasonic waves are sound waves of frequency
higher than 20 kHz.

• Ultrasonic waves can be generated using mechanical,

electromagnetic and thermal energy sources.

• They can be produced in gases (including air), liquids

and solids.
 USM
Balamuth first discovered USM in 1945 during ultrasonic
grinding of abrasive powders.
The industrial applications began in the 1950s when the new
machine tools appeared.
USM is characterized by the absence of any deleterious
effect on the metallic structure of the workpiece material.
 Principle of Ultrasonic Machining

1- This is the standard mechanism used in most of the universal Ultrasonic machines
 Principle of Ultrasonic Machining
• Material is removed by micro-chipping or erosion with abrasive
particles.

• In USM process, the tool, made of softer material than that of

the workpiece, is oscillated by the Booster and Sonotrode at a
frequency of about 20 kHz with an amplitude of about 25.4 um.

• The tool forces the abrasive grits, in the gap between the tool
and the workpiece, to impact normally and successively on the
work surface, thereby machining the work surface.
Ultrasonic Machining
 Principle of Ultrasonic Machining
• During one strike, the tool moves down from its most upper remote
position with a starting speed at zero, then it speeds up to finally
reach the maximum speed at the mean position.

• When the grit size is close to the mean position, the tool hits the grit
with its full speed.

• In the machining process, the tool, at some point, impacts on the

largest grits, which are forced into the tool and workpiece.

• As the tool moves further down, more grits with smaller sizes come
in contact with the tool, the force acting on each grit becomes less.

• Grits with size larger than the minimum gap will penetrate into the
tool and work surface to different extents according to their
diameters and the hardness of both surfaces.
 Mechanics of cutting in USM
• Material removal during USM due to:
– By abrasive particles due to ‘throwing’ Significant
– By abrasive particles due to ‘hammering’
– Cavitation under the tool
– Chemical corrosion due to slurry media Insignificant
USM Machine
 USM Machine
• Slurry delivery and return system
• Mechanism to provide a downward feed force
on the tool during machining
• The transducer, which generates the
ultrasonic vibration
• The horn or concentrator, which mechanically
amplifies the vibration to the required
amplitude of 15 – 50 μm and accommodates
the tool at its tip.
Abrasive Slurry

• The abrasive slurry contains fine abrasive grains. The

grains are usually boron carbide, aluminum oxide, or
silicon carbide ranging in grain size from 100 for
roughing to 1000 for finishing.

• It is used to microchip or erode the work piece

surface and it is also used to carry debris away from
the cutting area.
 Magnetostrictive transducers
• Magnetostrictive transducers use the inverse
magnetostrictive effect to convert magnetic energy into
ultrasonic energy.
• This is accomplished by applying a strong alternating
magnetic field to certain metals, alloys and ferrites.
 Piezoelectric Transducers
• Piezoelectric transducers employ the inverse piezoelectric effect
using natural or synthetic single crystals (such as quartz) or
ceramics (such as barium titanate) which have strong piezoelectric
behavior.
• Ceramics have the advantage over crystals in that they are easier
to shape by casting, pressing and extruding.
Different Horns used in USM
Tool
• Tool material should be tough and ductile. Low carbon steels
and stainless steels give good performance.
• Tools are usually 25 mm long ;
• Tool are properly designed to account for overcut. Tool size is
equal to the hole size minus twice the size of abrasives.
• Mass of tool should be minimum possible so that it does not
absorb the ultrasonic energy.
• Surface finish of the tool is important because it will affect
the surface finish of the workpiece.
• Silver brazing of the tool with the tool holder minimizes the
fatigue problems associated with screw attachment.
• Trepanning like tool should be used to reduce power
requirements during drilling of large diameter holes.
Process Parameters and their Effects
 Materials that can be USMed
• Works satisfactorily when the workpiece hardness is greater
than HRC 40.
• It works very well if the workpiece hardness is greater than
HRC 60.
• Hard materials like stainless steel, glass, ceramics, carbide,
quatz and semi-conductors are machined by this process.
• It has been efficiently applied to machine glass, ceramics,
precision minerals stones, tungsten.
• Brittle materials
 Applications
It is mainly used for
(1) drilling
(2) grinding,
(3) Profiling
(4) coining
(5) piercing of dies
(6) welding operations on all materials which can be
treated suitably by abrasives.
 Various work samples machined by USM

1- The first picture on the left is a plastic sample that has inner grooves that are machined using USM.
2- The Second picture (in the middle is a plastic sample that has complex details on the surface
3- The third picture is a coin with the grooving done by USM
 Advantages & Disadvantages of
USM
Advantages Disadvantages
Machining of any material regardless of condu ctivity Low material removal rate
Precision machining of brittle hard m aterials Tool wears fast
Does not produce e lectric, thermal or chemical defects at Machining area and depth are quite restricted
the surface
Can drill circular or non -circular holes in very hard
materials
Less stress because of its non -therma l nature
Electron and Laser
Beam Machining
 Features of Electron Beams Electron Beam Machining
•High resolution and long depth of field
•Extraordinary energy density (106 kW/cm2)

Thermal Type

Beam is used to heat the work

material upto the point where it is
selectively vaporized

In electron beam machining a powerful stream of electrons is directed at a part.

This bombardment with electrons causes the material to locally heat up and
vaporize. Electrons are accelerated with approximately 50,000 to 200,000 volts.
This produces velocities over 200,000,000 m/s or 50 to 80 % the speed of light.
This beam of fast moving electrons gets focused to 10 to 20 mm and a density of
6500 GW/mm2.
 Uses of E-Beam Machining
Drilling small holes
 The electron-beam is used to vaporize material from a piece. Hole
on the order of a few nanometers can be drilled.
Cutting
 The electron-beam basically drill a continuous series of hole. The
E-beam produces very crisp and accurate cuts. Additionally the E-
beam can be used to cut small slots.
Welding
 The electron-beam is used to join to pieces of metal by raising the
temperature of two pieces to the melting temperature.
Annealing
 The electron-beam is used to raise the temperature of a material
and relax any residual stresses.
 Electron Beam Machining

Workpiece placed in vacuum

chamber

High-voltage electron beam

directed toward workpiece

Energy of electron beam

melts/ vaporizes selected
region of workpiece

Electron beam moved by

deflection coils
 Electron Beam Machining
System
There are Three important elements of EBM system.
Electron Beam Gun
Power Supply
Vacuum system and machining chamber
Electron Beam Gun
Used to produce electron beam
EBM gun is operated in the pulsed mode
Super heated tungsten filament generates electron cloud
Electrons move at very high acceleration towards anode
The velocity of electron is 60 – 80 % of velocity of light
Magnetic lens is used to shape the electron beam into a converging
beam
 This beam is passed through a variable aperture to reduce the
diameter of the focused beam by removing the stray electrons.
Magnetic lens is used to pin point the location of beam.
Power Supply
Power supply voltage as high as 150 kV
Power 120 kW
Individual energy pulse 120 J/pulse
Power density is very high to melt and vaporise the workpiece
material
Vacuum Chamber
Vacuum is of the order of 10-4 - 10-5 torr
Vacuum does to allow rapid oxidation of filament
No loss of energy of electrons as result of collision with air
molecules
Mechanism of Material Removal in Electron Beam Machining
Recast layer formation

Reverse tapering
Auxiliary support
Recast layer
No burr formation
 Process parameters

Beam Pulse on- Lens Beam Deflecting

Current time Current Signals
100 µ A – 1 Pulse duration Determines Hole shape –
A – 50 µs to 10 working Position of focal
ms distance point below top
Governs and beam surface of
Energy/Pulse Long duration size workpiece
– Wider &
Higher Value deeper hole Shape other
– Higher than circular
MRR Affects HAZ beam
and recast movements are
layer programmed
(≤ 0.025 mm)
Characteristics
 For conductive as well as nonconductive materials (Ni, Cu, Al,
ceramics, leather, plastics, etc.).
 At entry side of beam Small sized bur
 Workpiece material properties do not affect performance
 Small diameter hole (0.1 to 1.4 mm)
 Aspect ratio 15:1
 No mechanical force Fragile, thin, low strength components
easily machined
 Off-axis holes easily made
 Residual thermal stresses due to high temperature gradient
 Very high investment cost
 Skilled operator
 Machined edge quality Determined by thermal
properties of W/P and pulse energy
 HAZ depends upon pulse energy and diameter of hole
 Advantages
 Drilling is possible at high rates (up to 4000 holes per second).
 No difficulty is encountered with acute angles.
 Drilling parameters can easily be changed during machining.
 No limitation is imposed by workpiece hardness, ductility, and
surface reflectivity.
 No mechanical distortion occurs to the workpiece since there is
no contact.
 The process is capable of achieving high accuracy and
repeatability of 0.1 mm for position of holes and 5 percent for the
hole diameter.
 The process produces the best surface finish compared to other
processes.
 The cost is relatively small compared to other processes used to
produce very small holes.
 Disadvantages
 High capital equipment cost
 Long production time due to the time needed to
generate a vacuum
 The presence of a thin recast layer
 Need for auxiliary backing material

Applications
 Aerospace, insulation, food processing, chemical, clothing
etc.,
 Turbine engine combustor dome
 Holes in filters & screens , Food Industry
 Cooling holes in turbine blades
 Holes in injector nozzles
Laser Processing
Principle
 Utilizes energy from coherent beams of light to
remove, melt, or thermally modify material.
 Laser perform broad range of tasks in variety of
industries.
 Cut, drill, weld, mark parts, heat treat surfaces and
selectively clad materials.
 Very high processing speed, low thermal effect on the
workpiece and suitable for automation.
 Elements of Typical Laser

(i) Laser medium consisting of an appropriate collection of atoms,

molecules or ions;

(ii) Pumping process to excite these atoms into higher quantum

mechanical energy levels;

(iii) Optical feed-back elements that allow a beam of radiation to either

pass a few times through the laser medium or bounce back and
forth repeatedly through the laser medium
Properties of Laser

 High monochromatic (small spread of wavelength);

 High degree of both spatial and temporal coherence
(strong correlation in phase);
 High brightness;
 The capability of very low (microwatts) to very high
(kilowatts) continuous power output for different types
of lasers;
 High peak power (terawatts) and a large amount of
energy (hundreds of joules) per pulse in lasers
operating in pulsed modes;
 The capability of being focused to a small diffraction-
limited spot size (of the order of the wavelength of the
light).
 Types of Lasers

 The types of lasers used widely in the industry and

applied research for materials processing are the
excimer laser, the argon-ion laser, the ruby laser, the
Nd:YAG laser, the iodine laser, the carbon-monoxide
(CO) laser, and the carbon-dioxide (CO2) laser.
Laser types
Physical processes occurring when a high-power laser beam
strikes an absorbing surface
Laser Beam machining
Parameters Affecting the Quality of Laser Drilled
Holes
Working Material
Assist gas
•Type Quality of Holes
•Type
•Surface reflectivity
•Pressure
•Thickness
•Nozzle
Design
Focusing lens
Environment
•Humidity
LBM •Focal length
•Focal
•Temperature Position

Laser Pulse
•Pulse energy
•Frequency
•Wavelength
•Beam divergence
•Duration
•Energy
 Geometry of Drilled Holes

a. The diameter of mid span, b. Thickness of recast layer, c. exit

diameter,
d. hole depth, e. inlet diameter, g. thickness of surface debris, φ –
inlet cone angle, α – taper angle
Process Characteristics
 Low fatigue strength
 Heat affected zone (2.5x10-3 Feed rate, gas
pressure, stand off distance and gas nozzle diameter.
 No mechanical forces
 Can not be applied to high heat conductivity and high
reflectivity materials such as Al and Cu.
 Quite inefficient system (< 1 %)
 Laser Beam Selection
Application

Drilling Small holes, 0.25 mm Ruby, Nd-Glass, ND-

Large holes, 1,52 mm YAG
Large holes, trepanned Ruby, Nd-Glass, ND-
Drilling and percussion YAG
ND-YAG, CO2
Ruby, Nd-YAG
Cutting Thick cutting CO2 + gas assistance
Thin slitting, metals Nd-YAG
Thin slitting, plastics CO2
Plastics CO2
Materials Metals Ruby, Nd-Glass, ND-
Organics and nonmetals YAG
Ceramics Pulsed CO2
Pulsed CO2 , ND-YAG
Laser Marking
• To make letters, numerals and symbols Metals and
nonmetals
• Pulsating laser system and computer controlled beam scanning
system
• Blind grooves of very small depth (0.005 – 0.25 mm)
• High quality marking A high power density and pulsating laser
lasting only for nano second is used.
• Accurate positioning of laser micro computers are used.
• Laser scan 30 characters/sec
Advantages
 Tool wear and breakage are not encountered.
 Holes can be located accurately by using an optical
laser system for alignment.
 Very small hole with large aspect ratio can be
produced.
 A wide variety of hard and difficult-to-machine
materials are machined.
 Machining is extremely rapid and setup times are
economical.
 Holes can be drilled at difficult entrance angles (10º to
the surface).
 The operating cost is low.
Limitations
 High equipment cost.
 Tapers are normally encountered in the direct drilling
of holes.
 A blind hole of precise depth is difficult to achieve with
a laser.
 The thickness of the material that can be laser drilled
is restricted to 50 mm.
 Adherent materials, which are found normally at the
exit holes, need to be reomoved.
MACHINING PROCESSES AND
METROLOGY

Dr. A.S.Sheytrabalan (Asso.Prof)

SMEC
 Module- 6

• Introduction to Metrology - Linear and angular

measurements – taper measurement, threads, surface finish,
inspection of straightness, flatness and alignment
Comparators - Gear testing

17-Nov-16 2
 Introduction to Metrology
• The branch of knowledge concerned with
measurements”
• “The science of measurements”
Industrial application
• During manufacture of a product or
component, measurements have to be
taken in various stages, during ( real-time),
after (post production) to ensure that the
manufactured product meets the required
standard.

17-Nov-16 3
 FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES IN METROLOGY
• Length

• Mass

• Time

• Electrical Current

• Temperature

• Light radiation

WHAT IS A “MEASUREMENT ?” “A procedure in which an

unknown quantity is compared to a known standard using an
accepted and consistent system of units
17-Nov-16 4
 BRANCHES IN METROLOGY

17-Nov-16 5
 TERMINOLOGY

17-Nov-16 6
 ACCURACY & PRECISION

17-Nov-16 7
 ACCURACY & PRECISION

17-Nov-16 8
 Introduction to Metrology

17-Nov-16 9
 Measurements
• Measurement systems are mainly used in industries for
quality control.

• Often widely using measurements are

– Linear Measurement

– Angular measurement
 Dimensions
• A very common measurement is that of dimensions, i.e.,
length, width, height of an object

• Dimensions of the measuring instruments are classified

as follows

– Low resolution devices (up to 0.25mm)

– Medium resolution devices (up to 0.0025mm)

– High resolution devices (less than microns)

 Low resolution devices
• Steel rule

• Steel rule with assistance of

– Calipers

– Dividers &

– Surface gauges

• Thickness gauges
 Medium & high resolution devices
• Micrometer • Gauge blocks
• Micrometer with
assistance of • Gauge block with assistance of
– Telescoping – Mechanical comparator
– Extendable ball gauges – Electronic comparator
• Vernier calipers
– Pneumatic comparator
• Dial indicators
• Microscope – Optical flats
 Linear Measuring Instruments
• Vernier caliper
• Micrometer
• Slip gauge or gauge blocks
• Optical flats
• Interferometer
• Comparators
 Vernier caliper
• Components of vernier calipers are
– Main scale
– Vernier scale
– Fixed jaw
– Movable jaw
• Types of vernier calipers
– Type A vernier caliper
– Type B vernier caliper
– Type C vernier caliper
Type A Vernier Caliper
Type B Vernier Caliper
Type C Vernier Caliper
 VERNIER CALIPER

• Vernier calipers are available in size of 150 mm, 225

mm, 900 mm and 1200 mm.

• The selection of the size depends on the

measurements to be taken.

• Vernier calipers are precision instruments, and

extreme care should be taken while handing them.
 Vernier caliper
VERIER CALIPER WITH 0.02MM LEAST COUNT IS GENERLY USED IM WORK SHOP.
In this Vernier caliper main scale division (49mm) are divided in to 50 equal part
in the Vernier scale.
i.e. 1 main scale division =1 mm
(MSD)
1. Vernier scale division =49\50 mm
(VSD)
Least count is 1mm – 49\50 =1\50 mm
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN 1.MSD and 1. VSD=0.02MM
 Example
Main scale reading =35mm
The vernier division coinciding with the main scale is the 20th division.
Value=20 multiplied by 0.02=0.40mm.
Total reading is 35mm+0.40= 35.40mm

35.40 mm
 Vernier Depth Gauge

A vernier depth is very commonly used

precision instrument for measuring depth of holes
recesses, slot and step.

Its construction and method of reading are

similar to those of a vernier caliper.
 VERNIER DEPTH GAUGE

 Base
 Graduated beam
 Clamping screw
 Fine adjustment
mechanism
 Vernier scale
 VERNIER HEIGHT GAUGE

The main parts of a vernier height

gauge and their function are given.
1.base
2. beam
3.vernier slide
4. fine setting device
5. vernier plate
6. locking screws
7. scriber
 PARTS OF MICROMETER

A micro meter is a precision instrument used to measure a job,

generally within an accuracy of 0.01mm.Micrometer used to take
the outside measurements are know as outside micrometer

Frame
Anvil and spindle
Screwed spindle
Graduated sleeve or barrel
Ratchet or friction stop
Spindle clamp
MACHINING PROCESSES AND
METROLOGY

Dr. A.S.Sheytrabalan (Asso.Prof)

SMEC
 Module- 6

• Introduction to Metrology - Linear and angular

measurements – taper measurement, threads, surface finish,
inspection of straightness, flatness and alignment
Comparators - Gear testing

17-Nov-16 2
 COMPARATORS
• What is a Comparator?

A device that compares the size of a part with that to which is set and does not

directly indicate the actual size.

Types of comparators

Classification can be made according to the type of magnification devices that

are employed

– Mechanical comparators

– Electrical comparators

– Optical comparators

– Pneumatic comparators
17-Nov-16 3
 MECHANICAL COMPARATORS

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 ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS

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 INDIRECT METHODS

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 INDIRECT METHODS-Sine Bar

17-Nov-16 7
 Why Surfaces are Important ?
• Aesthetic reasons

• Surfaces affect safety

• Friction and wear depend on surface characteristics

• Surfaces affect mechanical and physical properties

• Assembly of parts is affected by their surfaces

• Smooth surfaces make better electrical contacts

17-Nov-16 8
 Surfaces
• Surface irregularities
Surfaces of any manufactured component
(machined) consist of :
• Form errors (Geometric errors)

• Surface texture (Surface finish)

17-Nov-16 9
 Surface Texture
• The topography and geometric features of the surface

• It has roughness, waviness, and flaws

• It also possesses a pattern and/or direction resulting from the

mechanical process that produced it

17-Nov-16 10
 Elements of Surface Texture
1. Roughness -small, finely-spaced deviations from nominal surface
–Determined by material characteristics and processes that formed the
surface
2. Waviness -deviations of much larger spacing
–Waviness deviations occur due to work deflection, vibration, heat
treatment, and similar factors
–Roughness is superimposed on waviness
3.Lay -predominant direction or pattern of the surface texture
4.Flaws -irregularities that occur occasionally on the surface
–Includes cracks, scratches, inclusions, and similar defects in the surface
–Although some flaws relate to surface texture, they also affect surface
integrity

17-Nov-16 11
 Elements of Surface Texture

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 Surface Roughness

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 Surface Roughness

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 Surface Roughness

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 Surface Roughness

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 Surface Roughness Specification

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Methods of Measuring Surface Roughness

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 Direct Instrument Measurement

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 Stylus Probe Instrument

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 Stylus Probe Instrument

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 MarSurf XCR 20 Roughness and contour
measuring station

17-Nov-16 22
CO-ORDINATE MEASURING
MACHINE
 INTRODUCTION

 With the advent of numerically controlled machine tools, the

demand has grown for some means to support these equipment.
There has been growing need to have an apparatus that can do faster
first piece inspection and many times, 100% dimensional inspection.
 The Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM) plays a vital role in the
mechanization of the inspection process. Some of the CMMs can
even be used as layout machines before machining and for checking
feature locations after machining.
 Coordinate measuring machines are relatively recent developments
in measurement technology. Basically, they consist of a platform on
which the workpiece being measured is placed and moved linearly
or rotated. A probe attached to a head capable of lateral and vertical
movements records all measurements.
 A device for measuring the physical geometrical characteristics
of an object.
 May be manually or computer controlled.
 Measurements are defined by a probe attached to the third
moving axis of this machine. Probes may be mechanical, optical,
laser, or white light, amongst others.
 A machine which takes readings in six degrees of freedom and
displays these readings in mathematical form is known as a
CMM.
 CMM are electromechanical devices. They are frequently used in
the inspection process of manufacturing a product.
 The typical 3 "bridge" CMM is composed of three axes, an X,
Y and Z (axes are orthagonal to each other).
 The machine will read the input from the touch probe, as
directed by the operator or programmer. The machine then uses
the X,Y,Z coordinates of each of these points to determine size
and position with micrometre precision typically.
 The points are analyzed using regression algorithms for the
construction of features.

Additional features:
 Precision (better than 1um)
 Speed (1-30 thousand measurements per second)
 Simultaneous dimensional and surface inspection
 Smallest probes measuring 0.9mm in diameter
 Automation by teaching with joystick
 Portability
Parts
Coordinate-measuring machines include three main
components:
 The main structure which include three axes of motion

 Probing system
 Data collection and reduction system - typically includes a
machine controller, desktop computer and application software.
Various types of CMMs

Free Standing
CMM

Hand-held CMM

Portable CMM
Components
 The machine itself
◦ many types
◦ strong granite base
◦ precision engineering

 The measuring probe

◦ electronic touch
◦ all shapes and sizes
Components (contd.)

 The control or computing system

◦ operator controlled
◦ computer numerical control
◦ PC

 The measuring software

◦ automatic everything
◦ CAD
◦ 3-D graphics windows
Types of CMMs

 Articulated arm
◦ portable or tripod mounted
◦ probe can be placed in many different directions

 Bridge
◦ horizontally suspended
◦ x-axis carries the bridge
Types of CMM’s (cont)
 Cantilever
◦ supports probe from movable vertical support

 Gantry
◦ frame structure raised on side supports
◦ similar to bridge style
Column Type Cantilever Type

Bridge Type
Gantry Type
Mounting Options

 Benchtop

 Freestanding

 Handheld

 Portable
Specific body parts:
 Machine body:
 The gantry type superstructure has two
legs and is often called a bridge. This
moves freely along the granite table
with one leg following a guide rail
attached to one side of the granite table.
The opposite leg simply rests on the
granite table following the vertical surface contour.

 The bridge of the gantry contains a carriage which traverses

between the inside and outside legs and forms the other X or Y
horizontal axis. The third axis of movement (Z axis) is provided
by the addition of a vertical quill or spindle which moves up and
down through the center of the carriage. The touch probe forms
the sensing device on the end of the quill.
 Probing systems
 the probe had a spring-loaded steel ball (later ruby ball) stylus. As the probe
touched the surface of the component the stylus deflected and
simultaneously sent the X.Y,Z coordinate information to the computer.
 There are newer models that have probes that drag along the surface of the
part taking points at specified intervals, known as scanning probes. This
method of CMM inspection is
often more accurate than the conventional
touch-probe method and most times faster as
well.
 The next generation of scanning, known as
non-contact scanning includes high speed
laser
single point triangulation,laser line scanning
and white light scanning,is advancing very
quickly. This method uses either laser beams
or white light that are projected against the
surface of the part.
 Portable co-ordinate measuring
machine
 Portable CMMs are different from "traditional CMMs" in that they most
commonly take the form of an articulated
arm.

 These arms have six or seven rotary axes

with rotary encoders, instead of linear axes.

 Portable arms are lightweight (typically

less than 20 pounds) and can be carried and
used nearly anywhere. The inherent trade-offs of a
portable CMM are manual operation (always requires a human to use it),
and overall accuracy is somewhat to much less accurate than a bridge type
CMM.
Multi-Sensor Measuring Machines

 Traditional CMM technology using touch probes is

today often combined with other measurement
technology.

 This includes laser, video or

white light sensors to provide
what is known as multi-sensor
measurement
Various Probing Systems
 Inductive and Optical Transmission Probes
Inductive and optical transmission probes have
been developed for automatic tool changing. Power
is transmitted using inductive linking between
modules fitted to the machine structure and attached
to the probe. The hard-wired transmission probe
shown is primarily for tool setting and is mounted
in a fixed position on the machine structure.

The optical transmission probe shown in

figure allows probe rotation between gaging
moves, making it particularly useful for
datuming the probe. The wide-angle system
allows greater axial movement of the probe
and is suitable for the majority of installation
 Motorized Probe
With the motorized probe, 48 positions in the
horizontal axis, 15 in the vertical axis can be
programmed for a total of 720 distinct probe
orientations. Figure shows some typical applications
for motorized probe. It shows that with a range of light weight
extensions, the head can reach into deep holes and recesses.

Multiple Styluses Probe Heads

Wide ranges of styli have been developed
to suit many different gaging applications.
Some of the different styli available are
shown mounted on a multiple gaging head
in Figure. The selection of stylus is done
based on the application for
which the probe is to be used.
 ARCO-CAD
 CMM MANAGER
 RENISHAW MODUS
 METROLOGY XG
Common applications
 dimensional measurement
 profile measurement
 angularity or orientation
 depth mapping, digitizing or imaging
Tight Spaces Step Height
Libs

Volume Loss
Thickness Roughness
Advantages of CMM
 Flexibility
CMMs universal measuring machines and need not be dedicated to any
particular task.
 Reduced Setup Time

Part alignment and establishing appropriate reference points are very time
consuming with conventional surface plate inspection techniques.
Software allows the operator to define the orientation of the part on the
CMM, and all subsequent data are corrected for misalignment between the
parts-reference system and the machine coordinates.
 Single Setup

Most parts can be inspected in a single setup, thus eliminating the need to
reorient the parts for access to all features.
 Improved Accuracy

All measurements in a CMM are taken from a common geometrically fixed

measuring system, eliminating the introduction and the accumulation of
errors
 Reduced Operator Influence
The use of digital readouts eliminate the subjective interpretation of
readings common with dial or vernier type measuring devices.. This
adds upto the fact that less skilled operators can be easily instructed
to perform relatively complex inspection procedures.
DISADVANTAGES

 The Coordinate measuring machines are very costly.

 The CMMs are less portable. (EXCEPT PORTABLE CMMs)

 If the operating software cracks down it is difficult to restart the

entire system.

 It needs to construct some feature on its own as some parts of the

work piece are unreachable by the probe.
Buying CMM’s

Specifications
Operation
Mounting Options
Probe/Sensor type
Application features
Control General applications
X,Y,Z measurement
length
Resolution
Workpiece weight
 Profile Projector Definition

 An Profile Projector (often simply called a optical

comparator in context) is a device that applies the
principles of optics to the inspection of manufactured
parts.
 In a comparator, the magnified silhouette of a part is
projected upon the screen, and the dimensions and
geometry of the part are measured against prescribed
limits.
 Profile Projector Definition (cont.)

 The idea of using profile projector, which is created by

James Hartness and Russell W. Porter, came from mixing
optics and measurement in a device.
 The use of the term comparator for metrological
equipment, had existed in other forms prior to Hartness's
work; but they had remained in realms of pure science
(such as telescopy and microscopy) and highly
specialized applied science (such as comparing master
measuring standards).
 Profile Projector Applications

 Hartness's comparator, intended for the routine

inspection of machined parts, was a natural next step

in the era during which applied science became
widely integrated into industrial production.

 It’s also employed for inspecting and comparing very

small and complex parts, which play very significant

role in system’s structure, as an application of quality.
 Profile Projector Advantages

 Profile Projector can reveal imperfections such as

burrs, scratches, indentations or undesirable chamfers

which both micrometers or calipers can’t reveal.

 They’re able to measure in 2-D space. Unlike

micrometers and calipers, which measure one

dimension at a time, where comparators measure
length and width simultaneously.
 Profile Projector Advantages (cont.)

 Measuring Length and Width

 Profile Projector Advantages (cont.)

 "Points in Space" Measurement

 Profile Projector Advantages (cont.)

 Cost savings:

 Optical comparators save time. Ease-of-use factors and

ergonomic designs reduce the inspection time, retraining
costs and operator fatigue, all while increasing
throughput.
 Custom hard gages are subject to wear and need frequent
recertification, which takes them out of service and adds
an additional cost.
 Profile Projector Advantages (cont.)

 Dimensioning techniques designed to give more

leeway to parts in relation to their true functional

purpose, such as profile tolerancing and true-position
tolerancing with bonuses, reduce the reject rate of
good parts that might have passed had their tolerances
been assigned differently.
Profile Projector Components
Profile Projector Components (cont.)
Profile Projector Components (cont.)
Profile Projector Components (cont.)
 Types of measurements

 Measurement by comparison: Part images could be

compared to rulers and protractors placed across the

screen.

 Eventually, these measuring tools were incorporated into

precise glass overlay screens, commonly called "chart

gages." The most common chart gage is the tool room
chart. It can measure angles, radii, lengths and widths.
 Types of measurements (cont.)

 Standard chart gages, such as toolroom

charts or custom chart gages with
minimum and maximum tolerance
zones, can be used as go/no-go gages
for quick inspection.
 using chart gages this way on an
optical comparator is still one of the
fastest and most cost-effective methods
of measuring profile dimensions.
 Types of measurements (cont.)

 Such dedicated charts are

being replaced by
electronically generated
chart gages, which allows
the possibility of fast and
automatic measuring
process, thus more
economic performance.
Using Chart Gauges for Go/No-Go
Gauging
 Types of measurements (cont.)

 Measurement by screen rotation: rotating the screen to measure

angles.
 Vernier or digital scales are provided to the screen to measure
the angle measurements when rotating the screen ring.
 Types of measurements (cont.)

 Measurement by motion: worktables are incorporated into the

optical competitors to track parts' positions as they move.
 There are two main advantages

1. the need for a large screen and corresponding large system is

eliminated.
2. Comparators can operate in CNC mode that significantly
increases productivity and accuracy and reduces operator
subjectivity.
 Types of optical systems

 Simple optics: It incorporates a light source, a magnification

lens, a main reflecting mirror and a screen. Machines with this
design display images that are both upside-down and reversed.

 Corrected optics: This system uses two internal mirrors to flip

the image so that it's displayed right-side-up, but it's reversed on
the horizontal axis.

 Fully corrected system: which displays images that are both

erect and unreversed.
 Profile Projector stepwise procedures

1. Switch on the optical profile projector.

2. Place the clean work piece on the glass of the table.
3. Focus it properly by moving focusing wheel and moving
the work table to obtain correct magnified image of the
object.
4. Horizontal (x axis) measurement can be taken by right
hand side micrometer and the vertical measurement can
be taken from front side micrometer.
Profile Projector stepwise procedures
 Conclusion
 Optical comparators are used to measure manufactured
parts in a wide range of industries around the world every
day. Available with numerous features and options to suit
many applications, comparators can be used throughout a
factory, including incoming inspection areas, R&D labs,
machine shops, assembly and production floors, and final
inspection areas. Their versatility, range of capabilities and
return on investment make comparators indispensable and
integral to any quality plan.
MACHINING PROCESSES AND
METROLOGY

Dr. A.S.Sheytrabalan (Asso.Prof)

SMEC
 Module- 7
• Nano-measurements:
• Scanning Electron Microscope.
• Transmission Electron Microscopy
• Atomic Force Microscopy

17-Nov-16 2
 Nano-measurements
• Nanometrology is a subfield of metrology, concerned with the
science of measurement at the nanoscale level. Nanometrology
has a crucial role in order to produce nanomaterials and devices
with a high degree of accuracy and reliability in nano-manufacturing

• Nanometre or nm is equivalent to 10-9 m. In Nanotechnology

accurate control of dimensions of objects is important. Typical
dimensions of nanosystems vary from 10 nm to a few hundred nm
and while fabricating such systems measurement up to 0.1 nm is
required.

17-Nov-16 3
 Electron Microscopy
What can we study in a SEM?
• Topography and morphology
• Chemistry
• Crystallography
• Orientation of grains “Easy” sample
preparation!!
• In-situ experiments:
– Reactions with atmosphere
“Big” samples!
– Effects of temperature

MENA3100
 Topography and morphology
• High depth of focus

Image: Christian Kjølseth, UiO Image: Camilla Kongshaug, UiO

MENA3100
 Depth of focus
Optical microscopy vs SEM

Screw length: ~ 0.6 cm

Images: the A to Z of Materials

• A SEM typically has orders of magnitude better depth of

focus than a optical microscope making SEM suitable
for studying rough surfaces
• The higher magnification, the lower depth of focus
MENA3100
 How do we get an image?

Electrons in
Electrons out

or: x-rays out

• In brief: we shoot high-energy electrons and analyze the

outcoming electrons/x-rays

MENA3100
17-Nov-16 8
 The instrument in brief

MENA3100
 How do we get an image?
Electron gun
156
288 electrons!
electrons!

Detector

Image

MENA3100
 Signals from the sample
Incoming electrons
Secondary electrons
Auger electrons
Backscattered Cathodo-
electrons luminescence (light)

X-rays

Sample

MENA3100
 Secondary electrons (SE)
• Generated from the collision between
the incoming electrons and the loosely
bonded outer electrons
• Low energy electrons (~10-50 eV)
• Only SE generated close to surface
escape (topographic information is
obtained)
• Number of SE is greater than the
number of incoming electrons
• We differentiate between SE1 and SE2

MENA3100
 Backscattered electrons (BSE)
• A fraction of the incident electrons is
retarded by the electro-magnetic field of
the nucleus and if the scattering angle is
greater than 180 ° the electron can
escape from the surface

MENA3100
 Detectors

Backscattered electron
detector:
(Solid-State Detector)

Secondary electron detector:

(Everhart-Thornley)

Image: Anders W. B. Skilbred, UiO

MENA3100
17-Nov-16 16
 Transmission Electron Microscope
• Illumination - Source is a beam of
high velocity electrons accelerated
under vacuum, focused by condenser
lens (electromagnetic bending of
electron beam) onto specimen.
• Image formation - Loss and
scattering of electrons by individual
parts of the specimen. Emergent
electron beam is focused by objective
lens. Final image forms on a
fluorescent screen for viewing

17-Nov-16 17
 Specimen-Beam Interaction
Auger Incident
electron electron beam
Backscattered
electrons

X-ray
Secondary
electrons
Light

Specimen

Absorbed electrons

Elastically
Elastically scattered
scattered Unscattered electrons
electrons electrons
17-Nov-16 19
 Comparison

17-Nov-16 20