Materials Transactions, Vol. 47, No. 2 (2006) pp.

348 to 354
#2006 The Japan Institute of Metals

Characteristics of High Temperature Tensile Properties and Residual Stresses

in Weldments of High Strength Steels
Kyong-Ho Chang1 and Chin-Hyung Lee2
1
Dept. of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 156-756, Korea
2
Institute of Technology and Science, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 156-756, Korea

In this study, high temperature tensile properties of high strength steels, POSTEN60 and POSTEN80, whose tensile strengths were 600 and
800 MPa respectively, were investigated through the elevated temperature tensile test. Residual stress measurements were also carried out to
estimate the residual stress relaxation due to phase transformation (martensite transformation) in the process of cooling after welding. A finite
element (FE) model which was able to include the volumetric changes due to the austenite ! martensite phase transformation was developed
on the basis of the experimental results. The three-dimensional thermal elastic-plastic FE analyses using the FE model were conducted to
determine residual stresses in weldments of the high strength steels.
The results show that the extents of residual stress relaxation due to the austenite ! martensite phase transformation in the process of
cooling after welding are approximately 0.85
x =
Y0 and 0.75
x =
Y0 in the FZ and HAZ of POSTEN60 and POSTEN80, respectively. And
residual stresses of weld line direction in the base metal (BM) which is adjacent to HAZ, therefore, do not undergo martensitic transformation
increase (655 MPa < 870 MPa) with increasing tensile strength of the high strength steels (POSTEN60 < POSTEN80).

(Received August 19, 2005; Accepted December 2, 2005; Published February 15, 2006)
Keywords: high temperature tensile properties, high strength steels, martensite phase transformation, residual stress relaxation

1. Introduction Residual stress measurements were also carried out to

As the spans of bridges are getting longer and the stories of
buildings are getting higher, there are strong demands for
steels with high strength. The application of high strength
steels makes it possible to design not only light weight
structures, but also simple structures with simple weld
details. But the fabrication of structural member using high
strength steels always involves welding process. And due to
the localized heating during welding, complex thermal
stresses are inevitably generated. Residual stresses are
stresses that remain in a material as a result of liquid-to-
solid phase transformation associated with weld solidifica-
tion and the subsequent non-uniform cooling of the weld
altered by phase transformation (martensite transformation)
in the solid state. And it is well known that, especially in high
strength steel weldments, the solid-state transformation on
cooling of austenite to martensite could have a major
influence on the relaxation of residual stresses.1–4)
Residual stresses that develop in and around the welded
joint are detrimental to the integrity and the service behavior
of the welded part. High tensile residual stresses in the region
near the weld might promote brittle fracture, reduce the
fatigue life, and promote stress corrosion cracking during
service. So, it is very important to clarify the characteristics
and production mechanism of residual stress. The examina-
tion of residual stress is generally performed through
numerical method due to the limitation of experimental
investigation as structure becomes more complex. And the
mechanical property changes depending on temperatures are
required for the welding simulation by numerical method.
The present research was undertaken to determine residual
stresses in weldments of POSTEN60 and POSTEN80, newly
developed high strength steels for the use in bridges, pressure
vessels and pipelines and offshore construction, etc. High
temperature tensile properties of the high strength steels were
investigated through the elevated temperature tensile test.
investigate the residual stress relaxation due to phase
transformation (martensite transformation) in the process of
cooling after welding. A finite element (FE) model which
was able to include the volumetric changes due to the
austenite ! martensite phase transformation was developed
on the basis of the experimental results. The model also
included the mechanical property dependence on temper-
atures through the elevated temperature tensile test. Three-
dimensional thermal elastic-plastic FE analyses using the FE
model were conducted to determine residual stresses in
weldments of the high strength steels.
2. High Temperature Tensile Properties of the High
Strength Steels
The elevated temperature tensile tests were carried out to
determine the mechanical properties of the high strength
steels at elevated temperatures which were the required input
to the FE code.
2.1 Test specimens
The chemical compositions of POSTEN60 and POST-
EN80 are shown in Table 1. The carbon equivalents (Ceq )
of the high strength steels calculated using the formula:
Ceq ¼ C þ Si/24 þ Mn/6 þ Ni/40 þ Cr/5 þ Mo/4 þ V/14
are 0.40 and 0.46%, respectively. The dimensions of tensile
test specimens were determined in accordance with KS D
00265) as shown in Fig. 1. There were spirals at both ends of
each specimen to enable fixing to the loading shafts located at
the top and bottom ends of a furnace. These spirals were
designed so that they did not affect the specimen fracture that
occurred in the middle of the specimen.
2.2 Test procedure
An universal testing machine equipped with a specially
made electrical furnace heated by thermal rays was used for
 Characteristics of High Temperature Tensile Properties and Residual Stresses in Weldments of High Strength Steels 349

Table 1 Chemical compositions of materials used (mass%).

Materials C Si Mn P S SAL Cr Ni Cu V Mo B
POSTEN60 0.13 0.3 1.33 0.012 0.004 0.031 0.02 0.02 — 0.038 0.13 —
POSTEN80 0.07 0.3 0.91 0.015 0.004 — 0.45 0:9 þ 7 0.02 0.038 0.45 0.0016

unit:mm 800
over 3 10 0.01 over 3 (a) UTS
YS
600

Stress, σ / MPa
50 0.01

70 400

Fig. 1 Dimensions of tensile test specimens. 200

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
o
Temperature, T/ C

1000
(b) UTS
YS
800
Stress, σ / MPa

600

400

200

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
o
Temperature, T / C

Fig. 2 Test rig. Fig. 3 Yield stress and ultimate tensile strength at elevated temperatures:
(a) POSTEN60 steel, (b) POSTEN80 steel.

the elevated temperature tensile tests (see Fig. 2) and a

hydraulic actuator was used to apply the tension load to 300
specimens. A load cell was used to measure the applied POSTEN60
POSTEN80
tension load, whereas the elongation of the specimen was 250
Elastic Modulus, σ / GPa

measured in the middle of the specimen using a specially

200
modified extensometer.
Tests were carried out in the elevated temperature range of 150
20 to 800
C at intervals of 100
C with a strain rate of 1 mm/
100
min. And the temperature was controlled to within 2
C. In
this study, thermal expansion was allowed by maintaining 50
zero tension load during the heating process. Each specimen
0
was held for approximately 20 min at the testing temperature 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
before testing began to make sure the temperatures evenly o
Temperature, T / C
distributed throughout the specimens. After each test, data for
load versus displacement were converted into engineering Fig. 4 Elastic modulus at elevated temperatures.
stress versus strain curves which were analysed to determine
the yield stress (YS), ultimate tensile strength (UTS),
percentage elongation to fracture and elastic modulus. brittleness, after which they decrease for all conditions. On
the other hand, YS and UTS of POSTEN80 steel decrease
2.3 Deterioration of mechanical properties with increas- with increasing temperature up to 200
C and then increase at
ing temperature 300
C due to blue brittleness, after which they decrease
The variations of YS and UTS of high strength steels with slowly until 600
C. Elevated temperature also leads to the
testing temperature are shown in Fig. 3. It is seen that both deterioration of elastic modulus. Figure 4 shows the varia-
YS and UTS of POSTEN60 steel decrease at 100
C and then tions of elastic modulus at elevated temperatures. From this
increase with increasing temperature up to 300
C due to blue figure, it can be seen that elastic modulus of POSTEN60 steel
350 K.-H. Chang and C.-H. Lee

800
(a) End Tap
unit=mm
RT
600 100 oC 300 oC
Stress, σ / MPa

n
o o
400 C 500 C

io
o
200 C

ct
400 L=500

e
ir
ed
o

lin
600 C

d
el
W
200 o
700 C
o
800 C
0 60
2/3
0 1 2 3 4 5
Strain (%) 30
1/3
60
1000
(b)
B=500
o
100 C 300 C
o RT
800
o
Fig. 6 Joint configuration.
Stress, σ / MPa

500 C
600 o o
200 C 400 C
o
600 C
400 Table 2 Chemical compositions of weld metals (mass%).
o
700 C Weld metal C Si Mn P S
200
o
800 C SUPERCORED81 0.03 0.35 1.12 0.013 0.017
0 MGS-80 0.05 0.44 1.35 0.006 0.001
0 1 2 3 4 5
Strain (%)

Fig. 5 Stress–strain curves at elevated temperatures: (a) POSTEN60 steel,

(b) POSTEN80 steel.
Table 3 Mechanical properties of weld metals.

Yield stress Ultimate strength Elongation

Weld metal
(MPa) (MPa) (%)
decrease slowly with increasing temperature up to 400
C and SUPERCORED81 582 610 27
then decrease radically at higher temperatures. On the other MGS-80 770 850 20
hand, elastic modulus of POSTEN80 steel decrease radically
with increasing temperature up to 400
C and then decrease
slowly until 600
C, after which they decrease radically. The
stress–strain curves obtained at elevated temperatures are
also shown in Fig. 5. As like room temperature, POSTEN60 Table 4 Welding conditions and process parameters.
specimens show higher strain hardening rate than that of (a) POSTEN60
POSTEN80 specimens and strain hardening rate decrease Current Voltage Velocity
radically after 400
C for both specimens. PASS
(A) (V) (Time)
Remarks
0 00
1 250 30 2 40 Preheat
3. Experimental Investigation into Residual Stresses in
2 270 32 20 5100 temperature (
C)
Weldment of High Strength Steels
3 280 35 40 0700 90–95

Residual stress measurements together with metallograph- 4 280 35 30 2500

ic observations were performed to investigate the micro- Turn Over Interpass
structures and the extent of residual stress relaxation due to (Gausing) temperature (
C)
phase transformation in the FZ and HAZ of high strength 5 250 30 10 4200 Under 200
steels. Rolled plates of 30 mm thickness have been used as 6 250 30 20 2300
the base materials. Double ‘V’ butt joint configuration, as
shown in Fig. 6, has been prepared for joining the plates. The
(b) POSTEN80
joint for the specimen of POSTEN60 was welded in the flat
position with six passes using flux cored arc welding (FCA) PASS Current (A) Voltage (V) Velocity (Sec) Remarks
procedure with SUPERCORED81 electrode of 1.2 mm in 1 250 30 30 0500 Preheat
diameter and the joint for the specimen of POSTEN80 was 2 260 32 40 1400 temperature (
C)
welded with five passes using gas metal arc welding (GMA) 3 260 35 40 2000 105–110
procedure with MGS-80 electrode of 1.2 mm in diameter. Turn Over
The chemical compositions and mechanical properties of the (Gausing) Interpass
weld metals are presented in Tables 2 and 3, respectively.
4 250 30 20 0300 temperature (
C)
The welding conditions and process parameters used in the Under 200
5 250 30 20 3000
fabrication of the joints are given in Table 4.
 Characteristics of High Temperature Tensile Properties and Residual Stresses in Weldments of High Strength Steels 351

L = 500 (unit = mm)

(a) x

B = 500
50 µm

42 20
50
128
(b)
100 100
y

Fig. 8 Specimen with measurement locations.

50 µm
1.4
(a) FE w/o phase transf.
1.2
Experiment
1
Residual Stress, σ x/σY0

0.8
(c)
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
50 µm 0 50 100 150 200 250
Distance from the weld center line, l /mm

1.4
(b) FE w/o phase transf.
1.2
(d) Experiment
1
Residual Stress, σ x/σY0

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
50 µm
-0.2
-0.4
0 50 100 150 200 250
Fig. 7 Light optical microstructure of the FZ and HAZ specimens: Distance from the weld center line, l /mm
(a) POSTEN60 (FZ 500), (b) POSTEN60 (HAZ 500), (c) POSTEN80
(FZ 500), (d) POSTEN80 (HAZ 500). Fig. 9 Residual stress comparison with the case of no phase transformation
effect: (a) POSTEN60, (b) POSTEN80.

3.1 Microstructure
Microstructures were analyzed using a OLYMPUS PME3
optical microscope after welding. Samples used for micro-
structural analysis were cut from the FZ and HAZ. They were
finally polished with 1 mm diamond paste on a cloth polishing
wheel, and etched with Nital’s etchant for about 20–30 s.
Results are shown in Fig. 7. Figures 7(a) and (b), represent-
ing FZ and HAZ of POSTEN60, exhibit a dual phase
structure (ferrite-plus-martensite). On the other hand, weld-
ing of POSTEN80 produced a microstructure nearly wholly
martensitic in the FZ and HAZ [refer to Figs. 7(c) and (d)].
Therefore, it can be inferred that the FZ and HAZ heated over
the austenitic temperature during welding undergo marten-
sitic transformation and the extent of martensitic trans-
formation in POSTEN80 is larger than that of POSTEN60.
3.2 Residual stress measurements
Residual stress measurements were carried out on the two-
axis strain gauge with the saw cutting method. Figure 8
shows the measurement positions which are located on the
specimen. Gauges were intensively attached at the FZ and
HAZ in order to investigate the residual stress relaxation due
to phase transformation. Residual stresses were measured by
calculating the difference between initial strains and residual
strains after saw cutting. Figure 9 shows the residual stresses
352 K.-H. Chang and C.-H. Lee

12
(a)
10 Density
ρ ( g / mm3 ) x 10-3
8

ρ, c, λ, a
Specific heat
6 c (J / g ·°C ) x 10
-1

4 Heat conductivity
Heat transfer coeff.
λ ( J / mm ·s ·°C ) x 10 -2
2 2 -5
a ( J / mm ·s ·°C) x 10

0
Fig. 10 Analysis model. 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Temperature, T/°C

of weld line direction perpendicular to the weld line. A solid 1000

(b)
line represents the results of three-dimensional thermal σy : Yield Stress
σu(w2)
elastic-plastic FEM analysis for the experimental model σyu(w2) σyu : Upper Yield Stress
750 σu : Ultimate Tensile Strength
without taking into account the phase transformation effects. σu(w1)
σy(w2)

Stress, σ / MPa
The calculating conditions for the analysis are the same as σyu(w1)
those used in the fabrication of the experimental model. 500 σy(w1) σ(w1) : POSTEN60
σ(w2) : POSTEN80
Considerable differences between the experimental values
and the analysis results in the FZ and HAZ are shown. Lower 250
stresses in the FZ and HAZ can be explained by the volume
change of the materials that undergo the austenite !
0
martensite phase transformation. And the extents of residual 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
stress relaxation in POSTEN60 and POSTEN80 are approx- Temperature, T /°C
imately 0.85
x =
Y0 and 0.75
x =
Y0 , respectively.
Fig. 11 Temperature-dependent thermo-physical and mechanical proper-
ties of the materials: (a) Physical constants, (b) Mechanical properties.
4. Numerical Investigation into Residual Stresses in
Weldments of High Strength Steels

4.1 Model for analysis
Figure 10 shows the coordinate systems and sizes for the
analysis. Two 1000 mm  500  7 mm plates were assumed
to be welded by one pass with a heat input of 1200 (J/mm)
and welding velocity of 6 mm/s.
The residual stress distribution was computed using an
uncoupled thermo-mechanical FE formation6–11) to incorpo-
rate the phase transformation effects in the thermal and
mechanical analysis. The computation employed three-
dimensional, eight-noded, hexahedral elements in a full
model and used temperature-dependent thermo-physical and
mechanical properties of the BM. Figures 11(a) and (b) show
the temperature dependency of physical6–11) and mechanical
properties. The thermal analysis was based on the three-
dimensional non-steady heat conduction formulation with the
moving heat input. In thermal analysis, the heat conduction
into the surrounding solid materials as well as the convective
heat transfer in ambient temperature was considered. Ther-
mal and mechanical analyses were uncoupled and conducted
sequentially. First, the thermal analysis was carried out
calculating the transient temperature distributions during
welding. The mechanical part relied on the thermal analysis
results and calculated the stress–strain distribution on the
basis of the temperature history. The same FE mesh as in the
thermal analysis was used in the mechanical model, except
for the applied boundary conditions. The movement of
bottom plate was restrained to approximately model the
actual welding conditions.
4.2 Numerical reproduction of phase transformation
Phase transformation is occurred by the temperature
changes due to rapid cooling after welding and temperature
history is changed by the increase of specific heat due to the
volumetric expansion originated in the phase transformation.
And the volumetric expansion eventually becomes the cause
of residual stress relaxation. Thus, while it is very difficult to
reproduce the effect of phase transformation on residual
stress relaxation, it is necessary to develop a FE model which
is able to include the volumetric changes due to the
austenite ! martensite phase transformation for the accu-
rate prediction of the mechanical behavior in welds.
The correlation between temperature and metallography is
largely dependent on specific heat (SH) change and the
correlation between stress–strain field and metallography is
largely dependent on coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE)
change. Figure 12 shows the change of specific heat and
coefficient of thermal expansion in the region of phase
transformation with respect to temperatures. Residual stress
relaxation due to the austenite ! martensite phase trans-
formation in the process of cooling after welding was
simulated by obtaining the value of Cp and  which yield a
good agreement with the experimental results through
iterative analyses assuming specific heat and coefficient of
thermal expansion were varied linearly in the transformation
temperature range. The Cp and  used to numerically model
the volumetric expansion in the process of cooling after
welding were 5:0  101 (cal/g
C) and 1:5  105
respectively for the case of POSTEN60 and 8:0  101
(cal/g
C) and 2:5  105 respectively for the case of
POSTEN80.
The thermo-physical and mechanical properties of the
materials were used for the entire model during heating.
 Characteristics of High Temperature Tensile Properties and Residual Stresses in Weldments of High Strength Steels 353

10 1000
(a) (a) Transverse direction
800 Weld line direction
8 Thickness direction
Cp
600

Residual Stress, σ / MPa

Specific Heat, Cp

6 400
modified POSTEN60 POSTEN60

200
4 P-T start
P-T end
unit = c( cal / g · oC ) x 10-1 0
2
-200
original
0 -400
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 -500 -250 0 250 500
Temperature, T / oC y, l /mm

3.0E-05 1000
(b) (b) Transverse direction
800 Weld line direction
2.0E-05 Thickness direction
P-T end P-T start
600

Residual Stress, σ / MPa

Thermal Expansion

1.0E-05
Coefficient, α

original 400 POSTEN80 POSTEN80

0.0E+00
200
modified
-1.0E-05 α 0

-2.0E-05 -200

-400
-3.0E-05
-500 -250 0 250 500
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
y, l /mm
Temperature, T / oC

Fig. 13 FE results with phase transformation: (a) POSTEN60, (b) POST-

Fig. 12 Variation of material properties within a transformation region:
EN80.
(a) Specific heat, (b) Thermal expansion coefficient.

1000
(a) Transverse direction
Depending on the peak temperature that a particular point 800 Weld line direction
reached during the heating transient, the decision was made Thickness direction
600
whether the point underwent the martensitic transformation
Residual Stress, σ / MPa

or not. The temperature of the materials transformed into the 400 POSTEN60 POSTEN60
austenitic phase was determined from the equilibrium phase 200
diagram. The volume change was approximated by intro-
0
duction of a modified specific heat and coefficient of thermal
expansion. The analysis distinguished between the heating -200
and cooling cycle of each point and the modified CTE and SH
-400
curves were used (Fig. 12). Note that the part of the CTE and -500 -250 0 250 500
SH curves that represent the austenite ! matensite phase y, l /mm

transformation were only used on the cooling cycle for the

1000
points that satisfied the transformation criteria explained (b) Transverse direction
above. 800 Weld line direction
Thickness direction
The onset temperature of phase transformation is deter-
Residual Stress, σ / MPa

600
mined through the empirical formulae of Andrews:12) Ms =
400
539–423C–30.4Mn–12.1Cr–17.7Ni–7.5Mo. POSTEN80 POSTEN80

200
4.3 Results and discussion 0
Figure 13 shows the residual stress distribution perpen-
-200
dicular to the weld line at the center of the weldments (x ¼
500 mm). Figures 13(a) and (b) show the results of POST- -400
EN60 and POSTEN80 respectively. The residual stresses of -500 -250 0 250 500
y, l /mm
weld line direction in the FZ and HAZ which undergo
martensitic transformation are as high as 470 and 545 MPa Fig. 14 FE results without phase transformation: (a) POSTEN60, (b)
respectively, which correspond to each degree of residual POSTEN80.
stress relaxation due to the volume expansion by phase
transformation. Stresses in the BM adjacent to HAZ increase
significantly (655 and 870 MPa, respectively) and then transformation temperature, therefore, no phase transforma-
gradually decrease to compressive stress in the far BM. tion occurs there, which means no volume change to offset
The temperature in the BM adjacent to HAZ do not reach the high stresses. The results presented in Fig. 13 take into
354 K.-H. Chang and C.-H. Lee
account the phase transformation effects. Another analysis
was carried out without considering these effects, and the
results are shown in Fig. 14. The results show a significant
effect of phase transformation on residual stresses. This can
be explained by the microstructural changes (Fig. 7) that
occur during the austenite ! martensite phase transforma-
tion in the FZ and HAZ that affect the SH and CTE which
have a significant effect on the residual stress.
5. Conclusions
This study presented high temperature tensile properties
and a FE model for residual stress analysis in weldments of
high strength steels which accounts for the phase trans-
formation effects. Three-dimensional thermal elastic-plastic
FE analyses using the FE model were conducted to determine
residual stresses in weldments of high strength steels. The
following conclusions can be made.
(1) Both YS and UTS of POSTEN60 decrease at 100
C and
then increase with increasing temperature up to 300
C
due to blue brittleness, after which they decrease for all
conditions. On the other hand, YS and UTS of
POSTEN80 decrease with increasing temperature up
to 200
C and then increase at 300
C due to blue
brittleness, after which they decrease slowly until
600
C.
(2) Elastic modulus of POSTEN60 decrease slowly with
increasing temperature up to 400
C and then decrease
radically at higher temperatures. On the other hand,
elastic modulus of POSTEN80 decrease radically with
increasing temperature up to 400
C and then decrease
slowly until 600
C, after which they decrease radically.
(3) The extents of residual stress relaxation due to the
austenite ! martensite phase transformation in the
process of cooling after welding are approximately
0.85
x =
Y0 and 0.75
x =
Y0 in the FZ and HAZ of
POSTEN60 and POSTEN80, respectively.
(4) Residual stresses of weld line direction in the base
metal (BM) which is adjacent to HAZ, therefore, do
not undergo martensitic transformation increase (655
MPa < 870 MPa) with increasing tensile strength of
the high strength steels (POSTEN60 < POSTEN80).
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