UNIT IV AMPLIFIERS AND OSCILLATORS

Differential amplifiers: CM and DM

It consists of two basic CE amplifiers having their emitters directly-coupled to each other.
Fig. shows both the block diagram and the circuit diagram of such an amplifier.

As seen, it has two separate input terminals1 and 2 and two separate output terminals 3 and 4.
Voltages may be applied to either or both input terminals and output may be taken from either or
both output terminals.
There are certain specific phase relationships between both input and both output terminals
as discussed below.
(a) Single-ended Operation
In Fig. input signal vi.1 is applied to terminal 1 with terminal 2 grounded. It is
seen that an amplified and inverted output signal is obtained at
terminal 3 (phase inversion of a CE amplifier) but
an equally-amplified and in-phase signal appears
across output terminal 4. The differential output
voltage has the polarity shown in the figure.

As shown in Fig. when input signal v1–2 is applied to

input terminal 2, an amplified and inverted signal
appears at output terminal 4 whereas equally-
amplified but in-phase signal
appears at terminal 3.
In summary, we can say that input at any of the two
terminals causes outputs at both terminals 3 and 4. The two
output are opposite in phase but of equal amplitude.

(b) Double-ended Operation

The above Fig illustrates the double ended mode of operation when two input signals of
opposite phase are applied to the two input terminals.
Input signal at each input terminal causes signals to appear at both output terminals. The
resultant output signals have a peak value of 2 V – twice the value for single-ended operation.
However, if two in-phase and equal signals were applied at the two input terminals, the resultant
output signal at each output terminal would be zero as shown in Fig. It means that output
between the collectors would be zero.
If vi.1 and vi.2 change by exactly the same amount, even then output voltage between terminals
4 and 3 remains zero because of symmetry. Only when vi.1 and vi.2 differ from each other, we get
an output voltage. When vi.1 is more positive than vi.2, the output
terminal 4 is more positive than
terminal 3.
(c) Inverting and Non-inverting Inputs
When positive vi.1 acts alone, it produces a differential
output voltage with terminal 4 positive
with respect to terminal 3 as shown in Fig. That is why the
input terminal 1 is called noninverting input terminal. How ever,
when positive vi.2 acts alone, the output voltage is inverted
i.e. terminal 3 becomes positive with respect to terminal 4.
That is why input terminal 2 is called inverting terminal.

Common Mode Input

Fig. illustrates the common- mode input of a differential
amplifier i.e. when similar or same input signal is applied to
both inputs. If the two halves of the diff-amp are identical, the
ac output voltage will be zero. The diff-amp is then said to
the perfectly balanced.
1.it contains two CE amplifiers,
2. it uses only resistors and transistors
3. it is directly-coupled (emitter-to-emitter) amplifier,
4. it can accept two inputs by means of T1 and ground and also T2
and ground,
5. it can provide two separate outputs by means of T3 and ground and T4 and
ground,
6. it can provide a single output between T3 and T4 i.e. differential output.
Circuit Operation

We will consider a balanced differential amplifier in which Q1 and Q2

are identical and their associated components are matched. In that case,
each amplifier stage produces same voltage gain. A = r0/re
In Fig. ro = R2 or R3
The output voltage between terminals T3 and T4 is
v0 (T3 – T4) = A(vi.1 – vi.2)
where, A = voltage gain of each stage

Advantages
1. It uses no frequency-dependent coupling or bypassing capacitors.
All that it requires is
resistors and transistors both of which can be easily integrated on a chip. Hence, it is extensively
used in linear IC5.
2. It can compare any two signals and detect any difference. Thus, if two signals are fed into
its inputs, identical in every respect except that one signal has been slightly distorted, then
only the difference between the two signals i.e. distortion will be amplified.
3. It gives higher gain than two cascaded stages of ordinary direct coupling.
4. It provides very uniform amplification of signal from dc upto very high frequencies.
5. It provides isolation between input and output circuits.
6. It is almost a universal choice for amplifying dc.
7. It finds a wide variety of applications such as amplification, mixing, signal generation,
amplitude modulation, frequency multiplication and temperature compensation etc.
Condition for ofc-feedback amplifiers
A feedback amplifier is one in which a fraction of the amplifier output is fed back to the input
circuit. This partial dependence of amplifier output on its input helps to control the output. A
feedback amplifier consists of two parts : an amplifier and a feedback circuit.
(i) Positive feedback
If the feedback voltage (or current) is so applied as to increase the input voltage (i.e. it is in
phase with it), then it is called positive feedback. Other names for it are : regenerative or direct
feedback.
Since positive feedback produces excessive distortion, it is seldom used in amplifiers. However,
because it increases the power of the original signal, it is used in oscillator circuits.
(ii) Negative feedback
If the feedback voltage (or current) is so applied as to reduce the amplifier input (i.e. it is 180°
out of phase with it), then it is called negative feedback. Other names for it are : degenerative or
inverse feedback.
Negative feedback is frequently used in amplifier circuits.
Principle of Feedback Amplifiers
For an ordinary amplifier i.e. one without
feedback, the voltage gain is given by the ratio
of the output voltage Vo and input voltage Vi. As
shown in the block diagram of Fig. the input
voltage Vi is amplified by a factor of A to the value
Vo of the output voltage.
A = Vo /Vi
This gain A is often called open-loop gain.
Suppose a feedback loop is added to the amplifier, If
Vo´ is the output voltage with feedback, then a
fraction β of this voltage is applied to the input
voltage which, therefore, becomes (Vi ± βVo´)
depending on whether the feedback voltage is in phase or
antiphase with it. Assuming positive feedback, the input voltage will become (Vi + β Vo´). When
amplified A times, it becomes A(Vi + β Vo´).
A (Vi + β Vo´) = Vo´
or Vo´ (1 – βA) =AVi
The amplifier gain A´ with feedback is given by
A´ = Vo/Vi= A/(1 – βA) -----------positive feed back
A´ = Vo/Vi= A/(1 + βA) -----------negative feedback
The term ‘β A’ is called feedback factor whereas β is known as feedback ratio. The expression
(1 ± β A) is called loop gain. The amplifier gain A´ with feedback is also referred to as closed
loop gain because it is the gain obtained after the feedback loop is closed. The sacrifice factor is
defined as S = A/A´.
(a) Negative Feedback
The amplifier gain with negative feedback is given by A´ =A/(1 + βA)
Obviously, A´ < A because | 1 + βA | > 1.
Suppose, A = 90 and β = 1/10 = 0.1
Then, gain without feedback is 90 and with negative feedback is
A´ = 9
As seen, negative feedback reduces the amplifier gain. That is why it is called degenerative
feedback. A lot of voltage gain is sacrificed due to negative feedback.
(b) Positive Feedback
Suppose gain without feedback is 90 and β = 1/100 = 0.01, then gain with positive feedback is
A´ = 900
Since positive feedback increases the amplifier gain. It is called regenerative feedback.
If βA = 1, then mathematically, the gain becomes infinite which simply means that there is an
output without any input.
In fact, two important and necessary conditions for circuit oscillation are
1. the feedback must be positive, 2. feedback factor must be unity i.e. βA = +1.
Advantages of Negative Feedback
The numerous advantages of negative feedback outweigh its only disadvantage of reduced gain.
Among the advantages are :
1. higher fidelity i.e. more linear operation, 2. highly stabilized gain,
3. increased bandwidth i.e. improved frequency response, 4. less amplitude distortion,
5. less harmonic distortion, 6. less frequency distortion,
7. less phase distortion, 8. reduced noise,
9. input and output impedances can be modified as desired.

Stability

Voltage / current - series / shunt feedback

The four basic arrangements for using negative feedback are shown in the block diagram of Fig.
As seen, both voltage and current can be fedback to the input either in series or in parallel. The
output voltage provides input in Fig.(a) and (b). However, the input to the feedback network is
derived from the output current in Fig. (c) and (d).
(a) Voltage-series Feedback
It is shown in Fig. (a). It is also called shunt-derived series-fed feedback. The amplifier and
feedback circuit are connected series-parallel. Here, a fraction of the output voltage is applied in
series with the input voltage via the feedback. As seen, the input to the feedback network is in
parallel with the output of the amplifier. Therefore, so far as Vo is concerned, output resistance of
the amplifier is reduced by the shunting effect of the input to the feedback network. It can be
proved that R0’=R0/(1+βA)
Similarly, Vi sees two circuit elements in series :
(i) the input resistance of the amplifier and
(ii) output resistance of the feedback network.
Hence, input resistance of the amplifier as a whole is increased due to feedback. It can be proved
that Ri´ =Ri (1 + β A)
In fact, series feedback always increases the input impedance by a factor of (1 + βA).
(b) Voltage-shunt Feedback
It is shown in Fig. (b). It is also known as shunt-derived shunt-fed feedback i.e. it is parallel
parallel (PP) prototype. Here, a small portion of the output voltage is coupled back to the input
voltage parallel (shunt). Since the feedback network shunts both the output and input of the
amplifier, it decreases both its output and input impedances by a factor of 1/(1 + βA) .A shunt
feedback always decreases input impedance.
(c) Current-series Feedback
It is shown in Fig. (c). It is also known as series-derived series-fed feedback. As seen, it is a
series-series (SS) circuit. Here, a part of the output current is made to feedback a proportional
voltage in series with the input. Since it is a series pick-up and a series feedback, both the input
and output impedances of the amplifier are increased due to feedback.
(d) Current-shunt Feedback
It is shown in Fig.(d). It is also referred to as series-derived shunt-fed feedback. It is a parallel-
series (PS) prototype. Here, the feedback network picks up a part of the output current and
develops a feedback voltage in parallel (shunt) with the input voltage. As seen, feedback network
shunts the input but is in series with the output. Hence, output resistance of the amplifier is
increased whereas its input resistance is decreased by a factor of loop gain.

Shunt-derived Series-fed Voltage Feedback

The basic principle of such a voltage-controlled feedback is illustrated by the block diagram of
Fig. Here, the feedback voltage is derived from the voltage divider circuit formed of R1 and R2.
As seen, the voltage drop across R1 forms the feedback voltage Vf.
Vf=V0(R1/(R1+R2))=βV0

Current-series Feedback Amplifier

Fig. shows a series-derived series-fed feedback
amplifier circuit. Since the emitter resistor is unbypassed,
it effectively provides current-series feedback. When IE passes
through RE, the feedback voltage drop Vf = IE RE is
developed which is applied in phase opposition to the input
voltage Vi. This negative feedback reduces the output voltage V0.
This feedback can, however, be eliminated by either removing or
bypassing the emitter resistor.
It can be proved that
Voltage-shunt Negative Feedback
Amplifier
The circuit of such an amplifier is shown
in Fig. As seen, a portion of the output
voltage is coupled through RE in parallel with the input signal at the base.
This feedback stabilizes the overall gain while decreasing both the input and output resistances.
It can be proved that
β = RC/RF

Current-shunt Negative Feedback Amplifier

The two-stage amplifier employing such a feedback is shown in below Fig. The feedback circuit
(consisting of CF and RF) samples the output current and develops a feedback voltage in parallel
with the input voltage. The unbypassed emitter resistor of Q2 provides current sensing.
The polarity of the feedback voltage is such that it provides the negative feedback.

Oscillators – LC, RC, crystal

An oscillator may be described as a source of alternating voltage. It is different than amplifier.
An amplifier delivers an output signal whose waveform corresponds to the input signal but
whose power level is higher. The additional power content in the output signal is supplied by the
DC power source used to bias the active device. The amplifier can therefore be described as an
energy converter, it accepts energy from the DC power supply and converts it to energy at the
signal frequency. The process of energy conversion is controlled by the input signal, Thus if
there is no input signal, no energy conversion takes place and there is no output signal.
The oscillator, on the other hand, requires no external signal to initiate or maintain the energy
conversion process. Instead an output signals is produced as long as source of DC power is
connected. Fig. 1, shows the block diagram of an amplifier and an oscillator.

Oscillators may be classified in terms of their output waveform, frequency range, components, or
circuit configuration. If the output waveform is sinusoidal, it is called harmonic oscillator
otherwise it is called relaxation oscillator, which include square, triangular and saw tooth
waveforms.
Oscillators employ both active and passive components. The active components provide energy
conversion mechanism. Typical active devices are transistor, FET etc.
Passive components normally determine the frequency of oscillation. They also influence
stability, which is a measure of the change in output frequency (drift) with time, temperature or
other factors. Passive devices may include resistors, inductors, capacitors, transformers, and
resonant crystals. Capacitors used in oscillators circuits should be of high quality. Because of
low losses and excellent stability, silver mica or ceramic capacitors are generally preferred.

An elementary sinusoidal oscillator is shown in fig. 2. The inductor and capacitors are reactive
elements i.e. they are capable of storing energy. The capacitor stores energy in its electric field.
Whenever there is voltage across its plates, and the inductor stores energy in its magnetic field
whenever current flows through it. Both C and L are assumed to be loss less. Energy can be
introduced into the circuit by charging the capacitor with a voltage V as shown in fig. 2. As long
as the switch S is open, C cannot discharge and so i=0 and V=0.

Fig. 2

Now S is closed at t = to, This means V rises from 0 to V, Just before closing inductor current
was zero and inductor current cannot be changed instantaneously. Current increases from zero
value sinusoidally and is given by

The capacitor losses its charge and energy is simply transferred from capacitor to inductor
magnetic field. The total energy is still same. At t = t1, all the charge has been removed from the
capacitor plates and voltage reduces to zero and at current reaches to its maximum value. The
current for t> t1 charges C in the opposite direction and current decreases. Thus LC oscillation
takes places. Both voltage and current are sinusoidal though no sinusoidal input was applied. The
frequency of oscillation is

The circuit discussed is not a practical oscillator because even if loss less components were
available, one could not extract energy with out introducing an equivalent resistance. This would
result in damped oscillations as shown in fig. 3.

Fig.3
These oscillations decay to zero as soon as the energy in the tank is consumed. If we remove too
much power from the circuit, the energy may be completely consumed before the first cycle of
oscillations can take place yielding the over damped response. It is possible to supply energy to
the tank to make up for all losses (coil losses plus energy removed), thereby maintaining
oscillations of constant amplitude.
Since energy lost may be related to a positive resistance, it follows that the circuit would gain
energy if an equivalent negative resistance were available. The negative resistance, supplies
whatever energy the circuit lose due to positive resistance. Certain devices exhibit negative
resistance characteristics, an increasing current for a decreasing voltage. The energy supplied by
the negative resistance to the circuit, actually comes from DC source that is necessary to bias the
device in its negative resistance region.
Another technique for producing oscillation is to use positive feedback considers an amplifier
with an input signal Vin and output V0 as shown in fig. 4.
 Fig.4
The amplifier is inverting amplifier and may be transistorized, or FET or OPAMP. The output is
180° out of phase with input signal V 0= -A Vin.(A is negative) Now a feedback circuit is added.
The output voltage is fed to the feed back circuit. The output of the feedback circuit is again 180°
phase shifted and also gets attenuated. Thus the output from the feedback network is in phase
with input signal Vin and it can also be made equal to input signal. If this is so, Vf can be
connected directly and externally applied signal can be removed and the circuit will continue to
generate an output signal. The amplifier still has an input but the input is derived from the output
amplifier. The output essentially feeds on itself and is continuously regenerated. This is positive
feedback. The over all amplification from Vin to V f is 1 and the total phase shift is zero. Thus the
loop gain A β is equal to unity.
When this criterion is satisfied then the closed loop gain is infinite. i.e. an output is produced
without any external input. ?V0 = A Verror
= A (Vin + Vf ) = A (Vin + β Vo) or (1-A β )Vo = A Vin
When A β = 1, V0 / Vin= ∞
The criterion A β = 1 is satisfied only at one frequency. This is known as barkhausen criterion.

The frequency at which a sinusoidal oscillator will operate is the frequency for which the total
phase shift introduced, as the signal proceeds form the input terminals, through the amplifier and
feed back network and back again to the input is precisely zero or an integral multiple of 2p.
Thus the frequency of oscillation is determined by the condition that the loop phase shift is zero.
Oscillation will not be sustained, if at the oscillator frequency, A β <1 or A β>1. Fig. 5, show the
output for two different contions A β < 1 and A β >1.

Fig.5
If Aβ is less than unity then Aβ Vin is less than Vin, and the output signal will die out, when the
externally applied source is removed.
If Aβ>1 then AβVin is greater than Vin and the output voltage builds up gradually.
If A β = 1, only then output voltage is sine wave under steady state conditions.
In a practical oscillator, it is not necessary to supply a signal to start the oscillations. Instead,
oscillations are self-starting and begin as soon as power is applied. This is possible because of
electrical noise present in all passive components.

In conclusion, all practical oscillations involve:

 An active device to supply loop gain or negative resistance.
 A frequency selective network to determine the frequency of oscillation.
 Some type of non-linearity to limit amplitude of oscillations.

LC Oscillators
1.Tuned Collector Oscillator 2. Colpitt’s Oscillator
3. Hartley Oscillator

1.Tuned Collector Oscillator

The figure shows the circuit of tuned oscillator. It contains tuned circuit L 1-C1 in the collector
and hence the name. The frequency of the oscillatons depends upon the values of L1and C1 and is
1
given by f =
2 π √ L 1C 1
The feedback coil L2 in the base circuit is magnetically coupled to the tank circuit coil L 1. In
practice L1 and L2 form the primary and secondary of the transformer respectively. The biasing is
provided by potential divider arrangement. The capacitor C connected in the base circuit
provides low reactance path to the oscillations.

Circuit operation:
When Supply is given, collector current starts increasing and
charges the capacitor C1. When this capacitor is fully
charged, it discharges through coil L1, setting up
oscillations of frequency determined by equation as
above. These oscillations induce some voltage in
coil L2 by mutual induction. The frequency of voltage
in coil L2 is the same as that of tank circuits but its
magnitude depends upon the number of turns of L 2 and
coupling between L1 and L2. The voltage across L2 is
applied between base and emitter and appears in the
amplified form in the collector circuit, thus
overcoming the losses occurring in the tank
circuit.
The number of turns of L2 and coupling between L1 and L2 are so
adjusted that oscillations across L2 are amplified to a level just
sufficient to supply losses to the tank circuit.
It may be noted that the phase of the feedback is correct i.e. energy supplied to the tank circuit is
in phase with the generated oscillations. A phase shift of 180 0 is created between the voltages of
L1 and L2 due to transformer action. A further phase shift of 180 0 takes place between base
emitter and collector circuit due to transistor properties. As a result, the energy feedback to the
tank circuit is in phase with the generated oscillations.

Colpitts Oscillator:
An LC oscillator, a circuit that can be used for frequencies between 1MHz and 500MHz. The
frequency range is beyond the frequency limit of most OPAMPs. With an amplifier and LC tank
circuit, we can feedback a signal with the right amplitude and phase is feedback to sustain
oscillations. Fig. 1, shows the circuit of colpitts oscillator.

Fig.1 Fig.2
The voltage divider bias sets up a quiescent operating point. The circuit then has a low frequency
voltage gain of rc / r'e where rc is the ac resistance seen by the selector. Because of the base and
collector lag networks, the high frequency voltage gain is less then r c / r'e.
Fig. 2, shows a simplified ac equivalent circuit. The circulating or loop current in the tank flows
through C1 in series with C2. The voltage output equals the voltage across C 1. The feedback voltage
vf appears across C2. This feedback voltage drives the base and sustains the oscillations developed
across the tank circuit provided there is enough voltage gain at the oscillation frequency. Since the
emitter is at ac ground the circuit is a CE connection. Most LC oscillators use tank circuit with a Q
greater than 10.

The Q of the feedback circuit is given by

Because of this, the approximate resonant frequency is

This is accurate and better than 1% when Q is greater than 1%. The capacitance C is the
equivalent capacitance the circulation current passes through. In the Colpitts tank the
circulating current flows through C1 in series with C2. Therefore C = C1 C2 / (C1 +C2)
The required starting condition for any oscillator is A β > 1 at the resonant frequency or
A > 1/ β. The voltage gain A in the expression is the gain at the oscillation frequency. The
feedback gain β is given by β = Vf / Vout≈ XC1 / XC2 Because same current flow through C1
and C2, therefore β = C1/ C2; A > 1/ v; A> C1 / C2 This is a crude approximation because it
ignores the impedance looking into the base. An exact analysis would take the base
impedance into account because it is in parallel with C 2 . With small β, the value of A is only
slightly larger than 1/β. and the operation is approximately close A. When the power is
switched on, the oscillations build up, and the signal swings over more and more of ac load
line. With this increased signal swing, the operation changes from small signal to large
signal. As this happen, the voltage gain decreases slightly. With light feedback the value of
Aβ can decreases to 1 without excessive clapping. With heavy feedback, the large feedback
signal drives the base into saturation and cut off. This charges capacitor C 3 producing
negative dc clamping at the base and changing the operation from class A to class C. The
negative damping automatically adjusts the value of Aβ to 1.
Hartley Oscillator:
Fig. , shows Hartley oscillator when the LC tank is resonant, the circulating current flows through L 1
in series with L2. Thus, the equivalent inductance is L = L1 + L2.

When the circuit is turned on, the capacitor is

charged. When this capacitor is fully charged, it
discharges through coils L1 and L2 setting up oscillations of
frequency determined by

The output voltage of the amplifier

appears across L1 and feedback voltage
across L2. The voltage across L2 is 1800
out of phase with the voltage developed
across L1(Vout). It is easy to see that voltage fed
back to the transistor provides positive feed back.
A phase shift of 1800 is produced by the transistor
and a further phase shift of 1800 is produced by
the voltage divider L1-L2. In this way, feedback is properly phased to produce continuous
undamped oscillations.
In the oscillator, the feedback voltage is developed by the inductive voltage divider, L 1 & L2.
Since the output voltage appears across L 1 and the feedback voltage across L 2, the feedback
fraction is
Feedback fraction β = Vf / Vout = XL2 / XL1 = L2 / L1
As usual, the loading effect of the base is ignored. For oscillations to start, the voltage gain
must be greater than 1/ β.
RC Phase Shift Oscillator
Fig. shows a transistor phase shift oscillator which uses a three-section RC feedback network for
producing a total phase shift of 180° (i.e. 60° per section) in the signal fed back to the base.
Since CE amplifier produces a phase reversal of the input signal, total phase shift becomes 360°
or 0° which is essential for regeneration and hence for sustained oscillations.
Values of R and C are so selected that each RC section produces a phase advance of 60°.
Addition of a fourth section improves oscillator stability. It is found that phase shift of 180°
occurs only at one frequency which becomes the oscillator frequency.
(a) Circuit Action
The circuit is set into oscillations by any random or chance variation caused in the base current
by
(i) noise inherent in a transistor or
(ii) minor variation in the voltage of the dc source.
This variation in the base current
1. is amplified in the collector circuit,
2. is then fed back to the RC network R1C1, R2C2 and R3C3,
3. is reversed in phase by the RC network,
4. is next applied to the base in phase with initial change in base current,
5. and hence is used to sustain cycles of variations in collector current between saturation and
cut-off values.
Obviously, the circuit will stop oscillating the moment phase shift differs from 180°.
As is the case with such transistor circuits (i) voltage divider R5 - R3 provides dc emitter-base
bias, (ii) R6 controls collector voltage and (iii) R4, C4 provide temperature stability and prevent ac
signal degeneration. The oscillator output voltage is capacitively coupled to the load by C5.
(b) Frequency of Oscillation
The frequency of oscillation for the three-section RC oscillator when the three R and C
components are equal is roughly given by
f0=1/2π√6(RC)=0.065/RC
Moreover, it is found that value of β is 1/ 29. It means that amplifier gain must be more
than 29 for oscillator operation.
(c) Advantages and Disadvantages
1. Since they do not require any bulky and expensive high-value inductors, such oscillators are
well-suited for frequencies below 10 kHz.
2. Since only one frequency can fulfill Barkhausen phase-shift requirement, positive feedback
occurs only for one frequency. Hence, pure sine wave output is possible.
3. It is not suited to variable frequency usage because a large number of capacitors will have to
be varied. Moreover, gain adjustment would be necessary every time frequency change is made.
4. It produces a distortion level of nearly 5% in the output signal.
5. It necessitates the use of a high β transistor to overcome losses in the network.
Wien Bridge Oscillator
It is a low-frequency (5 Hz — 500 kHz), low-
distortion, tunable, high-purity sine wave
generator, often used in laboratory work. As
shown in the block diagrams of Fig. this oscillator
uses two CE-connected RC
coupled transistor
amplifiers and one RC-
bridge (called Wien bridge)
network to provide feedback.
Here, Q1 serves as amplifier-
oscillator and Q2 provides phase
reversal and additional amplification. The bridge circuit is used to control the phase of the
feedback signal at Q1.

(a) Phase Shift Principle

Any input signal at the base of Q1 appears in the amplified but phase-reversed form across
collector resistor R6 (Fig.). It is further inverted by Q2 in order to provide a total phase reversal of
360° for positive feedback. Obviously, the signal at R10 is an amplified replica of the input signal
at Q1 and is of the same phase since it has been inverted twice. We could feed this signal back to
the base of Q1 directly to provide regeneration needed for oscillator operation. But because Q1
will amplify signals over a wide range of frequencies, direct coupling would result in poor
frequency stability. By adding the Wien bridge, oscillator becomes sensitive to a signal of only
one particular frequency. Hence, we get an oscillator of good frequency stability.
(b) Bridge Circuit Principle
It is found that the Wien bridge would become balanced at the signal frequency for which phase
shift is exactly 0° (or 360°),
The balance conditions are

(c) Circuit Action

Any random change in base current of Q1 can start oscillations. Suppose, the base current of Q1
is increased due to some reason. It is equivalent to applying a positive going signal to Q1.
Following sequence of events will take place :
1. An amplified but phase-reversed signal will appear at the collector of Q1;
2. A still further amplified and twice phase-reversed signal will appear at the collector of Q2.
Having been inverted twice, this output signal will be in phase with the input signal at Q1;
3. A part of the output signal at Q2 is fed back to the input points of the bridge circuit (point A-
C). A part of this feedback signal is applied to emitter resistor R3 where it produces degenerative
effect. Similarly, a part of the feedback signal is applied across base-bias resistor R2 where it
produces regenerative effect.
At the rated frequency fo, effect of regeneration is made slightly more than that of
degeneration
in order to maintain continuous oscillations.
By replacing R3 with a thermistor, amplitude stability of the oscillator output voltage can be
increased.
(d) Advantages
Such a circuit has
1. highly stabilized amplitude and voltage amplification,
2. exceedingly good sine wave output, 3. good frequency stability.
Crystal Oscillator

Some crystals found in nature exhibit the piezoelectric effect i.e. when an ac voltage is applied across
them, they vibrate at the frequency of the applied voltage. Conversely, if they are mechanically
pressed, they generate an ac voltage. The main substances that produce this piezoelectric effect are
Quartz, Rochelle salts, and Tourmaline.

Piezoelectric Effect
The quartz crystal described above has peculiar properties. When mechanical stress is applied
across its two opposite faces, a potential difference is developed across them. It is called
piezoelectric effect. Conversely, when a potential difference is applied across its two opposite
faces, it causes the crystal to either expand or contract. If an alternating voltage is applied, the
crystal wafer is set into vibrations. The frequency of vibration is equal to the resonant frequency
of the crystal as determined by its structural characteristics. Where the frequency of the applied
ac voltage equals the natural resonant frequency of the crystal, the amplitude of vibration will be
maximum. As a general rule, thinner the crystal, higher its frequency of vibration.
For use in electronic circuits, the slab is mounted between two metal plates, as shown in fig. 1. In this
circuit the amount of crystal vibration depends upon the frequency of applied voltage. By changing
the frequency, one can find resonant frequencies at which the crystal vibrations reach a maximum.
Since the energy for the vibrations must be supplied by the ac source, the ac current is maximized at
each resonant frequency. Most of the time, the crystal is cut and mounted to vibrate best at one of its
resonant frequencies, usually the fundamental or lowest frequency. Higher resonant frequencies,
called overtones, are almost exact multiplies of the fundamental frequency e.g. a crystal with a
fundamental frequency of 1 MHz has a overtones of 2 MHz, 3 MHz and so on. The formula for the
fundamental frequency of a crystal is f = K / t. where K is a constant that depends on the cut and
other factors, t is the thickness of crystal, f is inversely proportional to thickness t. The thinner the
crystal, the more fragile it becomes and the more likely it is to break because of vibrations. Quartz
crystals may have fundamental frequency up to 10 MHz. To get higher frequencies, a crystal is
mounted to vibrate on overtones; we can reach frequencies up to 100 MHz.

AC Equivalent Circuit: When the mounted crystal is not vibrating, it is equivalent to a capacitance
Cm, because it has two metal plates separated by dielectric, C m is known as mounting capacitance.

Fig. 2
When the crystal is vibrating, it acts like a tuned circuit. Fig. 2, shows the ac equivalent circuit of a
crystal vibrating at or near its fundamental frequency. Typical values are L is henrys, C in fractions
of a Pico farad, R in hundreds of ohms and C m in Pico farads Ls = 3Hz, Cs = 0.05 pf, Rs = 2K, Cm = 10
pf. The Q of the circuit is very very high. Compared with L-C tank circuit. For the given values, Q
comes out to be 3000. Because of very high Q, a crystal leads to oscillators with very stable
frequency values. The series resonant frequency f S of a crystal is the sonant frequency of the LCR
branch. At this frequency, the branch current reaches a maximum value because L s resonant with CS.
Above fS, the crystal behaves inductively. The parallel resonant frequency is the frequency at which
the circulating or loop current reaches a maximum value. Since this loop current must flow through
the series combination of CS and Cm, the equivalent Cloop is

Fig.3
Since Cloop > CS, therefore, fp > fS. Since Cm > CS, therefore, Cm || CS is slightly lesser than CS.
Therefore fP is slightly greater than f S. Because of the other circuit capacitances that appear across
Cm the actual frequency will lie between fS and fP. fS and fP are the upper and lower limits of
frequency.
The impedance of the crystal oscillator can be plotted as a function of frequency as shown in fig. 3.
At frequency fS, the circuit behaves like resistive circuit. At f P the impedance reaches to maximum,
beyond fP, the circuit is highly capacitive. The frequency of an oscillator tends to change slightly
with time. The drift is produced by temperature, aging and other causes. In a crystal oscillator the
frequency drift with time is very small, typically less than 1 part in 10 6 per day. They can be used in
electronic wristwatches. If the drift is 1 part in 10 10, a clock with this drift will take 30 years to gain
or lose 1 sec.