BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

INTRODUCTION
Beside diodes, the most popular semiconductor devices is transistors. Transistors are often said
to be the most significant invention of the 20th Century. If cells are the building blocks of life,
transistors are the building blocks of the digital revolution. Without transistors, the technological
wonders you use every day -- cell phones, computers, cars -- would be vastly different, if they
existed at all. Transistors are more complex and can be used in many ways. Most important
feature: can amplify signals and as switch. Amplification can make weak signal strong (make
sounds louder and signal levels greater), in general, provide function called Gain.

Figure 1

The transistor is a three-layer semiconductor device consisting of either two n- and one p-type
layers of material or two p- and one n-type layers of material. • The former is called an npn
transistor, while the latter is called a pnp transistor • So, there are two types of BJT
i. pnp transistor
ii. npn transistor

Figure 1

In each transistor following points to be noted

i. There are two junction, so transistor can be considered as two diode connected back to
back.
 ii. There are three terminals.
iii. The middle section is thin than the others.

Figure 2

The Transistor has three section of doped semiconductor. Looking at Figure 2 of a BJT
Transistor symbol, the section one side is called “emitter” and the opposite side is called
“collector”. The middle section is called “base”.

1) Emitter: The section of one side that supplies carriers is called emitter. Emitter is always
forward biased with respect to the base so it can supply carriers. For “npn transistors” the emitter
supply holes to its junction. For “pnp transistor” emitter supply electrons to its junction.

2) Collector: The section on the other side that collects carrier is called collector. The collector is
always reversed biased wrt to base. For “npn transistor” collector receives holes to its junction.
For “pnp transistor” collector receives electrons to its junction.

3) Base: The middle section which forms two pn junction between emitter and collector is called
Base.

WORKING OF AN NPN TRANSISTOR

Forward bias is applied to the emitter base junction and reverse bias is applied to the collector
base junction. The forward bias in the emitter-base junction causes electrons to move toward
base. This constitute emitter current I E , as shown in Figure 3. As this electrons flow toward p-
type base, they try to recombine with holes. As the base is lightly doped only few electrons
recombine with holes within the base.These recombined electrons constitute small base current.
The remainder electrons crosses base and constitute collector current.
 Figure 3

WORKING OF A PNP TRANSISTOR

Forward bias is applied to emitter base junction and reverse bias is applied to collector base
junction. The forward bias in the emitter-base junction causes holes to move toward base. This
constitute emitter current I E , as shown in Figure 4

Figure 4

As this holes flow toward n-type base, they try to recombine with electrons. As base is lightly
doped only few holes recombine with electrons within the base. These recombined holes
constitute small base current. The remainder holes crosses base and constitute collector current.
TRANSISTOR SYMBOLS
Figure 5(i) shows the symbols and current flow for an NPN transistor and Figure 5(ii) shows the
symbols and current flow for a PNP transistor

Figure 5

TRANSISTOR OPERATING MODES

Active Mode
Base- Emitter junction is forward and Base-Collector junction is reverse biased.
Saturation Mode
Base- Emitter junction is forward and Base-Collector junction is forward biased.
Cut-off Mode
Both junctions are reverse biased.

TRANSISTOR CONNECTIONS
Transistor can be connected in a circuit in following three ways- 1) Common Base 2) Common
Emitter 3) Common Collector

COMMON BASE CONFIGURATION

The common-base terminology is derived from the fact that the base is common to both the input
and output sides of the configuration. Figure 6 shows common base npn configuration and
common base pnp configuration.
 Figure 6

The ratio of change in collector current to the change in emitter current at constant VCB is
known as current amplification factor α .

Practical value of the current amplification factor is less than unity, but in the range of 0.9 to
0.99. Total emitter current does not reach the collector terminal, because a small portion of it
constitute base current. So,

Also, collector diode is reverse biased, so very few minority carrier passes the collector-base
junction which actually constitute leakage current I CBO. So, collector current constitute of portion
of emitter current α I E and leakage current I CBO.

Therefore

But
I B ≫ I CBO
Hence
α
IC≈ I
1−α B
Characteristics of Common Base Configuration

Input Characteristics

 V BE vs I E characteristics is called input characteristics.

 I E increases rapidly with V BE . It means input resistance is very small.
 I E almost independent of V CB .

Figure 7

Output Characteristics

 V BC vs I C characteristics are called output characteristics.

 I C varies linearly with V BC ,only when V BC is very small.
 As, V BC increases, I C becomes constant.
 Figure 8
Input and Output Resistance of Common Base Configuration

Input Resistance: The ratio of change in emitter-base voltage to the change in emitter current is
called the Input Resistance.

Output Resistance: The ratio of change in collector-base voltage to the change in collector
current is called the Output Resistance.

COMMON EMMITER CONFIGURATION

The common-emitter terminology is derived from the fact that the emitter is common to both the
input and output sides of the configuration.
 Figure 9

Figure 9 shows common emitter npn configuration and common emitter pnp configuration.
In common emitter connection input current is base current and output current is collector
current. The ratio of change in collector current to the β change in base current is known as base
current amplification factor,

Normally only 5% of emitter current flows to base, so amplification factor is greater than 20.
Usually this range varies from 20 to 500.
Relationship between α and β :

Therefore
Expression for the collector current

but
I B ≫ I CBO
β≫1
Therefore
IC≈ IE ≈ β I B

Characteristics

Input Characteristics
 V BEvs I B characteristics are called input characteristics.
 I B increases rapidly with V BE . It means input resistance is very small.
 I E almost independent of V CE .
 I B is of the range of micro amps.
 Figure 10

Output Characteristics
 V CE vs I C characteristics is called output characteristics.
 I C varies linearly with V CE ,only when V CE is very small.
 As, V CE increases, I C becomes constant.

Figure 11

Input and Output Resistance of Common Emitter Configuration

Input Resistance: The ratio of change in emitter-base voltage to the change in base current is
called Input Resistance.
Output Resistance: The ratio of change in collector-emitter voltage to the change in collector
current is called Output Resistance.

COMMON COLLECTOR CONFIGURATION

The common-collector terminology is derived from the fact that the collector is common to both
the input and output sides of the configuration.

Figure 12

Figure 12 shows common collector npn configuration and common collector pnp configuration.
In common emitter connection input current is base current and output current is emitter current.
The ratio of change in emitter current to the change in base current is known as current
amplification factor in common collector configuration.

Relationship between γ and α :

But
Therefore

Dividing the Numerator and Denominator by ∆ I E

Expression for the Collector Current

But
I B ≫ I CBO
Therefore
I C ≈ I E ≈ ( β +1 ) I B
But
β≫1
Therefore
IC≈ IE ≈ β I B

TRANSISTOR APPLICATIONS

TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH
When used as an electronic switch, the transistor is normally operated alternately in cut-off and
saturation regions.
 Figure 13

TRANSISTOR AS AN AMPLIFIER
One of the most important uses of a BJT is in amplification. Due to the small changes in base
current the collector current will mimic the input with greater amplitude. Figure 14 shows CE
amplifier for npn transistor

V BB Figure 14

Battery V BB is connected with base in-order to make base forward biased, regardless of input ac
polarity. Output is taken across Load RC .During the positive half cycle input ac will keep the
emitter base junction more forward biased. So, more carrier will be emitted by the emitter, this
huge current will flow through load and we will find output amplified signal.
During negative half cycle input ac will keep the emitter-base junction less forward biased. So,
less carrier will be emitted by emitter. Hence collector current decreases. This results in
decreased output voltage (In opposite direction).
TRANSISTOR LOAD LINE ANALYSIS
Consider the common emitter npn transistor circuit shown in Figure 15. There is no input signal.
Apply KVL in the output circuit

Figure 15
 Figure 16
The zero signal values of I C and V CE are known as the operating point or the Quiescent point (Q
point).