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friction, and thus reduce transmission ii.) To investigate the various factors
capacity of the pipeline (Tian et al., 2014). that can affect the cloud and pour
Also, production tubing had waxed up in point of crude oils.
several cases and this had resulted in the iii.) To make recommendations as to
expensive maintenance procedure of wax how wax deposition can be
cutting which involves using scrapers prevented during crude
conveyed by wireline. Billions of dollars transportation.
has been lost to its prevention and
remediation (Oladiipo et. al., 2009). Wax LITERATURE REVIEW
deposition in crude oils has been a problem Due to flow assurance problems
in crude transportation for a long time and encountered during crude transportation
according to Al-Besharah et al., (1987) the using pipelines in the oil and gas industry, it
difficulties in pipeline transportation are due has become of paramount importance to
to this complex nature of crude oil, which study the different factors that enhance wax
cause a variety of difficulties during the deposition in pipelines. Several researchers
production, separation, transportation and have done work on the subject matter and
refining of oil. have been able to predict using scientific
When a waxy crude oil is cooled, the methods conditions that promote wax
heavier paraffinic constituents begin to deposition while also professing ways to
separate as solid crystals once the solubility combat its undesirable occurrence. These
limit is exceeded (Karan, et al., 2000). researchers include; Hunt, (1962); Matlach
Elijah et al., (2012) stated that et al., (1983); Agrawal et al., (1990); Bern
thermodynamically, the solid-liquid phase et al., (1980); Burger and Perkins, (1981);
boundary temperature, that is the maximum Brown, Niesen and Erickson, (1993);
temperature at which the solid and liquid Svendsen, (1993); Nazar et al, (2001);
phases co-exist in equilibrium at a fixed Mehrotra and Bhat, (2007); Zhang and Liu,
pressure, is the wax appearance temperature (2010); Ramirez Jaramillo et al., (2004);
(WAT). It is also known as the Cloud Point Ribeiro et al., (1997); Lee, (2008). Amongst
which according to (Holder and Winkler, the numerous researches done, some are
1965; Hussain et al., 1999) depends on wax discussed here.
concentration, the crystallization habit of Elijah et al., (2012) stated that the
wax, and the shear stability of different wax main components of the heavy fraction of
structures. Crude oil starts to lose its flow hydrocarbon which participate in the solid
characteristics when wax crystallization phase formation include asphaltenes,
begins to occur. The lowest temperature at diamondoids, petroleum resins and wax.
which the oil is mobile is termed Pour Point Petroleum wax consist mainly saturated
and these two temperature points are of paraffin hydrocarbons with number of
immerse importance in crude transportation. carbon atoms in the range of 18-36. Wax
Aim and Objectives: may also contain small amounts of
The aim of this research is to naphthenic hydrocarbons with their number
determine the cloud and point of Nigerian of carbon atoms in the range of 30-60. Wax
Niger Delta crude oil as to how it affects usually exists in intermediate crudes, heavy
crude transportation. The specific objectives oils, tar sands and oil shales. There are three
are listed below; main factors that affect wax deposition in
To determine the temperature at flow systems which according to Bott and
which the sampled crude oil becomes semi Gudmundsson (1977) are flow rate,
solid and loses their flow characteristics. temperature deferential, and cooling rate, as
i.) To compare the cloud and pour point well as surface properties.
of the different crude samples.
MATERIALS AND METHODS Figure 2: Specific gravity of a crude sample being determined
with a hydrometer
Four (4) crude samples were
obtained from the Niger Delta region in
Nigeria and analyzed to determine
parameters such as cloud and pour points,
pH, density and specific gravity.
pH Determination:
The apparatus used to determine the
pH of the samples are Hanna pH meter and
beaker. The samples are poured into four
beakers and the Hanna pH meter was used
to measure their respective pH levels.
Hanna pH meter is as shown in Fig.1.
Table 1: Results showing pH, Density, Specific Gravity, Cloud and Pour Point of Crude Samples.
Parameter Unit Sample A Sample B Sample C Sample D Mean
pH - 5.2 5.7 5.2 5.8 5.5
Density kg/m3 850 790 830 900 842.50
Specific Gravity - 0.85 0.79 0.83 0.90 0.84
Pour Point (0C) 11 2 14 8 8.75
Cloud Point (0C) 23 14 23 20 20
Jossen (1960); Haq (1978) and Tang deposited, was also reported in two
et al., (2002), but however, subsequent coaxial shear cell studies
disagreed experimentally that wax by Lee-Tuffnell (1996) and Dawson
deposition would increase by (1996). This can be explained; that
increasing temperature difference as the velocity of the moving stream
between cold pipe wall temperature increases, the molecules gain more
and feed temperature as reported by energy with a corresponding
Nazar et al., (2001), and Jennings increase in temperature which would
and Weispfennig (2005). This drop reduce the tendency with which the
in wax deposition rate with increase waxy crude would reach its cloud
in temperature difference could be and pour point.
attributed to the extra heat gained or d) Surface Properties: Properties such
added in the solution, which would as density, specific gravity and
further move the solution away from viscosity are determinants of the
its cloud point. Hence the process of cloud and pour point of crude oil
crystal formation and their sample. There exists a relationship
deposition is a function of between density and specific gravity
temperature difference (Norman, as shown in Table 1. Also, viscosity
1989). Since wax deposition is is affected by specific gravity
directly affected by cloud and pour because the denser a fluid, the more
point, there exists a direct viscous it becomes. Since viscosity
relationship between these directly affects cloud and pour point,
temperature points and temperature it is essential to state that the higher
differential between the waxy crude the density, specific gravity and
and pipeline wall. viscosity of crude oil sample, the
b) Paraffin Wax Content: The amount more its tendency towards reaching
of paraffin wax in a crude oil sample its cloud and pour point as shown in
affects its cloud and pour point Fig. 6 and Fig. 7 respectively.
temperatures. Wax deposition has a
higher tendency to occur in crude CONCLUSION AND
oils with high paraffin wax content RECOMMENDATIONS
than those with lesser paraffin wax In oil and gas industry, wax
because wax can easily agglomerate deposition has been an age long problem
when it is high in content than when and its determination and control has been a
it is not. As such, the amounts of very important topic for researchers. A
paraffin wax present in a crude pertinent factor of wax deposition is the
sample directly affect the rate at cloud and pour point at which crude oil
which it will reach its cloud and forms wax crystals and loses its flow
pour point. characteristics which has been the focus of
c) Flow rate: Mohammed (2007) this research. As highlighted by the
hypothesized that a higher flow researcher, there are certain factors that
shear, which is a function of flow influence cloud and pour point temperature
rate, leads to lesser but likely harder which if properly managed will help curb
wax deposit build up. Thus wax the occurrence of wax crystallization and
deposition gradually decreases with deposition. So, these factors should be
increase in flow rate and turbulence. effectively and efficiently managed by
The effect of increasing flow rate, midstream companies involved in the
decreasing the amount of wax transportation of crude oil in a bid to
deposited or entrapped oil in the prevent deposition of wax.
The Nigerian Niger Delta crude oil Bern, P.A., Withers, V.R., Cairns, J.R.,
as shown in this research is one that can be (1980). Wax Deposition in Crude Oil
easily managed especially onshore at Pipelines. 206-1980-MS, European
conditions that will help prevent wax Offshore Petroleum Conference and
deposition. Following this, preventive Exhibition, London.
measures such as installation of heaters Brown, T.S., Niesen, V.G., Erickson,
D.D., (1993). Measurement and
along flow lines to help keep crude
Prediction of Kinetics of Paraffin
temperature above the cloud point of the Deposition,” 26548-MS, SPE Annual
fluid should be carried out. Also, the use of Technical Conference and Exhibition,
chemical solvents like wax inhibitors and Houston, Texas.
Pour Point Depressants (PPD’s) should be Burger, E.D., Perkins, T.K., Striegler,
encouraged. (Bagdat and Masoud, 2015) J.H., (1981). Studies of Wax Deposition
also proposed that Ethylene Tetra-Fluoro in the Trans-Alaska Pipeline. Journal of
Ethylene (ETFE) internal plastic pipe Petroleum Technology, 33, 1075-1086.
coating is the most appropriate solution for Cole, R.J., Jessen, F.W., (1960).
paraffin deposition in the pipelines. As such Paraffin Deposition. Oil Gas J., 58: 38-
its usage can be encouraged over rigid PVC 87.
pipes and steel pipes which are commonly Dawson R.V., (1996). 3 SCR 783 -
used in the oil and gas industry for crude Supreme Court of Canada - Docket
Number: 24883.
transportation.
Elijah Taiwo, John Otolorin and
Tinuade Afolabi (2012). Crude Oil
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Tang N.L., Hwu W.L., Chan R.T., Law WC, Eyankware MO. Determination of cloud
L.K., Fung L.M., Zhang W.M. (2002). and pour point of crude oil with reference to
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