Chapter 3 Transistor

Asst. Prof
Sanjivan Satyal
Department of Electronics and Computer
IOE, Pulchowk

1
 Introduction
 The basic of electronic system nowadays is semiconductor device.
 The famous and commonly use of this device is BJTs (Bipolar Junction
Transistors).
 It can be use as amplifier and logic switches.
 TRANSISTOR = TRANSFER + VARISTOR

2
 Bipolar Junction Transistors
• The transistor is a three-layer semiconductor device consisting of
either two n- and one p- type layers of material or two p- and one
n- type layers of material.
• The former is called an npn transistor, while the latter is called a
pnp transistor
• So, there are two types of BJT:
i) pnp transistor ii) npn transistor

3
 Transistor Construction
 3 layer semiconductor device
consisting:
 2 n- and 1 p-type layers of
material  npn transistor
 2 p- and 1 n-type layers of
material  pnp transistor
The term bipolar reflects the
fact that holes and electrons
participate in the injection
4
process into the oppositely
polarized material
 Naming the transistor terminals and symbol of BJT.

5
 In each transistor following points to be noted:

 There are two junction, so transistor can be considered as two diode

connected back to back.
 There are three terminals (E,B,C).
 The middle section is thin than other.

 Transistor has three section of doped semiconductor.

 The section one side is called “emitter”, the opposite side is called
“collector” and the middle section is called “base”.
6
Emitter:
 The section of one side that supplies carriers is called emitter.

 Emitter is always forward biased with respect to base so it can supply carrier.

 For “npn transistor” emitter supply holes to its junction.

Base:
 For “pnp transistor” emitter supply electrons to its junction.
The middle section which forms two
pn junction between emitter and
Collector: collector is called Base.

 The section on the other side that collects carrier is called collector.

 The collector is always reversed biased with respect to base.

 For “npn transistor” collector receives holes to its junction.

7 For “pnp transistor” collector receives electrons to its junction.

 Important factors for Transistors:
 The transistor has three region named emitter, base and collector.
 The Base is much thinner than other region.
 Emitter is heavily doped so it can inject large amount of carriers
into the base.
 Base is lightly doped so it can pass most of the carrier to the
collector.
 Collector is moderately doped.

8
  The junction between emitter and base is called emitter-
base junction(emitter diode) and junction between base
and collector is called collector-base junction(collector
diode).
 The emitter diode is always forward biased and
collector diode is reverse biased.
 The resistance of emitter diode is very small(forward)
and resistance of collector diode is high(reverse).
9
 Transistor Operation

IC=the collector current

VEB = Emitter Base Voltage
IB= the base current
VCB =Collector Base Voltage
IE= the emitter current

10
 Working of npn transistor:
 Forward bias is applied to emitter-base junction and reverse bias is
applied to collector-base junction.
 The forward bias in the emitter-base junction causes electrons to move
toward base. This constitute emitter current, IE
 As this electrons flow toward p-type base, they try to recombine with
holes. As base is lightly doped only few electrons recombine with holes
within the base.
 These recombined electrons constitute small base current.
 The remainder electrons crosses base and constitute collector current.

11
 PNP Transistor Working Principle

IC=the collector current

IB= the base current
IE= the emitter current

12
 2. Working of pnp transistor:
 Forward bias is applied to emitter-base junction and reverse bias is
applied to collector-base junction.
 The forward bias in the emitter-base junction causes holes to move
toward base. This constitute emitter current, IE
 As this holes flow toward n-type base, they try to recombine with
electrons. As base is lightly doped only few holes recombine with
electrons within the base.
 These recombined holes constitute small base current.
 The remainder holes crosses base and constitute collector current.

13
 Transistor Operating Modes
 Active Mode: Base-Emitter junction
is forward and Base-Collector
junction is reverse biased.
 Saturation Mode: Base-Emitter
junction is forward and Base-
Collector junction is forward biased.
 Cut-off Mode: Both junctions are
reverse biased.
 Reverse Active Mode: Base-Emitter
junction is reverse and Base-Collector
junction is forward biased.

14
 summary

15
 Transistor configuration

 There are only three terminals but while

connecting transistor to a circuit it needs four
terminals –two for input and two for output.
Thus one terminal is made common to both
input and output.
 Depending on which of the three terminals is
used as common terminal, there can be three
possible configurations for a transistor:
 Common emitter (CE),
 Common base (CB),
 Common collector (CC).

16
 Common Base Connection
 The common-base terminology is derived from the fact that the base is
common to both the input and output sides of the configuration.

• First Figure shows common base npn configuration and second

17 figure shows common base pnp configuration.
Current amplification factor ():
 The ratio of change in collector current to the change in emitter
current at constant VCB is known as current amplification factor,
.
  IC at constant VCB
I E

Note: Practical value of  is less than unity, but in the range of 0.9 to 0.99

18
 Expression for Collector Current
 Total emitter current does not reach the collector terminal, because a small portion of it
constitute base current. So,
I E  IC  I B
 Also, collector diode is reverse biased, so very few minority carrier passes the
collector-base junction which actually constitute leakage current, I CBO .
 So, collector current constitute of portion of emitter current IE and leakage current
ICBO .
IC  IE  ICB 0

19
 Characteristics of common base configuration

Input Characteristics:
 VBE vs IE characteristics is
called input characteristics.
 IE increases rapidly with VBE .
It means input resistance is
very small.
 Small increment in IE
increases VCB.

20
 Output Characteristics:

 VBc vs Ic characteristics is
called output characteristics.
 IC varies linearly with VBc
,only when VBc is very
small.
 As, VBc increases, IC
becomes constant.
 IC is nearly equal to IE
21
 Input and Output Resistance of common base configuration:

Input Resistance: The ratio of change in emitter-base voltage to the change

in emitter current is called Input Resistance.

ri  VBE
I E

Output Resistance: The ratio of change in collector-base voltage to the change

in collector current is called Output Resistance.

VBC
r0 
I C
22
 Common Emitter Connection:
 The common-emitter terminology is derived from the fact that the emitter is
common to both the input and output sides of the configuration.

• First Figure shows common emitter npn configuration and second

figure shows common emitter pnp configuration.
23
 Common Emitter Connection
Base Current amplification factor ( ) :
 In common emitter connection input current is base current and
output current is collector current.

 The ratio of change in collector current to the change in base

current is known as base current amplification factor,
IC

I B
 Normally only 5% of emitter current flows to base, so
amplification factor is greater than 20. Usually this range varies
24
from 20 to 500.
 Relation Between  and :
1

3.

Also
2

25
 Expression for Collector Current

26
 Characteristics of common emitter configuration
Input Characteristics:
 VBE vs IB characteristics is called
input characteristics.
 IB increases rapidly with VBE . It
means input resistance is very
small.
 IB is of the range of micro amps.
 As the value of VCB increases IB
decreases

27
 Output Characteristics:

 VCE vs Ic characteristics is called

output characteristics.
 IC varies linearly with VCE ,only
when VCE is very small.
 Collector current IC increases
sharply with increasing VCE in linear
region of 0/P characteristic.

28
Input and Output Resistance of common emitter configuration:

Input Resistance: The ratio of change in emitter-base voltage to

the change in base current is called Input Resistance.
VBE
ri 
I B

Output Resistance: The ratio of change in collector-emitter voltage

to the change in collector current is called Output Resistance.
VCE
r0 
I C
29
 Common Collector Configuration

30
 Common Collector Configuration
 The common-collector terminology is derived from the fact that the collector is
common to both the input and output sides of the configuration.

• First Figure shows common collector npn configuration and second figure
shows common collector pnp configuration.
31
Current amplification factor (  ):
 In common emitter connection input current is base current and output current is
emitter current.
 The ratio of change in emitter current to the change in base current is known as
current amplification factor in common collector configuration.

  I E
I B

 This circuit provides same gain as CE configuration as :

I E  I C

32
 Relation Between  and :

33
 Expression for Collector Current

34
Comparison of Transistor Connection

35
 DC analysis (Large Scale Model)

Large scale model is used to determine the DC

operating point IB,IC,VBE,VCE.

Looking through the base terminal(B) , we

notice a forward biased diode between
base(B) and emitter (E) and the current IB
flows into the terminal

Looking at the collector terminal ,it can be

observed that current IC into the terminal

36
 AC analysis (Small Scale Model)

Assignment

37
 To represent the transistor by a circuit model that is only valid
under AC conditions.

Once the model is known, numerical results for amplifiers can be

quickly calculated.
There are several models: h-parameter model, dynamic r-e
model, hybrid-π model.

38
39
 Transistor Load line analysis

 In transistor circuit analysis it is necessary to determine

collector current for various VCE voltage.
 One method is we can determine the collector current at any
desired VCE voltage, from the output characteristics.
 More conveniently we can use load line analysis to
determine operating point.

40
 Transistor Load line analysis

 Consider common emitter npn

transistor circuit shown in figure.
 There is no input signal.
 Applying KVL in the output
circuit

41
 Transistor Load line analysis

Q in the figure define quiescent point or Q-point.

42
 Operating Point

 It is called operating point because variation of IC takes

place about this point.
 It is also called quiescent point or Q-point.

43
 Transistor as an amplifier in CE configuration:

VBB VCC

 Figure shows CE amplifier for npn transistor.

 Battery VBB is connected with base in-order to make base forward biased,
regardless of input ac polarity.
44 Output is taken across Load R
 Continue
 During positive half cycle input ac will keep the emitter- base
junction more forward biased. So, more carrier will be emitted by
emitter, this huge current will flow through load and we will find
output amplified signal.
 During negative half cycle input ac will keep the emitter-
base junction less forward biased. So, less carrier will be
emitted by emitter. Hence collector current decreases.
 This results in decreased output voltage (In opposite
direction).

45
 Example : Load line
Plot the dc load line for the circuit shown in the figure. Then, find the values of
VCE for IC = 1, 2, 5 mA respectively.

+10 V
IC

VCE  VCC  I C RC
RC
1 k
10 IC (mA) VCE (V)
RB
8 1 9
6 2 8
Q1
4 5 5
2

VCE
2 4 6 8 10
46
 Transistor as aSwitch
When used as anAC signal amplifier, the transistors Base biasing voltage is applied in such a
way that it always operates within its “active” region, that is the linear part of the output
characteristics curves are used. However, both the NPN & PNP type bipolar transistors can
be made to operate as “ON/OFF” type solid state switches by biasing the transistors base
differently to that of a signal amplifier.
Transistor switch operating region
NPN Transistor and PNP Transistor V-I
Characteristics curves have shown in figure.

47
 The areas of operation for aTransistor Switch are known as the Saturation Region and the
Cut-off Region. This means then that we can ignore the operating Q-point biasing and
voltage divider circuitry required for amplification, and use the transistor as a switch by
driving it back and forth between its “fully-OFF” (cut-off) and “fully-ON” (saturation)
regions as shown in figure.
The pink shaded area at the bottom of the curves represents the “Cut-off” region while
the blue area to the left represents the “Saturation” region of the transistor. Both these
transistor regions are defined as:
1. Cut-off Region

Then we can define the “cut-off region” or “OFF mode” when using a bipolar transistor
as a switch as being, both junctions reverse biased, VB < 0.7v and IC = 0. For a PNP
transistor, the Emitter potential must be negative with respect to the Base.

48
 Here the operating conditions of the transistor are zero input base current (IB ),
zero output collector current ( IC ) and maximum collector voltage ( VCE ) which
results in a large depletion layer and no current flowing through the device.
Therefore the transistor is switched “Fully-OFF”.
Transistor switch in cut-off

49
2. Saturation Region
Here the transistor will be biased so that the maximum amount of base current is applied,
resulting in maximum collector current resulting in the minimum collector emitter voltage
drop which results in the depletion layer being as small as possible and maximum current
flowing through the transistor. Therefore the transistor is switched “Fully-ON”.
Saturation Characteristics
transistor switch insaturation
Then we can define the “saturation region” or
“ON mode” when using a bipolar transistor
as a switch as being, both junctions forward
biased, VB > 0.7v and IC = Maximum. For a PNP
transistor, the Emitter potential must be
positive with respect to the Base.
50
 Transistor as a Switch

Cutoff Mode :
VBB = 0, or VBB<VBE
Then
IB = 0 as IC= β IB , so IC =0 too
i.e. no voltage drop
Vout = Vcc
When Vcc = +5v;
R = Vcc/ Ic = infinite
51
 Saturation Mode :
When BJT operates in the saturation mode, the VCE voltage very low
VCE = 0.1 to 0.2V i.e approx =0
IC (Sat) = VCC/RC = Maximum current
Rsat = VCE/ Icsat = 0
i.e. R = 0, short circuit.

52
 Transistor biasing
 Base bias circuits(Fixed bias)
 Voltage-divider bias circuits
 Emitter-bias circuits
 Feedback-bias circuits
 Collector-feedback bias circuits
 Emitter-feedback bias circuits

53
 Base Biasing:
VCC Advantage: Circuit simplicity.
Disadvantage: Q-point shift with temp.
Applications: Switching circuits only.
RC
IC
RB
Output
IB
Input Q1 Circuit recognition: A single resistor
(RB) between the base terminal and
+0.7 V
IE VCC. No emitter resistor.
VBE

54
55
 Emitter-Feedback Characteristics
+VCC
Circuit recognition: Similar to
voltage divider bias with R2
missing (or base bias with RE
added).
RB RC
IC Advantage: A simple circuit
with relatively stable Q-point.
IB
Disadvantage: Requires more
components
Applications: Used primarily to
IE RE bias linear amplifiers.

56 19
 +VCC

RB RC
IC

IB

IE= IC RE

57 20
 Voltage-divider bias characteristics:
+VCC
Circuit recognition: The
voltage divider in the base
circuit.

IC RC Advantages: The circuit Q-

I1 R1 point values are stable
against changes in hFE.
IB
Output Disadvantages: Requires
more components than most
Input other biasing circuits.
I2 R2 Applications: Used primarily
IE RE
to bias linear amplifier.

58
 Fig : a
59
60
 Field Effect Transistor

61
 FETs vs. BJTs
Similarities:
• Amplifiers
FET has several advantages over BJT
• Switching devices
• Impedance matching circuits
1. Current flow is due to majority carriers only
Differences: 2. Immune to radiation
• FETs are voltage controlled devices. BJTs are current 3. High input resistance
controlled devices.
• FETs have a higher input impedance. BJTs have higher 4. Less noisy than BJT
gains. 5. No offset voltages at zero drain current
• FETs are less sensitive to temperature variations and are
more easily integrated on ICs. 6. High thermal stability
• FETs are generally more static sensitive than BJTs.

62
Classification of Field Effect Transistors

FET

JFET MOSFET

N-channel p-channel Depletion type Enhancement type

p-channel N-channel
p-channel N-channel

63 AEI302.31 TO 33
 JFET Construction
There are two types of JFETs

•n-channel
•p-channel

The n-channel is more widely used.

There are three terminals:

•Drain (D) and Source (S) are connected to the n-channel

•Gate (G) is connected to the p-type material

64 64
 JFET Operation: The Basic Idea
JFET operation can be compared to a water spigot.

The source of water pressure is the

accumulation of electrons at the
negative pole of the drain-source
voltage.

The drain of water is the electron

deficiency (or holes) at the positive
pole of the applied voltage.

The control of flow of water is the

gate voltage that controls the width
of the n-channel and, therefore, the
flow of charges from source to
drain.

65
 JFET Operating Characteristics

There are three basic operating conditions for a JFET:

• VGS = 0, VDS increasing to some positive value

• VGS < 0, VDS at some positive value
• Voltage-controlled resistor

66
 JFET Operating Characteristics: VGS = 0 V
Three things happen when VGS = 0 and VDS is increased from 0 to a more positive
voltage
• The depletion region between p-gate
and n-channel increases as electrons
from n-channel combine with holes
from p-gate.

• Increasing the depletion region,

decreases the size of the n-channel
which increases the resistance of the
n-channel.

• Even though the n-channel resistance

is increasing, the current (ID) from
source to drain through the n-
channel is increasing. This is because
VDS is increasing.

67
 JFET Operating Characteristics: Pinch Off

If VGS = 0 and VDS is further increased to

a more positive voltage, then the
depletion zone gets so large that it
pinches off the n-channel.

This suggests that the current in the n-

channel (ID) would drop to 0A, but it does
just the opposite–as VDS increases, so does
ID.

68
 JFET Operating Characteristics: Saturation

At the pinch-off point:

• Any further increase in VGS does not

produce any increase in ID. VGS at
pinch-off is denoted as Vp.

• ID is at saturation or maximum. It is
referred to as IDSS.

• The ohmic value of the channel is

maximum.

69
 JFET Operating Characteristics

As VGS becomes more negative, the

depletion region increases.

70
 JFET Operating Characteristics
As VGS becomes more negative:

• The JFET experiences

pinch-off at a lower voltage
(VP).

• ID decreases (ID < IDSS) even

though VDS is increased.

• Eventually ID reaches 0 A.
VGS at this point is called Vp
or VGS(off)..

Also note that at high levels of VDS the JFET reaches a breakdown situation. ID
increases uncontrollably if VDS > VDSmax.

71
 JFET Operating Characteristics: Voltage-Controlled Resistor

The region to the left of the

pinch-off point is called the
ohmic region.

The JFET can be used as a

variable resistor, where VGS
controls the drain-source
resistance (rd). As VGS becomes
more negative, the resistance
(rd) increases.
ro
rd 
2
 V 
 1  GS 
 VP 

72
 MOSFETs
 MOSFETs have characteristics similar to JFETs and additional characteristics that
make then very useful.
There are two types of MOSFETs:
• Enhancement-Type
• Depletion-Type

73
 Simplified Version of SYMBOL of MOSFET

74
 The Enhancement Type MOSFET
Operations:

1. Operation with no gate voltage

- When no gate voltage is applied or
no bias voltage is applied two back
to back diodes exist in series
between drain and source.
- Thus prevent current conduction
form drain to source

2. Operation with no gate voltage

-The source and the drain are grounded and a positive voltage is applied to the gate
-This VGS will induce n-type channel
- The value of VGS at which a sufficient number of mobile electrons accumulate in
the channel region to form a conduction channel and is called the threshold
75
voltage (Vt)
 3. When small VDS is applied

when channel is created , small VDS is applied.

so, ID flows through the induced channel

ID depends upon the electron density of the

channel and magnitude of VGS

for VGS = Vt , the channel is just induced and the

current conducted is still negligibly small

As VGS exceeds Vt, more electrons are attracted

into the channel thus channel depth increases

i.e. increase conductance or equivalent reduced

resistance

76
 4. When VDS is increased

VGS greater than Vt and made fix

Now, vary VDS for ID current

As VDS increase, the channel width near drain go

on reducing and becomes tapered shape as in figure

When VGS-VDS = Vt ; Channel width at drain almost

zero and the channel is said to be pinched off

Then VGS further increases, current remains

constant

77
 Basic Operation of the E-Type MOSFET
The enhancement-type MOSFET operates only in the enhancement mode.

 VGS is always positive

 As VGS increases, ID increases

 As VGS is kept constant and VDS

is increased, then ID saturates
(IDSS) and the saturation level,
VDSsat is reached

78
 Depletion-Type MOSFET Construction

Similar to enhancement in construction

But it has physically implanted channel

between the drain and source for
conduction of carriers

Conditions :
For VGS =0 and if VDS is applied; no need for induced channel, so current ID
flows
VGS = +Ve voltage means , it works as enchantment type MOSFET

79
BUT VGS = -ve Voltage applied generally;

-ve voltage repeals electrons from the channel and thus becomes shallower and
it’s conductivity decreases.

VGS =-ve means depletion of the channel

As VGS is further decrease means channel is completely depleted and ID = 0 even
though VDS = applied

In this condition , VGS is the threshold voltage is known as pinch off voltage

80
 Depletion type MOSFET Characteristic Curve
Depletion Mode
The characteristics are similar to a JFET.
• When VGS = 0 V, ID = IDSS
• When VGS < 0 V, ID < IDSS

81
 Handling MOSFETs
 MOSFETs are very sensitive to static electricity. Because of the very thin SiO2
layer between the external terminals and the layers of the device, any small
electrical discharge can create an unwanted conduction.

Protection

 Always transport in a static sensitive bag

 Always wear a static strap when handling MOSFETS
 Apply voltage limiting devices between the gate and source, such as back-to-back
Zeners to limit any transient voltage.

82
 Comparison of MOSFET and JFET

Sno JFET MOSFET

1. JFET Gate is not insulated
from the channel
2. Channel and gate forms two
pn junctions
3. There are only 3 leads
4. Can be operated in
depletion mode only
5. Input impedance is high
MOSFET or IGFET is insulated from
the channel
Channel and gate forms parrallel
plate capacitor.
There are 4 leads
Can be operated inboth depletion
and enhancement mode
Input impedance is very high

6. Signal handling capacity is Signal handling capacity is more

less
7. Gate current is more Gate current is very less Easy to

8. Fabrication is complex and fabricate,cheap. Most

costly
 CMOS Devices
 CMOS (complementary
MOSFET) uses a p-channel
and n-channel MOSFET;
often on the same substrate
as shown here.
Advantages
• Useful in logic circuit designs
• Higher input impedance
• Faster switching speeds
• Lower operating power levels

 In this device two

MOSFETs that are
complementary to each
other are used.

84
 CMOS Logic Gates

CMOS NOR Gate CMOS Inverter

85