EE 152 BASIC ELECTRONICS

GIDEON ADOM-BAMFI
What to expect?

Operation of Transistor
Introduction
a transistor Configurations

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BIPOLAR JUNCTION
TRANSISTORS

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 1. BIPOLAR JUNCTION
TRANSISTORS

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A transistor is a three terminal solid state semiconductor device
commonly used as an amplifier or a switch.

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Introduction
• A bipolar junction transistor is a three terminal solid state semiconductor device
commonly used as an amplifier or a switch.

• The word “transistor” is a combination of the two words “transfer varistor”.

• Current conduction in the transistor is based on the movement of two majority

current carriers (holes and electrons).

• The term bipolar denotes this condition of conduction.

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Bipolar Transistor Construction
• A transistor consists of two pn junctions formed by sandwiching either p-type or n-
type semiconductor between a pair of opposite types.

Accordingly, there are two types of transistors, namely:

• NPN transistor
• PNP transistor

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Bipolar Transistor Construction
• Diodes are made up from two pieces of semiconductor material to form a simple pn
junction.

• When two individual diodes are joined back-to-back, we get two pn junctions
connected together in series that share a common P or N terminal.

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Terminals of a Bipolar Transistor
The three (3) terminals of a BJT(NPN or PNP) are:
• Emitter (E)
• Base (B)
• Collector (C)

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Terminals of a Bipolar Transistor
The junction between emitter and base is called the emitter-base junction while the
junction between the collector and base is called the collector-base junction.

1. Base (B)
• The base is thin and lightly doped.
• By making the base very thin and the impurity concentration in the base much less
than in the emitter and collector, free electrons(holes) emerging from the emitter
have little chance of combining with the holes(electrons) in the base with the result
that only about 98% of these electrons(holes) reach the collector.

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Terminals of a Bipolar Transistor
2. Emitter (E)
• The emitter is heavily doped.
• Its main function is to supply majority charge carriers (either electrons or holes) to
the base.
• It is wider when compared to the base.

3. Collector (C)
• The collector is moderately doped.
• Its main function is to collect majority charge carriers coming from the emitter and
passing through the base.
• The width of the collector is more when compared to both the base and emitter to
help dissipate heat that might be associated with the operation of the transistor.

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PNP vs NPN Transistor
In order to distinguish the emitter and collector, an arrow is included on the emitter.
• For a PNP transistor, the arrowhead points from emitter to base meaning that emitter
is positive with respect to base.

• For an NPN transistor, the arrowhead points from base to emitter meaning that base
is positive with respect to the emitter.

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2. OPERATION OF A
TRANSISTOR

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How does a transistor work?

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Transistor Currents
There are three currents in a transistor:
• Emitter Current, IE
• Collector Current, IC
• Base Current, IB

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Operating Regions of a Transistor
A transistor can be operated in three different regions as:
• active region,
• saturation region
• cut-off region

EMITTER BASE COLLECTOR BASE

MODE PURPOSE
JUNCTION (EBJ) JUNCTION (CBJ)

Forward
ACTIVE Reverse Amplification

SATURATION Forward Forward Switching

CUT-OFF Reverse Reverse Switching

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Theory of Operation of an NPN transistor
Working of an NPN transistor in the Active Region
• In the NPN transistor, the emitter-base junction is forward biased while the collector-
base junction is reversed bias.

• The forward bias causes the electrons in the n-type emitter to flow towards the base.

• This constitutes the emitter current IE.

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Theory of Operation of an NPN transistor
Working of an NPN transistor in the Active Region
• As these electrons flow through the p-type base, they tend to combine with holes.

• As the base is lightly doped and very thin, only few electrons (less than 5%) combine
with holes to constitute base current IB.

• The remainder (more than 95%) cross over into the collector region to constitute
collector current IC.

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Theory of Operation of an NPN transistor
Working of an NPN transistor in the Active Region
• In this way, almost the entire emitter current flows in the collector circuit.

• It is clear that emitter current is the sum of collector and base current.

IE = IC + IB

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Theory of Operation of an PNP transistor
Working of a PNP transistor in the Active Region
• In the PNP transistor, the emitter-base junction is forward biased while the collector-
base junction is reversed bias.

• The forward bias causes the holes in the p-type emitter to flow towards the base.

• This constitutes the emitter current IE.

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Theory of Operation of an PNP transistor
Working of a PNP transistor in the Active Region
• As these holes cross into n-type base, they tend to combine with the electrons.

• As the base is lightly doped and very thin, only a few holes (less than 5%) combine
with the electrons.

• The remainder (more than 95%) cross into the collector region to constitute the
collector current IC

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 3. TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATIONS

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A transistor has three terminals.
When it is connected in a circuit, we require four terminals:
Two for the input and two for the output.
This difficulty is overcome by making one terminal of the transistor common to
both the input and output

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Bipolar Transistor Configurations
• There are basically three possible ways to connect it within an electronic circuit with
one terminal being common to both the input and output.

• Each method of connection responding differently to its input signal within a circuit as
the static characteristics of the transistor vary with each circuit arrangement.

There are three transistor configurations:

1. Common Base Configuration - Has voltage gain but no current gain.

2. Common Emitter Configuration - Has both current and voltage gain.

3. Common Collector Configuration - Has current gain but no voltage gain.

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1. Common Base Configuration
• In the Common Base or Grounded Base configuration, the BASE connection is common
to both the input signal and the output signal.

• The input signal is applied between the base and emitter terminals, while the output
signal is taken from between the base and the collector terminals as shown.

• The base terminal is grounded or can be connected to some fixed reference voltage
point.

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1. Common Base Configuration
• The input current flowing into the emitter is quite large as its the sum of both the base
current and collector current.

• The collector current output is less than the emitter current input resulting in a current
gain for this type of circuit of “1” (unity) or less.

• In other words the common base configuration “attenuates” or weakens the input
signal.

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1. Common Base Configuration
▷  
Common Base Current Amplification Factor (α)
It is the ratio of the output current to the input current. It is also known as the current gain
In the common base configuration, the output current is I C while the input current is IE.
Hence:
α=

Common Base Voltage Gain (Av)

It is the ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage.
Av = =

Where is the resistance gain.

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1. Common Base Configuration
Things to note
• This type of amplifier configuration is a non-inverting voltage amplifier circuit, in that
the signal voltages Vin and Vout are “in-phase”.

• This type of transistor arrangement is not very common due to its unusually high
voltage gain characteristics.

• Its input characteristics represent that of a forward biased diode while the output
characteristics represent that of an illuminated photo-diode.

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1. Common Base Configuration
Things to note
• This type of bipolar transistor configuration has a high ratio of output to input
resistance or more importantly “load” resistance ( RL ) to “input” resistance ( Rin )
giving it a value of “Resistance Gain”.

• The common base circuit is generally only used in single stage amplifier circuits such as
microphone pre-amplifier or radio frequency ( Rƒ ) amplifiers due to its very good high
frequency response.

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1. Common Base Configuration
Transistor Characteristics
• These are the curves which represent the relationship between different DC currents
and voltages of a transistor.

• There are two main transistor characteristics: input and output characteristics.

• Transistor characteristic curves are helpful in studying the operation of a transistor

when connected in a circuit.

• The static characteristics of an NPN transistor connected in common-base

configuration can be determined by the use of test circuit shown below.

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1. Common Base Configuration
Transistor Characteristics

• Milliammeters are included in series with the emitter and collector circuits to measure
IE and IC. Similarly, voltmeters are connected across E and B to measure voltage V BE and
across C and B to measure VCB. The two potentiometer resistors R1 and R2 supply
variable voltages from the collector and emitter DC supplies respectively 28
1. Common Base Configuration
Input Characteristics
• The input characteristic is a curve between IE
and emitter base voltage VBE, keeping VCB
constant.

• IE is taken along the y-axis and VBE is taken

along the x-axis.

• This is called the input characteristic because

the base-emitter will become the input
terminals.

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1. Common Base Configuration
Input Characteristics
• First, voltage VCB is adjusted to a suitable
value with R1.

• Next, voltage VBE is increased in a number of

discrete steps and corresponding values of IE
are noted from the milliammeter connected
for the purpose.

• When plotted, we get the input characteristic

curve.

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1. Common Base Configuration
Output Characteristics
• The output characteristic is a curve between
IC and VCB at constant IE.

• The collector current IC is taken along the y-

axis and VCB is taken along the x-axis.

• The method of obtaining this characteristic is

as follows:

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1. Common Base Configuration
Output Characteristics
• First, the movable contact on R2 is changed to
get a suitable value of VBE and hence that of IE.

• While keeping IE constant at this value, VCB is

increased from zero in a number of steps and the
corresponding collector current IC that flows is
noted.

• Next, VCB is reduced back to zero, IE is increased

to a value a little higher than before and the
whole procedure is repeated. In this way, whole
family of curves is obtained.
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2. Common Emitter Configuration
• In the Common Emitter or grounded emitter configuration, the input signal is applied
between the base and the emitter, while the output is taken from between the collector
and the emitter as shown.

• This type of configuration is the most commonly used circuit for transistor based
amplifiers and which represents the “normal” method of bipolar transistor connection.

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2. Common Emitter Configuration
• The common emitter amplifier configuration produces the highest current and power
gain of all the three bipolar transistor configurations.

• This is mainly because the input impedance is LOW as it is connected to a forward

biased PN-junction, while the output impedance is HIGH as it is taken from a reverse
biased PN-junction.

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2. Common Emitter Configuration
▷ this
In   type of configuration, the current flowing out of the transistor must be equal to the
currents flowing into the transistor as the emitter current is given as:
IE = IC + IB.

Common Emitter Current Gain (β)

It is the ratio of the output current to the input current. In the common emitter
configuration, the output current is IC while the input current is IB.
β=

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2. Common Emitter Configuration
▷ 
Relationship between α and β
From α = , IC = αIE _________ (1)
From β = , IC = βIB _________ (2)

Equating (1) to (2)

αIE = βIB
Using this together with IE = IC + IB we get,

α= =

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2. Common Emitter Configuration
Things to note
• The value of Alpha will always be less than unity.

• Since the electrical relationship between these three currents, I B, IC and IE is determined
by the physical construction of the transistor itself, any small change in the base
current (IB), will result in a much larger change in the collector current (I C).

• Small changes in current flowing in the base will thus control the current in the
emitter-collector circuit.

• Typically, Beta has a value between 20 and 200 for most general purpose transistors.

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2. Common Emitter Configuration
Things to note
• If a transistor has a Beta value of say 100, then one electron will flow from the base
terminal for every 100 electrons flowing between the emitter-collector terminal.

• The common emitter configuration has a greater input impedance, current and power
gain than that of the common base configuration but its voltage gain is much lower.

• The common emitter configuration is an inverting amplifier circuit.

• This means that the resulting output signal has a 180o phase-shift with regards to the
input voltage signal.

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2. Common Emitter Configuration
Transistor Characteristics
• The static characteristics of a transistor connected in CE configuration may be
determined by the use of circuit diagram shown in the figure below.

• A milliammeter is connected in series with the base to measure I B. Similarly, a

milliammeter is included in the collector circuit to measure I C.

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2. Common Emitter Configuration
Transistor Characteristics
• A voltmeter with a typical range of 0–1V is connected across base and emitter
terminals for measuring VBE. Potentiometer R2 connected across dc supply VBB is used to
vary IB and VBE.

• A second voltmeter with a typical range of 0–20V is connected across the collector-
emitter terminals to measure the output collector-emitter voltage V CE.

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2. Common Emitter Configuration
Transistor Characteristics
• A voltmeter with a typical range of 0–1V is connected across base and emitter
terminals for measuring VBE. Potentiometer R2 connected across dc supply VBB is used to
vary IB and VBE.

• A second voltmeter with a typical range of 0–20V is connected across the collector-
emitter terminals to measure the output collector-emitter voltage V CE.

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2. Common Emitter Configuration
Input Characteristics
• Input characteristic is a curve between VBE and
base current IB at constant VCE.

• To begin with, voltage VCE is maintained constant

at a convenient value and then VBE is increased in
steps.

• Corresponding values of IB are noted at each step.

• The procedure is then repeated for a different but

constant value of VCE.
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2. Common Emitter Configuration
Output Characteristics
• It is the curve between VCE and IC at
constant IB

• For obtaining this characteristic, first IB is

set to a convenient value and maintained
constant and then VCE is increased from
zero in steps, IC being noted at each step.
• Next, VCE is reduced to zero and IB
increased to another convenient value
and the whole procedure repeated.

• In this way, a family of curves is obtained. 43

3. Common Collector Configuration
• In the Common Collector or grounded collector configuration, the collector is
connected to ground through the supply, thus the collector terminal is common to both
the input and the output.

• The input signal is connected directly to the base terminal, while the output signal is
taken from across the emitter load resistor as shown.

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3. Common Collector Configuration
• This type of configuration is commonly known as a Voltage Follower or Emitter
Follower circuit.

• The common collector, or emitter follower configuration is very useful for impedance
matching applications because of its very high input impedance, in the region of
hundreds of thousands of ohms while having a relatively low output impedance.

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3. Common Collector Configuration
• The common emitter configuration has a current gain approximately equal to the β
value of the transistor itself.

• However in the common collector configuration, the load resistance is connected in

series with the emitter terminal so its current is equal to that of the emitter current.

• As the emitter current is the combination of the collector AND the base current
combined, the load resistance in this type of transistor configuration also has both the
collector current and the input current of the base flowing through it.

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3. Common Collector Configuration
▷ 
Common Collector Current Gain
I E = I C + IB

Ai = =

Ai = + 1

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3. Common Collector Configuration
Things to note
• This type of bipolar transistor configuration is a non-inverting circuit in that the signal
voltages of Vin and Vout are “in-phase”.

• The common collector configuration has a voltage gain of about “1” (unity gain). Thus
it can considered as a voltage-buffer since the voltage gain is unity.

• The load resistance of the common collector transistor receives both the base and
collector currents giving a large current gain (as with the common emitter
configuration) therefore, providing good current amplification with very little voltage
gain.

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3. Common Collector Configuration
Output Characteristics
For the common-collector configuration, the output characteristics are a plot of I E vs VCE for
a range of values of IB.

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4. APPLICATIONS OF TRANSISTORS

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A transistor can be used as:
1. An amplifier
2. A switch

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BJT as an amplifier
• In order to use a transistor as an amplifier, it should be operated in the active region i.e.
the emitter junction should be always forward biased while the collector junction
should be reverse biased.
• Therefore in addition to the ac input source Vin, two dc voltages V BE and VCE are applied
as shown in figure below. This dc voltage is called bias voltage.

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BJT as an amplifier
• As the input circuit has low resistance, a small change in the input signal causes a
change in the base current thereby causing a large change in collector current (because
IC=βIB).
• The collector current flowing through the high load resistance, R C, produces a large
voltage across it. Thus a weak signal applied at the input circuit appears in the
amplified form at the output.

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BJT as a switch
• BJT can be made to operate as a switch.
• If the circuit uses the transistor as a switch, then the biasing is arranged to operate in
saturation (ON) and in cut-off(OFF).
• When using BJT as a switch, usually two levels of control signal are employed.
• With one level, the transistor operates in the cut-off region(open) whereas with the
other level, it operates in the saturation region and acts as a short circuit.

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BJT as a switch
• Fig.(b) shows the condition when control signal V i = 0. In this case, the BE junction is
reverse-biased and the transistor is open and, hence acts as an open switch.

• However, as shown in Fig.(c) if Vi equals a positive voltage of sufficient magnitude to

produce saturation, the transistor acts as a closed switch.

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DC Load Line of a BJT
• DC biasing is used to establish a steady level of transistor current and voltage called the
dc operating point or quiescent point (Q-point)
• Consider a CE amplifier along with the output characteristics as shown in the figure
below.
• A straight line drawn on the output characteristic of a transistor which gives the
various zero signal values (i.e. when no signal applied) of V CE and IC is called DC load
line.
CE Amplifier

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DC Load Line of a BJT

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Thanks!
Any questions?

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