UNIT II BJT AND ITS APPLICATIONS

Junction transistor
There are two basic types of transistors :
(1) the bipolar junction transistor (BJT)
2. Field-effect transistor (FET)
The bipolar junction transistor is used in two broad areas of electronics :
(1) as a linear amplifier to boost an electrical signal and
(2) as an electronic switch.

Transistor construction
Basically, the bipolar junction transistor consists of two back-to back P-N junctions
manufactured in a single piece of a semiconductor crystal. These two junctions give rise to three
regions called emitter, base and collector.
As shown in Fig.a) junction transistor is
simply a sandwich of one type of
semiconductor material between two
layers of the other type.
Fig.(a) shows a layer of N-type material
sandwiched between two layers of P-type
material. It is described as a PNP transistor.
Fig. (b) shown an NPN – transistor consisting
of a layer of P-type material
sandwiched between two layers of N-
type material.

The emitter, base and collector are provided

with terminals which are labelled as E, B and C. The two junctions are : emitter-base (E/B)
junction and collector-base (C/B) junction.
The symbols employed for PNP andNPN transistors are also shown in Fig.
The arrowhead is always at the emitter (not at the collector) and in each case, its direction
indicates the conventional direction of current flow.
For a PNP transistor, arrowhead points from emitter to base meaning that emitter is positive with
respect to base (and also with respect to collector).
For NPN transistor, it points from base to emitter meaning that base (and collector as well) is
positive with respect to the emitter.
1. Emitter
It is more heavily doped than any of the other regions because its main function is to supply
majority charge carries (either electrons or holes) to the base.
2. Base
It forms the middle section of the transistor. It is very thin (10–6 m) as compared to either the
emitter or collector and is very lightly-doped.
3. Collector
Its main function (as indicated by its name) is to collect majority charge carriers coming from the
emitter and passing through the base.
In most transistors, collector region is made physically larger than the emitter region because it
has to dissipate such greater power. Because of this difference, there is no possibility of
inverting the transistor i.e. making its collector the emitter and its emitter the collector.
Transistor Biasing
For proper working of a transistor, it is essential to apply voltages of correct polarity across its
two junctions. It is worthwhile to remember that for
normal operation;
1. emitter-base junction is always forwardbiased
and
2. collector-base junction is always reverse- biased.
This type of biasing is known as FR biasing.
In Fig. two batteries respectively provide the dc
emitter supply voltage VEE and collector supply
voltage VCC for properly biasing the two junctions
of the transistor. In Fig. (a), Positive terminal of
VEE is connected to P-type emitter in order to repel
or Push holes into the base. The negative terminal
of VCC is connected to the collector so that it may
attract or pull holes through the base. Similar considerations apply to the NPN transistor of Fig.2
(b). It must be remembered that a transistor will never conduct any current if its emitter-base
junction is not forward- biased.
Operation of NPN transistor
As shown in fig. the forward bias applied to emitter base junction of an NPN transistor causes a
lot of electrons from the emitter region to crossover to the
base region.
As the base is lightly doped with p-type impurity, the
number of holes in the base region is very small
and hence the number of electrons that combine
with the holes in the P type base region is also
very small. Hence a few electrons combine with
holes to constitute a base current IB .The
remaining electrons crossover into the collector
region to constitute a collector current IC. Thus
the base and collector current summed up gives the emitter current, i.e. IE=IC+IB
Operation of PNP transistor
As shown in fig., the forward bias applied to the emitter base junction of a PNP transitor causes a
lot of holes from the emitter region to crossover to the base
region as the base is lightly doped with N type impurity.
The number of electrons in the base region is very small
and hence the number of holes combined with
electrons in the N type base region is also very
small.
Hence a few holes combined with electrons to
constitute a base current IB. The remaining holes
cross over into the collector region to constitute a
collector current IC. Hence IE= IB+IC.

Transistor Circuit Configurations

Basically, there are three types of circuit connections (called configurations) for operating a
transistor.
1. common-base (CB), 2. common-emitter (CE), 3. common-collector (CC).
The term ‘common’ is used to denote the electrode that is common to the input and output
circuits. Because the common electrode is generally grounded, these modes of operation are
frequently referred to as grounded-base, grounded-emitter and grounded-collector configurations
as shown in Fig. for a PNP – transistor.
Since a transistor is a 3-terminal (and not a 4-terminal) device, one of its terminals has to be
common to the input and output circuits.
CE Configuration

Here, input signal is applied

between the base and emitter and
output signal is taken out from the
collector and emitter circuit. As
seen from Fig.(b), IB is the input
current and IC is the output
current.
The ratio of the d.c. collector
current to dc base current is called
dc beta (βdc) or just β f the transistor.
β= –IC /–IB = IC /IB or
IC= βIB
It is also called common-emitter d.c. forward transfer ratio and is written as hFE. It is possible
for βto have as high a value as 500.
While analysing ac operation of a transistor, we use ac βwhich is given by βac =ΔIC /ΔIB.
It is also written as hfe.
The flow of various currents in a CE configuration both for PNP and NPN transistor is shown
in Fig. 57.8. As seen
IE = IB + IC = IB +βIB = (1 + β) IB
CB Configuration
In this configuration, emitter current IE is the input current and collector current IC is the output
current. The input signal is applied between the emitter and base whereas output is taken out
from the collector and base as shown in Fig. (a).
The ratio of the collector current to the emitter current is called dc
alpha (αdc) of a transistor.
αdc= -IC/IE
The negative sign is due to the fact that current IE flows into the
transistor whereas IC flows out of it. Hence, IE is taken as positive
and IC as negative.
IC=αIE
IB=(1-α)IE

It is also called forward current transfer

ratio (–hFB). In hFB, subscript F stands for forward and
B for common-base. The subscript d.c. on a signifies that
this ratio is defined from dc values of IC and IE.

The α of a transistor is a measure of the quality of a

transistor ; higher the value of α, better the
transistor in the sense that collector current more
closely equals the emitter current. Its value ranges from 0.95
to 0.999. Obviously, it applies only to CB configuration of
a transistor.
Incidentally, there is also an a.c. for a transistor. It refers to the ratio of change in collector
current to the change in emitter current.
αac= ΔIC/ΔIE

It is also, known as short-circuit gain of a transistor and is written as – hfb. It may be noted that
upper case subscript ‘FB’ indicates dc value whereas lower case subscript ‘fb’ indicates ac value.

Relation between α and β

By simplifying ,
β(1-α)=α or β=α(1+β) or α=β/(1+β)

CC configurations
In this case, input signal is applied between base and collector and output
signal is taken out from emitter-collector circuit [Fig]. Conventionally
speaking, here IB is the input current and IE is the output current as shown
in Fig.
The current gain of the circuit is IE/IB=(IE/IB)*(IC/IC)=β/α=β/[β(1+β)]=1+β
The flow paths of various currents in a CC configuration are shown in Fig.

It is seen that
IE = IB + IC = IB + βIB= (1 + β)IB
output current = (1 + β) × input current.
Relation between Transistor Currents
Transistor Static Characteristics
There are the curves which represents relationship between different d.c. currents and
voltages of a transistor. These are helpful in studying the operation of a transistor when
connected in a circuit.
The three important characteristics of a transistor are :
1. Input characteristic,
2. Output characteristic,
3. Constant-current transfer characteristic.
Common Base Configuration
The static characteristics of an NPN transistor connected in common-base configuration can be
determined by the use of test circuit shown in Fig.
Milliammeters are included in series with
the emitter and collector circuits to
measure IE and IC. Similarly, voltmeters are
connected across E and B to measure
voltage VBE and across C and B to
measure VCB. The two potentiometer
resistors R1 and R2 supply variable voltages
from the collector and emitter dc supplies respectively.
Common Base Static Characteristics
(a) Input Characteristic
It shows how IE varies with VBE when voltage VCB is held constant. The method of determining
this characteristic is as follows :
First, voltage VCB is adjusted to a suitable value with the help of R1 (Fig. ). Next, voltage VBE is
increased in a number of discrete steps and corresponding values of IE are noted from the
milliammeter connected for the purpose.
When plotted, we get the input characteristic shown in Fig. one for
Ge and the other for Si. Both curves are exactly similar to the
forward characteristic of a P-N diode which, in essence, is what the
emitter-base junction is.
This characteristic may be used to find the input resistance of the
transistor. Its value is given
by the reciprocal of its slope.
Rin= ΔVBE / ΔIE — VCB constant.
Since the characteristic is initially nonlinear, Rin will vary with
the point of measurement. Its value over linear part of the characteristic is about 50 Ω
but for low values of VBE, it is considerably greater. This change in Rin with change in VBE
gives rise to distortion of signals handled by the transistor.
This characteristic is hardly affected by changes either in VCB or temperature.
(b) Output Characteristic
It shows the way IC varies with VCB when IE is held constant. The method of obtaining this
characteristic is as follows:
First, movable contact, on R2 is changed to get a suitable value of VBE and hence that of IE. While
keeping IE constant at this value, VCB is increased from zero in a number of steps and the
corresponding collector current IC that flows is noted.
Next, VCB is reduced back to zero, IE is increased to a value a little higher than before and the
whole procedure is repeated. In this way, whole family of curves is obtained, a typical family
being shown in Fig.
1. The reciprocal of the near horizontal part of the characteristic gives the output resistance R out
of the transistor which it would offer to an input signal. Since the characteristic is linear over
most of its length. Rout is very high, a typical value being 500 kΩ.

2. It is seen that IC flows even when VCB = 0. For example, it has a value = 1.8 mA corresponding
 to VCB = 0 for IE = 2 mA as shown in Fig. It is
due to the fact that electrons are being injected
into the base under the action of forward-biased
E/B junction and are being collected by the
collector due to the action of the internal junction
voltage at the C/B junction. For reducing IC to zero,
it is essential to neutralize this potential barrier by
applying a small forward bias ac-ross C/B junction.
3. Another important feature of the characteristic is
that a small amount of collector current flows even
when emitter current IE = 0.
4. This characteristic may be used to find α ac
of the transistor as shown in Fig.

5. Another point worth noting is that although IC is practically independent of VCB over the
working range of the transistor, yet if VCB is permitted to increase beyond a certain value, IC
eventually increases rapidly due to avalanche breakdown as shown in Fig.
(c) Current Transfer Characteristic
It shows how IC varies with changes in IE when VCB is held constant. For drawing this
characteristic, first VCB is set to a convenient value and then IE is increased in steps and
corresponding values of IC noted.
A typical transfer characteristic is shown in
Fig. (a). Fig. (b) shows a more detailed view
of the portion near the origin.
As seen, αac may be found from the equation
αac = ΔIC / ΔIE
Usually, αac is found from output characteristic than
from this characteristic.
It may be noted in the end that CB
connection is rarely employed for audio-frequency
circuits
because (i) its current gain is less than unity and (ii) its input and output resistances are so
different.
Common Emitter Configuration
The static characteristics of an NPN transistor
connected in CE configuration may be
determined
by the use of circuit diagram shown in
Fig. A milliammeter (or a
microammeter in the case of a low-
power transistor) is connected in series
with the base to measure IB. Similarly, a
milliammeter is included in the
collector circuit to measure IC. A voltmeter with a typical
range of 0 –1 V is connected across base and emitter terminals for measuring VBE.
Potentiometer R2 connected across dc supply VBB is used to vary IB and VBE. A second voltmeter
with a typical range of 0–20 V is connected across collector-emitter terminals to measure the
output collector-emitter voltage VCE.
Common Emitter Static Characteristics
(a) Input Characteristic
It shows how IB varies with changes in VBE when VCE is held constant at a particular value. To
begin with, voltage VCE is maintained constant at a convenient value and then VBE is increased in
steps. Corresponding values of IB are noted at each step. The procedure is then repeated for a
different but constant value of VCE.
A typical input characteristic is shown in Fig.
Like CB connection, the overall shape resembles the forward
characteristic of a P-N diode. The
reciprocal of the slope gives the input resistance Rin of the
transistor.
 Due to initial non-linearity of the curve, Rin varies considerably from a
value of 4 kΩnear the origin to a value of 600 Ωover the more linear part of the curve.
(b) Output or Collector Characteristic
It indicates the way in which IC varies with changes in VCE when IB is held constant. For
obtaining this characteristic, first IB is set to a convenient value and maintained constant and then
VCE is increased from zero in steps, IC being noted at each step. Next, VCE is reduced to zero and
IB increased to another convenient value and the whole procedure repeated. In this way, a family
of curves (Fig.) is obtained.
It is seen that as VCE increases from zero, IC rapidly
increases to a near saturation level for a fixed value of IB.
As shown, a small amount of collector current flows
even when IB = 0. It is called ICEO . Since main collector
current is zero, the transistor is said to be cut-off.
It may be noted that if VCE is allowed to increase too far,
C/B junction completely breaks down and due to this
avalanche breakdown, IC increases rapidly and may cause
damage to the transistor.
When VCE has very low value (ideally zero), the
transistor is said to be saturated and it operates in the
saturation region of the characteristic. Here, change in IB does not
produce a corresponding change in IC.
This characteristic can be used to find βac at a specific value of IB and VCE. It is given by βac
= ΔIC /ΔIB.
We may select any two points A and B on the IB = 60 μA and 40 μA lines respectively and
measure corresponding values of IC from the diagram for finding ΔIC .
Since ΔIB = (60 – 40) = 20 μA, βac can be easily found.
The value of output resistance
Rout (=ΔVCE /ΔIC) over the near horizontal part of the characteristic varies from 10 kΩto
50 kΩ.
(c) Current Transfer Characteristic
It indicates how IC varies with changes in IB when VCE is held constant at a given value.
Such a typical characteristic is shown in Fig. (a).
Its slope gives
From Fig.it is seen that a small collector current flows even
when IB = 0. It is the common- emitter leakage current
ICEO== (1 +β) ICO. Like ICO, it is also due to
the flow of minority carriers across the
reverse-biased C/B junction.

Common Collector Static Characteristics

As shown in Fig. in this

case, collector terminal is common carrier to both the input (CB) and output (CE) carriers
circuits.
The output characteristic is IE versus VCE for several fixed values of IB. Since IC ≡IE, this
characteristic is practically idential to that of the CE circuit and is shown in Fig. (a).

Similarly, its current gain characteristic IC versus IB for different values of VCE is similar to
that of a CE circuit because IC
≡IE.
The CC input characteristic is a plot of
VCB versus IB for different values of VCE
and is shown in figure (b). It is quite
different from those for CB or CE circuit. This difference is due to the fact that input voltage VCB
is largely determined by the value of CE voltage.
Consider the input characteristic for IB = 100 μA and VCE = 2 V.
VCB = VCE – VBE = 2 – 0.7 = 1.3 V — for Si material
Moreover, as VCB is increased, VBE is reduced thereby reducing IB.
Now, consider the values VCE = 4 V and IB = 100 μA
VCB = 4 – 0.7 = 3.3 V
Again, as VCB increases, IB is decreased.

Comparison between CB, CE & CC Configurations

Property CB CE CC

Input Resistance Low ( 100Ω ) Moderate( 750 Ω ) High ( 750k Ω )

Output resistance High ( 450k Ω) Moderate ( 45k Ω) Low ( 75 Ω)
Current Gain 1 HIGH HIGH
Voltage gain 150 (approximately) 500 (approximately) <1

Phase shift between

input and output 00 or 3600 1800 00 or 3600
voltages

Applications High frequency circuits AF circuits Impedance matching

Hybrid model of an NPN transistor in CE configuration.

Replace x with e, b or c for CE, CB and CC topologies respectively.

As shown in above diagram, the term "x" in the model represents a different BJT lead depending
on the topology used. For common-emitter mode the various symbols take on the specific values
as:
 x = 'e' because it is a common-emitter topology
 Terminal 1 = Base
 Terminal 2 = Collector
 Terminal 3 = Emitter
 ii = Base current (ib)
 io = Collector current (ic)
 Vin = Base-to-emitter voltage (VBE)
 Vo = Collector-to-emitter voltage (VCE)
 and the h-parameters are given by:
hie – The input impedance of the transistor (corresponding to the emitter resistance re).
hre – Represents the dependence of the transistor's IB–VBE curve on the value of VCE. It is
usually very small and is often neglected (assumed to be zero).
hfe – The current-gain of the transistor. This parameter is often specified as hFE or the DC
current-gain (βDC) in datasheets.
hoe – The output impedance of transistor. This term is usually specified as an admittance and has
to be inverted to convert it to an impedance.
For the CE topology, an approximate h-parameter model is commonly used which further
implifies the circuit analysis. For this the hoe and hre parameters are neglected (that is, they are
set to infinity and zero, respectively). It should also be noted that the h-parameter model as
shown is suited to low-frequency, small-signal analysis. For high-frequency analysis the inter
electrode capacitances that are important at high frequencies must be added.
Advantages of h-parameters.
1. h-parameters are real numbers at audio frequencies.
2. These are easy to measure.
3. h-parameter can also be obtained from the transistor static characteristic curves.
4. h-parameters are convenient to use in circuit analysis and design.
5. A set of h-parameters is specified for many transistors by the manufacturers

Analytical expressions

Switching
Bipolar junction transistors are used as electronic switches. With the help of such a switch, a
given load can be turned ON or OFF by a small control signal. This control signal might be the
one appearing at the output of a digital logic or a microprocessor. The power level of the control
signal is usually very small and, hence, it is incapable of switching the load directly. However,
such a control signal is certainly capable of providing enough base drive to switch a transistor
ON or OFF and, hence, the transistor is made to switch the load.
When using BJT as a switch, usually two levels of control signal
are employed. With one level, the transistor operates in the
cut-off region (open) whereas with the other level, it operates in
the saturation region and acts as a shortcircuit.
Fig.(b) shows the condition when control signal vi = 0. In
this case, the BE junction is reverse-biased and the
transistor is open and, hence acts as an open switch.
However, as shown in Fig.(c) if vi equals a positive
voltage of sufficient magnitude to produce saturation i.e. if vi = vi the transistor acts as a closed
switch.
Fig. shows a form of series switching circuit utilizing an NPN transistor with a negative dc
supply and a control signal voltage having levels of zero and – vi.
Switching Times – turn on
• Input voltage rises from 0 to V1
• Base current rises to IB1
• Collector current begins to rise
after the delay time, td
• Collector current rises to steady-
state value ICS
• This “rise time”, tr allows the
Miller capacitance to charge to V1
• turn on time, ton = td + tr
Switching Times – turn off
• Input voltage changes from V1 to
–V2
• Base current changes to –IB2
• Base current remains at –IB2 until
the Miller capacitance discharges
to zero, storage time, ts
• Base current falls to zero as Miller
capacitance charges to –V2, fall
time, tf
• turn off time, toff = ts + tf

RF application

Power transistors

Opto couplers.
An opto-coupler or opto-isolator as it is also called, is a single electronic device that consists of a
light emitting diode combined with either a photo-diode, photo-transistor or photo-triac to
provide an optical signal path between an input connection and an output connection while
maintaining electrical isolation between two circuits. An opto-isolator consists of a light proof
plastic body that has a typical breakdown voltages between the input (photo-diode) and the
output (photo-transistor) circuit of up to 5000 volts. This electrical isolation is especially useful
where the signal from a low voltage circuit such as a battery powered circuit, computer or
microcontroller, is required to operate or control another external circuit operating at a
potentially dangerous mains voltage.
Photo-diode and Photo-transistor Opto-couplers

Photo Diode PhotoTransistor

The two components used in an opto-isolator, an optical transmitter such as an infra-red emitting
Gallium Arsenide LED and an optical receiver such as a photo-transistor are closely optically
coupled and use light to send signals and/or information between its input and output. This
allows information to be transferred between circuits without an electrical connection or
common ground potential. Opto-isolators are digital or switching devices, so they transfer either
"ON-OFF" control signals or digital data. Analogue signals can be transferred by means of
frequency or pulse-width modulation.