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Electromagnetic Field Measurement Instruments: Survey

Article  in  Iranian Journal of Science and Technology - Transactions of Electrical Engineering · August 2018
DOI: 10.1007/s40998-018-0116-y

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REVIEW PAPER

Electromagnetic Field Measurement Instruments: Survey

Mohamed Shalaby1 • Mona Shokair1 • Nagy W. Messiha1

Received: 14 June 2017 / Accepted: 17 July 2018

 Shiraz University 2018

Abstract
The danger of human exposure to electromagnetic fields (EMFs) is a vital phenomenon to be studied. There are a lot of
competing radio and microwave communication systems that can cause non-negligible levels of EMFs. These EMFs can
also result from vital home appliances and medical equipment. The widespread use of low-frequency EMFs as well as the
high-frequency ones is a motivation for implementing a suitable measurement tool. This paper demonstrates the existing
EMF measurement tools in detail. These tools include scientific instruments, automated systems, EMF probes, handheld
instruments, and embedded wireless sensor networks. Each measurement tool will be explained in detail.

Keywords EMF measurements
Scientific instruments
Automated systems
EMF probes
Handheld instruments

Embedded WSNs

1 Introduction and Traditional Attempts
The non-ionizing radiation can result from microwave
signals since these signals are generated from energized
mobile electrical charges. In fact, the microwave signals
exist in wireless spectrum as there are various competing
wireless systems in this band. These systems include
satellites, radio broadcasting, and mobile cellular systems.
Moreover, existing radar systems can emit microwave
signals with a high power level. In addition, medical
equipment, in hospitals, can provide a non-negligible value
of EMFs. Furthermore, home appliance sets can cause
radiation hot spots in indoor zones. The home appliance
sets can include microwave ovens, dryers, and heaters.
There may be a sufficient level of EMFs at low frequen-
cies. These levels result from power lines, monitor screens,
sockets, and other electrical sets which can be operated by
& Mohamed Shalaby
mhmd_shlpy@yahoo.com
Mona Shokair
mona.sabry@el-eng.menofia.edu.eg
Nagy W. Messiha
Dr.nagy_wadie@hotmail.com
1
Faculty of Electronic Engineering, Menoufia University,
Menouf, Egypt
50/60 Hz alternating voltage. The EMFs, in general, can
have a hazardous effect on people’s health when they are
exposed to them. The non-ionizing radiation can increase
human body temperature. Moreover, DNA can be dam-
aged. In addition, human exposure to this radiation, for a
long time, may cause cancer. Furthermore, exposure to
high-power radiation at microwave bands can result in
body burning. The low-frequency EMFs have a bad effect
on a human brain and nervous system as they can interact
directly with the interior body communication signals [1].
There are safety limits regarding human exposure to EMFs.
These limits were outlined in order to avoid radiation
hazard on human health. These limits are concluded in
Table 1.
There are numerous recommendations which should be
followed in order to reduce the danger of EMF exposure on
human health [1]. These recommendations are:
• There should be great control on separating distance
between an EMF radiator and the victim.
• The wireless system design should be based on
directional antennas and pencil beam ones.
• The workmen who are exposed to EMFs for a long time
should wear specific EMF-absorbing clothes.
• The wireless system base stations can emit low power
levels by applying spread spectrum techniques.
The EMF levels should be monitored and continuously
measured. Therefore, a suitable EMF measurement tool

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 Iran J Sci Technol Trans Electr Eng

Table 1 Safety limits of human

Frequency range Power limits
exposure to EMFs [1]
Occupational exposure 10:400 MHz 1 mW/cm2
400:2000 MHz f/400 mW/cm2
2:300 GHz 5 mW/cm2
General public exposure 10:400 MHz 0.2 mW/cm2
400:2000 MHz f/2000 mW/cm2
2:300 GHz 1 mW/cm2
Exposure at DC frequencies 0 Hz B 2 Tesla B 3 Tesla/s
Exposure based on SAR 300 kHz:300 GHz 1:100 mW/cm2

should exist. When the EMF is measured in a certain area,
the hazard spots inside this area can be determined and then
they can be avoided. The radiation hazard in a site can be
checked based on a preliminary radiation hazard check or a
detailed radiation hazard in which a detailed frequency
response map is carried out. The checking category can be
selected according to the purpose of the test itself, the
spatial variations of the fields in tested site, the existing
EMF sources in the site, and the type of measurements
carried out [2]. In order to have an accurate EMF mea-
surement, IEEE standards supported specifications of the
measurement instruments, especially spectrum analyzers
and EMI receivers [3]. These specifications are summa-
rized in Tables 2 and 3.
The first attempt to measure EMFs in free space was
carried out in Bell telephone laboratory [4]. It was a
measurement instrument able to measure the EMFs which
are radiated from existing radio broadcast stations. This
instrument could measure the EMFs which are in the fre-
quency range from 600 to 1200 kHz. It was a detector with
a very sensitive meter. Firstly, received signals could be
tuned; then, they could be amplified through several sub-
sequent stages. After that, the tuned signal is locked by a
local oscillator which can be operated by applying the zero
beating theory. This instrument can be considered as a loop
antenna combined with a superheterodyne receiver. The
needle of indication meter, in the last stage, can present the
value of detected fields after locking. This instrument can
be followed by a crest value indicator circuit in order to
display crest levels of incident field [5]. The
superheterodyne receiver in this case can emit locally
generated signals with a crest value equal to that of the
unknown incident signal. The modified instrument with the
crest indicator can measure a sine wave radiation in addi-
tion to discontinuous radio interference fields of existing
radio broadcasting stations. Despite its simplicity, this
instrument was a sufficient EMF measurement tool for a
long time.
In order to get rid of noise, which can exist in the locally
generated oscillator signals, an intensity field meter was
developed in [6]. This meter could operate in the frequency
range from 1 to 11 GHz. It was able to detect and identify
EMFs of broadcast radio and television stations. The
elimination of locally generated carrier signals and resi-
lience on calibrated devices can increase the accuracy of
this meter. Moreover, this meter has a high dynamic
measurement range. In addition, it is a very sensitive meter
as there are several amplification stages which let the
minimum detectable signal reach a value of - 109 dBm.
The EMF measurements have a vital role in bio-elec-
tromagnetics. Therefore, the measurements of EMFs and
the transfer standards of EMFs measurement probes,
specified for bio-electromagnetics, were demonstrated in
[7]. The authors suggested novel analytical models and
approved them by carrying out measurements. They carried
out their models and measurements in the frequency range
from 10 kHz to 40 GHz. Finally, the authors tried to have
standard measurements which were carried out inside
anechoic champers, guided wave structure cells, and open
field sites. There is another application related to bio-

Table 2 Needed accuracy for spectrum analyzers and EMI receivers in EMF measurements [3]
Specifications (0.009:0.15) (0.15:30) MHz (30:300) MHz (300:1000) MHz (1:18) GHz
MHz

Frequency accuracy ± 2% ± 2% ± 2% ± 2% ± 2%
IF bandwidth (- 6 dB) 1, 10 kHz 1, 10 kHz 0.01, 0.1, 1 MHz 0.1, 1 MHz 0.1,1 MHz,
Displayed average noise level (in a 1 Hz bandwidth) - 135 dBm - 140 dBm - 150 dBm - 155 dBm - 150 dBm
Audio output Yes Yes Yes Yes No

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Iran J Sci Technol Trans Electr Eng
Table 3 Normative requirements of test instruments in a frequency range from 18 to 40 GHz [3]
Specifications 18–26 GHz
Input impedance 50 X
Input VSWR 3:1
Frequency accuracy ± 2%
IF bandwidth (- 6 dB) 100 kHz, 1 MHz
Displayed average noise level (in a 1 Hz - 145 dBm
bandwidth)
Amplitude accuracy (CW signal) ± 2 dB
Spurious-free dynamic range 40 dBc
Peak detection Per CISPR 16-1-1 clause 5 for frequency range
1–18 GHz
Average detection Per CISPR 16-1-1 clause 6 for frequency range
1–18 GHz
electromagnetics. This application is concerned with the
development of a high-sensitivity electric field probe which
is able to measure the specific absorption rate (SAR) in a
human phantom model [8]. This probe consists of a small
dipole connected to a zero-bias Schottky diode (HSCH
3486) which can be considered as a sensor and a rectifier
for low-level fields. The detected signal can be amplified
using an op-amp (CA3078). Then, the rectified direct
current (DC) output signal can control a VCO circuit
(CD4007AB). The output of the existing VCO circuit can
manage an infrared LED whose output can be transmitted
over an optical fiber to a remote digital readout circuit. The
designed instrument has a low power drain and a high noise
immunity due to the existence of an optical network.
Triple-axis EMF probe was implemented in order to
provide easy, accurate, and real-time measurements till
3 kHz, especially for low-level signals, such as power line
fields, with accuracy level till 0.5% [9]. There are three
orthogonal branches, each of which consists of turns of
coils followed by an amplifier. This amplifier can provide a
flat frequency response for incoming low-level fields.
Then, an analog computational circuit can evaluate total
vector value of the magnetic fields which are detected by
each branch. The output of computational circuit can be
filtered in order to get rid of the magnetic fields which are
in frequencies below 10 Hz. These fields can be generated
from a nominal coil movement due to the earth magnetic
fields; therefore, they can be considered as measurement
noise. The filtering process can also be carried out to get rid
of harmonic fields as they also can be considered as mea-
surement noise. In fact, the implementation of three
detection coils can eliminate the errors resulting from a
single-coil probe, especially in determining the best posi-
tion, and then the time of measurements is greatly reduced.
26–40 GHz
50 X
3:1
± 2%
100 kHz, 1 MHz
- 140 dBm
± 2 dB
40 dBc
Per CISPR 16-1-1 clause 5 for frequency range
1–18 GHz
Per CISPR 16-1-1 clause 6 for frequency range
1–18 GHz
This instrument can provide EMF measurements every 3 s.
Moreover, the existent recorder can capture long-term
measurements. A meter was used to display the measured
fields in the form of wideband average value, wideband
RMS value, 60 Hz average value.
The EMF measurements have a vital role in harsh
oceanic environment. The velocity of oceanic waves could
be monitored by utilizing an EMF meter after the wave
motion had been converted to a variation in locally gen-
erated magnetic fields. In [10], multi-sensor array was
implemented, based on a novel EMF meter, in order to
provide measurements for pressure, temperature, tilt, con-
ductivity, and light beam attenuation in an oceanic envi-
ronment. However, measurement core is the oceanic
wave’s velocity based on the electromagnetic theory. There
were locally generated magnetic fields which were around
a tube. When oceanic waves go through this tube, the
motion of these waves can cause the existing magnetic
fields to vary. This variation can result in an induced low-
level voltage. By using signal conditioning, this voltage
can be filtered and amplified in order to be applicable to a
readout circuit. The EMF theory can be extended to mea-
surements in shallow waters and continental shelves [11].
The resulted electric field can be measured using three-
meter salt bridge with high-quality silver–silver chloride
electrodes which are connected to a high-impedance
amplifier. The instrument sensitivity can reach a value of
0.05 microvolt per meter. It can be considered as the first
embedded system specified in metrology field, especially
EMF measurements, as it was based on a microcontroller
device. The magnetic field can be evaluated by a special
sensor magnet suspended from tungsten fiber and located in
a set of magnetic coils which have null optical detection.
123

The suggested instrument can provide several measure-
ments such as temperature and pressure.
The magnetic fields, especially in the frequency range
from 100 kHz to 8 MHz, can be measured by using an
omnidirectional magnetic field sensor [12]. This sensor can
measure near magnetic fields. There are two orthogonal
loop antennas which are 90 hybrid. Then, an amplifier
with a flat frequency response could be used in each loop
for conditioning measured signals. After that, a field
measurement instrument exists. This probe can detect
surrounding magnetic fields with keeping frequency
information. On the contrary, the electric fields can be
measured by a novel meter which can be used as a sec-
ondary transfer standard [13]. In other words, it was
qualified to be calibrated with a standard response; then, it
can transfer this accuracy to the measurements which were
carried out by it. The construction of this meter was as
follows: circular disk capacitor, zero-bias Schottky diode,
and low-pass filters. This meter could be calibrated inside a
TEM cell, by using computer-based setups, in order to have
good measurement accuracy. During a calibration process,
standard and calibrated attenuators, power meters, and
radio frequency generators are used. This probe can
transfer the accuracy of national standard sets to several
existing radio frequency probes as it is a secondary transfer
standard.
Aerial double-wire line (ADWL) fields attracted great
attention in measurements. Therefore, a measurement
tool, regarding these fields, was developed in [14]. The
authors carried out mathematical analyses of the emitted
magnetic fields of ADWL mounted on a conductive half-
space. These analyses can manage the choice of a mea-
surement instrument. It could be concluded that the
inductive sensors were the most appropriate sensors in
these measurements. They developed a measurement
instrument which consists of a single-turn loop followed
by a low-noise amplifier. They also suggested another
measurement instrument which depended on rectangular
frame coils.
Up till now, the EMF measurement tools can follow
one of the categories which are shown in Fig. 1. The
EMF measurements can be carried out by using scientific
instruments, automated systems, embedded wireless sen-
sor networks (WSNs), EMF probes, and handheld
instruments. These tools will be explained in detail in the
following sections throughout this paper. For more clar-
ification, this work aims to provide a global survey on
EMF measurement ways. In order to provide accurate
and traceable EMF measurements with national stan-
dards, the EMF measurement tools should be calibrated.
This calibration can be carried out by applying specific
procedures which will be left as a future work of this
topic.
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Iran J Sci Technol Trans Electr Eng
Fig. 1 Existing EMF measurement tools
There are traditional attempts which are concerned with
EMF measurements. These attempts were explained in
previous paragraphs. They were ancient trials of EMF
measurements. In fact, these trials were sufficient tools of
EMF measurement in the past. Recently, these measure-
ments can be carried out by using complex and accurate
systems. Even the handheld instruments can provide an
acceptable level of measurement accuracy besides their
simplicity and portability. The rest of this paper will be
concerned with the modern EMF measurement systems.
The paper is arranged as follows: Sect. 2 explains the
scientific instruments which are qualified for EMF mea-
surements. In Sect. 3, the EMF measurements, by using
automated systems, are demonstrated in detail. On the
other side, Sect. 4 handles a different EMF measurement
tool based on embedded WSNs. The existing EMF mea-
surement probes and handheld instruments are clarified in
detail in Sects. 5 and 6, respectively. Finally, conclusions
are given in Sect. 7.
2 Scientific Instruments
Scientific instruments, in this paper, refer to the complex sets
which exist in standard calibration laboratories. These sets
are very complex and expensive, and they have a large size.
On the other hand, they can provide very accurate mea-
surements. They can exist only in standard laboratories and
the scientific ones because of their high cost. Therefore, they
are called scientific instruments in this paper. These instru-
ments can be equipped with an antenna to provide EMF
measurements. Figure 2 displays the EMF measurement
Fig. 2 Block diagram of an EMF measurement process using a
scientific instrument
Iran J Sci Technol Trans Electr Eng
procedure using a scientific instrument. Firstly, incident
EMF field can be detected by an antenna which can select a
band of interest. Then, a scientific instrument can directly
display the measured EMF quantity. This type of measure-
ment is called direct measurement. The scientific sets may be
oscilloscopes, spectrum analyzers, EMI receivers, power
meters, and standard EMF probe. These sets will be
explained in detail in the following subsections. Moreover,
Table 4 concludes a comparison among these sets.
2.1 Oscilloscopes
Oscilloscopes are measurement sets able to measure sig-
nals in time domain in such a way that the displayed
measured values are time-varying incident signals. They
can plot incident signals in two axes which are level and
time. However, oscilloscopes can be tuned by the time per
division button, in order to select some of the incident
signals based on specific timing information. In other
words, they can provide frequency measurements in an
indirect manner. They can show the instantaneous varia-
tions of specific selected incident signals [15–30].
2.2 Spectrum Analyzers
Unlike oscilloscopes, spectrum analyzers can measure the
incident signals in frequency domain in a direct manner.
Really, spectrum analyzers are very expensive and com-
plex since their measurements are not limited to EMF
measurements but they are extended to include the mea-
surements of frequency, power levels, frequency harmon-
ics, depth of modulation (both AM and FM), and much
more. In fact, they are very complex instruments. On the
other side, they are very sensitive and selective ones. They
can provide measurements of signals in the frequency
range from 9 kHz to 30 GHz with power levels from - 70
to 30 dBm. Moreover, they can provide time-domain
power measurements for incident signals [31–43].
2.3 EMI Receivers
Electromagnetic interference, EMI, receivers are mea-
surement instruments qualified to measure low-level
Table 4 Comparisons among the scientific instruments which can be used in detection of EMFs
Oscilloscopes Spectrum analyzers
Sensitivity Low High
Selectivity Existent Existent
Accuracy Low High
EMF measurement Needs antenna Needs antenna
Measurement Domain Time domain Frequency domain
signals in frequency domain with a very good selectivity.
They are sensitive instruments as they can measure inci-
dent signals with power levels till - 110 to 30 dBm in the
frequency range from 0 Hz to 44 GHz. They have a
superior performance comparable with spectrum analyzers,
especially in the detection of very low-level signals.
Moreover, they are qualified to present the measured sig-
nals in many standard units. These units include dBm,
dBW, dBlV, dBmv, dBmA, dBlA, and much more
[44–56].
2.4 Power Meters
In contrast to spectrum analyzers and EMI receivers, power
meters can measure the incident signals in time-domain
form with very high accuracy, especially for the signals
which have moderate power levels. They can carry out the
measurements in the frequency range from 0 Hz to
110 GHz with power levels from - 40 to 20 dBm. They
can provide accurate wideband signal measurements as
they cannot provide any selectivity at all. Moreover, they
have a low dynamic range of measurement. On the other
side, power meters have an easy operation combined with
high accuracy [57–64].
2.5 Standard EMF Probe
Standard EMF probe can measure incident EMFs directly.
This probe was specifically fabricated in order to carry out
measurements of the EMFs which are radiated from cel-
lular system base stations. This probe can present the
measured values on specific software which is operated on
a laptop. The probe can detect EMFs directly in dBm/cm2
[65].
3 Automated Systems
Automated systems can be defined as the measurement
systems which are fully controlled by a computer. The
necessity for these systems in EMF measurements is the
inherent accuracy which comes from dependency on sci-
entific instruments which are very accurate by nature.
EMI receivers Power meters Standard probe
Very high Low Low
Existent Not existent Not existent
High Very high High
Needs antenna Needs Antenna Direct
Frequency domain Time domain Time domain
123

Moreover, the automated operation, which is fully con-
trolled by a computer, can prevent human errors during a
measurement operation. The automated systems can pro-
vide an easy operation. For more clarification, they can be
operated by anyone, in such a way that their operation does
not require an engineer. These systems can provide accu-
rate measurements while saving time and effort. The
automated system, in general, should include computer,
scientific measurement instrument, and software as shown
in Fig. 3. There are antenna arrays which can detect inci-
dent wideband EMFs. These arrays can be followed by an
antenna switcher whose function is the selection of a fre-
quency band of interest in a measurement process. The
selected EMF of interest can be measured by using a sci-
entific instrument. There is a computer whose function is to
provide a global control on the measurement process. This
computer can be connected to the rest of sets, in the
automated system, by using suitable adaptors. In addition,
the applied software, on computer, can be a user-friendly
one, in such a way that it can ease a measurement process
for anyone. By using an automated EMF measurement
system, the existing EMF levels can be monitored fully
24 h a day. Moreover, the measured EMF values can be
saved in files on computer. In addition, these values can be
called at any time in order to be printed or plotted. Fur-
thermore, they can be used in a decision-making criterion.
The operating software can play a vital role in automated
systems. It is responsible for setting up measurement
information and starting up a measurement process.
Moreover, it is the interface between operator commands
and the instruments which are in automated system. Also, it
can recall the saved measured data at any time.
The first automated system, specified for EMF mea-
surements, was proposed in [66]. The authors proposed an
EMF measurement system, which can extend from 9 kHz
to 3 GHz, in an urban environment. The hardware of this
system includes a spectrum analyzer (U3641), an antenna
switcher (BIRMM), and four antennas which can form an
array. These antennas are an EMCO model 3115 double-
ridged guide antenna, a biconical antenna, and a log-
Fig. 3 General components of
an EMF automated
measurement system
123
Iran J Sci Technol Trans Electr Eng
periodic one. They can be switched on automatically when
an operator adjusts the software at the start of a measure-
ment operation. The different instruments in this system are
connected to a computer through GPIB interfaces. More-
over, this system has a software application which is very
easy to deal with, as it was developed by using the Visual
Basic 6 programming language. In addition, this applica-
tion can process the measured data in databases efficiently.
The measurement procedure starts when an operator
adjusts frequency of measurements, sweep, and bands of
interest. Then, the operator can request the system to
measure by clicking on initialization commands. These
commands are transferred from the computer to adaptors
and then to the instruments which exist in this system. The
antennas can adapt themselves to detect required fields of
interest by listening to the instructions which come from
computer. The spectrum analyzer can measure EMFs of
interest. Then, the measured EMF values are presented on
computer where they can be processed and saved in data-
bases. These values may be called at any time, printed,
plotted, and further processed.
The EMF biological effect is an interest of automated
measurement systems. Reference [67] focused on the
impact of human or animal exposure to EMFs which is
called bio-electromagnetics. The bio-electromagnetic fields
were mathematically analyzed; then, an automated mea-
surement system was implemented in order to monitor the
bio-electromagnetic effects. The measurements were car-
ried out inside an isolated chamber. Mice are used in this
test as an example. These mice can be exposed to EMF;
then changes in them can be monitored. By applying this
way, the biological effect of EMFs can be studied. In order
to pick up EMFs around existing mice, a standard horn
antenna is used. This horn antenna can detect EMFs in two
orthogonally polarized components. Moreover, it can be
rotated easily by using a positioning controller. At the start
of the test, horn antenna is positioned in a certain plane,
and then it is allowed to measure EMFs in several angles
(several angles from 360). After that, the antenna is
rotated in order to measure a plane which is orthogonal to
Iran J Sci Technol Trans Electr Eng
the first one. Then, it is allowed to measure EMFs in
several angles as before. A spectrum analyzer can be used
in order to display measured value of equivalent isotropic
radiated power, EIRP, of incident EMFs around mice. The
displayed EIRP value, on a spectrum analyzer, is a sum-
mation of two orthogonally incident EMF components. The
purpose of computer, in this system, is holding and saving
measured data in specific files. These files can be called at
any time in order to plot measured data or print it. The
applied software can plot measured data in three-dimen-
sional graphical display.
The EMF measurements inside isolated chambers take a
long time. Moreover, these measurements cannot keep
some characteristics of measured signals. In other words,
they can give no information about phase, statistical
behavior, near and far fields, and total radiation pattern of
the measured EMFs. In addition, measurements, in an open
site, cannot differentiate among signals’ sources. In order
to overcome these limitations, the autocorrelation and the
cross-correlation can be used in determination of specific
source signals. Therefore, a radiation and a conductive
EMFs emission can be monitored in the frequency range
from 9 kHz to 18 GHz, according to a specific source.
Near-field scanning automated system was implemented in
order to detect a specific source signal. Thanks to its
specific dyadic autocorrelation and dyadic cross-correla-
tion, the stochastic electric fields, based on an eigenvalue,
can be detected [68]. The system can help in far-field
transformation. This automated system has broadband
antenna, sampler, analog-to-digital converter, fast Fourier
transform, Gaussian window function, digital signal pro-
cessor based on FPGA circuit, and quasi-peak detector.
By applying the previous concept in EMF detection,
which is dyadic autocorrelation and dyadic cross-correla-
tion, (The authors of [68]) extended their work in order to
implement a measurement system able to measure EMFs in
the frequency range from 10 Hz to 40 GHz. Really, the
measurements are extended from 26 to 40 GHz, compa-
rable with previous system [69]. This extension resulted
from using a recent ultra-broadband multistage down
converter, an ultra-fast floating point analog-to-digital
converter, low-noise high-frequency amplifiers, and a real-
time processor which is based on field-programmable gate
array (FPGA). Moreover, this system can detect very low
frequencies besides the high ones with low scan time
thanks to using high-speed processors. This system has a
high sensitivity because of the inherent low noise in
receiver’s components. It can measure both conductive
emission and radiation one. There are a broadband antenna,
ultra-high sampler, multistage broadband down converter,
FPGA digital signal processor, spectrogram FFT estimator,
and a peak detector followed by a display circuit. The
inherent low processing time comes from parallel
processing, especially in signal detection and amplification.
In addition, the used devices have low inherent generated
noise besides their low conversion loss and the good
isolation.
The mobile cellular systems, which are widely spread in
life, can cause high levels of EMFs in radio spectrum.
Long-term evolution (LTE) can be considered as the start
of fourth-generation mobile systems. An automated mea-
surement system, specified for measurements of the EMFs,
which are radiated from a LTE base station, centered at
1800 MHz and 2600 MHz, was implemented in [70]. This
system could carry out both indoor and outdoor radiation
measurements in order to satisfy the radiation limits which
are determined by ICNIRP non-ionizing radiation in an
urban area. It was able to measure radiated EMFs with a
frequency resolution till 180 kHz which is the bandwidth
of a LTE resource block. Moreover, it could measure
EMFs at a minimum length of one OFDM symbol which is
71.4 ls. In this system, the EMF sensor is a hyper-log
60,100 periodic antenna (Aaronia 680 MHz to 10 GHz). A
spectrum analyzer (Agilent type E4407B) can operate from
9 kHz to 26.5 GHz. It was operated in zero span with max
hold mode. In fact, the zero span mode of operation can
allow spectrum analyzers to measure in time domain and
then it allows them to capture instantaneous changes in
incident (detected) fields. Moreover, the max hold mode
can allow spectrum analyzers to track maximum values of
incident fields. For more clarification, the zero span with
max hold mode allows a spectrum analyzer to pick up the
maximum values of incident EMFs at any instant.
The step-by-step measurement by allowing a sensor to
rotate around a DUT is very time-consuming. The time of
measurements can be reduced by deployment of several
sensors connected in a ring or an arc [71]. These sensors
can rotate around a device under test (DUT) in order to
monitor and detect the incident EMF levels. These sensors
are able to convert detected EMFs to a corresponding
analog voltage value. By amplifying this voltage level, it
can control brightness levels of a LED screen to form an
RGB map. Each sensor consists of: radio frequency
antenna, log amplifier, low-noise amplifier, filter, detector,
and VCO circuit. In this system, there is a three-dimen-
sional graphical display whose function is the indication of
detected EMF levels in the form of color variation on a
screen. The variation in colors can indicate low-level EMFs
and the high-level ones as each color can represent a cer-
tain EMF level. For more clarification, by looking at the
existing graphical display monitor, information about
detected EMF levels can be easily obtained. The deployed
instrument can allow near-field to far-field transformation.
The optical screen can be covered with a diffusion material
in order to keep human eyes’ healthy. This instrument can
measure EMFs in few MHz to several GHz.
123

4 Embedded Wireless Sensor Networks
(WSNs)
The EMFs can be detected by a new technology called
embedded WSNs. The WSN, in general, is a collection of
several sensing elements which are qualified to communi-
cate with each other and with a remote controller. When
the design of a WSN depends on a microcontroller, this
WSN becomes an embedded one. The embedded WSN has
a great flexibility and a low production cost. The employed
sensors may be qualified to measure EMFs only, or they
may be qualified to measure the existing EMFs combined
with other environmental conditions such as temperature
and humidity as shown in Fig. 4. The physical quantity is
converted to a corresponding analog voltage which is
applied to a microcontroller in order to be qualified to have
a readable value on a monitor or a LCD screen. There are
existing embedded technologies which rival the micro-
controller in performance. These technologies include
digital signal processors (DSPs), application-specific inte-
grated circuits (ASICs), and field-programmable gate
arrays (FPGAs). However, microcontrollers can provide a
general-purpose design. Moreover, they are more flexible
than other embedded technologies. Therefore, the embed-
ded WSN design is based on microcontrollers. In an
embedded WSN, there is a transceiver whose function is
transmission of measured data to the other sensors inside
the network or to an outer interface. The WSN may be
employed to cover a wide area, in such a way that the
measurement data may have no meaning when they are
transmitted without positioning information. In this case, a
GPS module can be used, at each sensor in an embedded
WSN, to provide positioning information. The measured
data, combined with positioning information, can be
transmitted over long distances to a remote controller
(personal computer) where they can be further processed
and analyzed [72–74].
In this section, the embedded WSNs which can measure
EMFs are explained in detail. The first embedded WSN,
specified for monitoring EMFs, was demonstrated in [75].
This embedded WSN can provide real-time measurements
in order to keep a radiation level below the hazardous
values in an area. There are cheap and low power-con-
suming sensors in this network. The employed sensor
consists of three orthogonal dipole antennas. Each of them
is followed by a diode detector. The dipole length can be
chosen in order to select a certain frequency band. The
measured electric fields can be stored; then, they can be
transferred, through multi-hop communication links, to a
remote place where it can be further processed and
analyzed.
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Iran J Sci Technol Trans Electr Eng
The spatially resolved EMFs can be accurately mea-
sured by the deployment of a mobile embedded WSN. The
network includes several embedded sensors which are
located on mobile vehicles. In fact, application of mobile
sensors can provide wide-area coverage with a minimum
number of sensors. This embedded WSN can measure
EMF levels with their positioning information. When the
existing controller receives measured values combined
with their location information, an EMF exposure map can
be plotted. This map can show hazardous radiation spots in
an urban area. This embedded WSN was tested before in
Zurich and Switzerland. It was specified to detect EMFs in
GSM and WIFI bands [76].
The Serbian EMF monitoring (SEMONT) system is a
version of embedded WSNs which can provide EMF
measurements 24 h a day. It can provide broadband and
continuous real-time measurements. In addition, it can
carry out low-frequency and high-frequency measure-
ments. There are spatially distributed EMF sensors which
are controlled by a sensor controller. Then, a wireless
interface exists in order to provide a communication
facility with outer world. Furthermore, this system has
reliable software which is very easy to deal with [77].
The EMF measurements by using mobile sensors are
extended in [78]. The authors proposed an embedded
WSN, which can monitor EMFs in an urban city, by the
mounting sensors on mobile public transportation means.
The urban environment can be considered as the most
complex environment in EMF measurements. In this net-
work, very sensitive sensors are used. They can commu-
nicate over GSM and GPRS links. The measurement
system includes smart sensors, gateways, and a remote
server station. The smart sensor itself consists of an EMF
probe, PIC microcontroller, GPS module, and GSM/GPRS
modem.
The embedded WSN can also detect extremely low-
frequency fields. These fields can result from power lines,
computer screens, power supplies, and much more. The
detected EMF values can be displayed on a three-dimen-
sional display. Reference [79] discussed a research plan
aiming to provide a suitable suggestion for the detection of
extremely low-frequency EMFs in an urban city. In [80],
the authors suggested an embedded WSN which has many
self-tunable sensors. Each sensor can measure the EMF
levels combined with environmental temperature. There
are three orthogonal electric field dipoles and a temperature
sensor which can detect environmental temperature. When
the detected environmental temperature varies, the EMF
sensor can modify its EMF readings in such a way that the
temperature effect is compensated. This compensation can
reduce the uncertainty in measurements which will be
carried out by it. Therefore, the EMF readings are very
accurate than any other type. The employed embedded
Iran J Sci Technol Trans Electr Eng
Fig. 4 An embedded wireless
sensor node
WSN can provide multi-hop communication for measured
data. The specifications of each embedded WSN, which
can be employed in EMF measurements, are concluded in
Table 5.
5 EMF Probes
EMF probes are the basic building blocks of embedded
WSNs which were explained in the previous section. An
EMF probe consists of an antenna, a high-frequency
amplifier, a detector, and a low-noise amplifier as shown in
Fig. 5. These probes are categorized into two types which
are magnetic field probes and electric field probes. The
magnetic field probes can measure low-frequency fields by
depending on induction theory. On the other side, electric
field probes can measure high-frequency fields. The EMF
probes exist in a lot of models [81]. In Table 6, the spec-
ifications of some existing probes are clarified.
6 Handheld Instruments
Handheld instruments can represent the portable sets which
are able to measure EMFs in an easy manner with an
acceptable accuracy. These instruments can be used to
check hazardous radiation hotspots in indoor and the other
hazardous zones. They can provide a quick survey on EMF
fields in an area of interest. In fact, they do not have the
accuracy and sensitivity of the previously mentioned
measurement tools as they depend on cheap EMF probes.
However, they can be sufficient tools for checking an EMF
level in a site. Moreover, their accuracy can be improved
by calibration. The block diagram of a handheld instrument
is displayed in Fig. 6. The detected measured EMF values
can be recorded in order to be called at any time.
Moreover, a GPS module can exist in order to provide
positioning information. These instruments will be
explained in the following subsections.
6.1 ELF EMF Meter
This meter can measure the extremely low-frequency fields
(ELF) which come from power lines, power supplies,
sockets, and much more. The EMFs at these frequencies
have a bad effect on human brain as they can interact with
the internal brain vital signals directly. This meter can
determine the home hotspots where high-level fields exist.
This instrument has a helical antenna, an amplifier, a rec-
tifier, a filter, a detector, and an indicator. The existing
helical antenna can detect magnetic fields by using
induction theory. This meter can operate with 3.3 V (DC
battery). Dot bar linear mode LCD display can show the
measured values [82].
6.2 Gauss Meter
Gauss meter can be called EMF meter or electromagnetic
frequency meter. This meter can present the detected EMF
level in Gauss and Tesla. It can measure EMFs at very low
frequency. Therefore, it is qualified to measure the EMF
which is radiated from power lines and monitors. There is a
modified version which can carry out EMF measurements
from 100 kHz to 2.5 GHz. The modified Gauss meter can
be called extended range broadband EMF meter [83–87].
6.3 Electromagnetic Detector (EMF Scanner)
Electromagnetic detector can scan existing EMFs any-
where. It can discover hazardous radiation hotspots in
homes which can exist due to the prevalence of microwave
sets and other sets. This detector can track magnetic fields
123
 Iran J Sci Technol Trans Electr Eng

Table 5 Specifications of each

References Element Type
embedded WSN which is used
for EMF measurements [75] Transceiver CC2420
Microcontroller MSP430
ADC 12-bit resolution
Measured frequency band 200 MHz to 5 GHz
Measured electric field Up to 50 V/m
ADC sampling interval 300 ms
[76] Measurement bands GSM/WIFI
Processor 600 MHz
Transceiver MikroTik RB433
Sensor EME Spy 120
[77] Measured quantities Electric and magnetic fields
Sampling period 1 measurement every 3 s
Applied functions AVG, RMS, MAXIMUM (PEAK)
Power consumption 0.65 mA when GSM is off
16 mA when GSM is stand by
300 mA when GSM is transmitting
Measurement duration 24 h a day
Environmental temperature - 10/? 50 C
[78] Measurement range 100 kHz to 3 GHz
Microcontroller 16-bit PIC (18F452)
Modem GSM/GPRS (Telit GM862)
EMF probe EP330
GPS device Garmin GPS-25HVS
[80] Probe Tri-axis electric field probe
Antennas’ material RF4 (er = 4.7)
Measurement frequency 0.2:2.8 GHz
Probe dimension 11.5 9 3.5 cm
Transceiver frequency 2.4 GHz
Temperature sensor 0:30 C

Fig. 5 Block diagram of an EMF probe

in time, in such a way that the detected EMF value can be
saved with its location and time information. Moreover, it
can provide an alarm tone (beep) when a radiation hazard
exists. In addition, it can detect different magnetic field
types in three dimensions with a storage capacity up to 100
records. The detected EMF levels can be shown in micro-
tesla scale, and they can be sent by mail [88].
6.4 Entity Sensor (Pro-EMF Detector)
Entity sensor can convert a smart phone to a magnetic field
sensor able to detect the surrounding magnetic fields. This
sensor can provide good readings such as expensive EMF
detectors. Moreover, it can record and save results. This
sensor can record the EMFs which are detected from
nearby zones. In addition, it can plot the measured EMF
values on mobiles and computers. Furthermore, it can
present detected magnetic fields in readable values [88].
6.5 Ghost Hunter (EMF, EVP, SCAN)
Ghost hunter is a sensor meter which is based on a mag-
netic frequency detector. It can determine the exact para-
normal readings with their location information. Moreover,
it can apply complex mathematical algorithms in order to
provide accurate stats which come from electromagnetic
frequencies. In addition, it can capture the white noise in
real time. Besides, it can record measured EMF values, in
such a way that they can be called and played back at any
time by clicking on a certain button. The recordings can

123
Iran J Sci Technol Trans Electr Eng

Table 6 Some existing EMF probes

Field probes Frequency range Level range

Electric field probe EP-105 100 kHz–1000 MHz 0.05–50 V/m

Electric field probe EP-300 100 kHz–3 GHz 0.1–300 V/m
Electric field probe EP-330 100 kHz–3 GHz 0.3–300 V/m
Electric field probe EP-301 100 kHz–3 GHz 1–1000 V/m
Electric field probe EP-183 1 MHz–18 GHz 0.8–800 V/m
Electric field probe EP-408 1 MHz–40 GHz 0.8–800 V/m
Electric field probe EP-44M 100 kHz–800 MHz 0.25–250 V/m
Electric field probe EP-33M 700 MHz–3 GHz 0.3–300 V/m
Electric field probe EP-33A 925–960 MHz 0.03–30 V/m
Electric field probe EP-33B 1805–1880 MHz 0.03–30 V/m
Electric field probe EP-33C 2110–2170 MHz 0.03–30 V/m
Magnetic field probe HP-032 0.1–30 MHz 0.01–20 A/m
Magnetic field probe HP-102 30–1000 MHz 0.01–20 A/m
Magnetic field probe HP-050 10 Hz–5 kHz 10 nT–40  T
Magnetic field probe HP-051 10 Hz–5 kHz 50 nT–200  T
Electric and magnetic field analyzers EHP50A/B/C 5 Hz–100 kHz A 100 mV/m–100 kV/m
10 nT–10 mT
5 Hz–100 kHz B/C 10 mV/m–100 kV/m
1 nT–10 mT

Fig. 6 Block diagram of a

handheld instrument

have advanced analyses when they are saved in a buffer.
This instrument can plot an exposure map which is a
relation between the detected EMF levels and their loca-
tions [88].
6.6 Ultimate EMF Detector
Ultimate EMF detector can efficiently detect surrounding
EMFs. This detector can display the EMF levels with LEDs
and a classic needle indicator. The detected magnetic fields
can be displayed in milligauss, gauss, and micro-tesla.
Moreover, the auxiliary field can be shown in Ampere per
meter. In addition, it has an acceptable accuracy. Further-
more, it can provide a sound signal when the detected EMF
value varies [88].
6.7 EMF Analyzer
EMF analyzer can detect a radiation and track its para-
normal activity. It is composed of a tri-axis magnetic
sensor which can measure fields in micro-tesla. This
analyzer can provide real-time EMF readings with beep
notifications, strength bar for an EMF, and plotted graph
for the detected EMF values. Moreover, this analyzer has a
simple and friendly design. The existing tri-axis magnetic
field sensor qualifies this instrument to measure the EMF
strength. In addition, this instrument can present EMF
readings on a monitor screen in an easy manner [88].
6.8 Tri-field EMF Meter
Tri-field EMF meter is very easy to deal with. An operator
can switch on a knob and then read the dial only. The
needle may have positions on the analog screen to give an
indication of the safety levels of detected EMF values. The
needle can go on continuous red line to indicate the danger
of detected EMF values. Then, a dangerous spot exists.
This meter is a tri-field one as it can detect the EMFs which
are coming from all directions in a spot. It depends on an
analog needle; however, it has a very fast response similar
to that of existing digital readout circuitry meters. More-
over, it can provide measurements of low-level magnetic

123

fields, which are in the range from 0.2 to 100 mG, with a
good accuracy and a good sensitivity. This instrument can
detect the EMFs which are resulted from computers,
electrical wiring, electronic ovens, fluorescent lamps,
transformers, power lines, and TV monitors [88].
7 Conclusions
In this paper, a survey on the different tools, which are
qualified to measure EMFs, is done. These tools include
ancient traditional measurement trials, scientific instru-
ments, automated systems, EMF probes, embedded WSNs,
and handheld instruments. It can be observed that the
automated systems have a good inherent accuracy in
measurements. This paper was introduced in order to be a
good start for anyone who wants to begin his research in
the topic of EMF measurements.
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