PREDICTING THE LIFE OF GALVANIZED COATINGS

INTRODUCTION
The major component in hot dip galvanized coatings is zinc. Zinc-based coatings in one form or another, have been
used to protect steel from corrosion for more than 150 years. As a result, a great deal of performance data has
been accumulated on the performance of zinc-based coatings in a wised range of environments.

The vast majority of galvanized products are used in atmospheric exposures, and in this environment, it is possible
to accurately predict the life of a galvanized coating, given that its original coating thickness is know and the
environment in which it is exposed is correctly classified.

Unlike most other protective coating systems that fail by other mechanisms, galvanized coatings always fail from
the outside, in. This occurs through weathering of the zinc’s surface through a range of oxidation reactions that are
determined by the variables of the local environment.

ZINC CORROSION MECHANISMS

In the hierarchy of metals, zinc is relatively reactive, but like aluminium, relies on oxide films that develop on its
surface to provide its superior corrosion resistance in atmospheric environments. Zinc is also an amphoteric metal,
in that it reacts with both acids and alkalis.

This means that zinc works best as a protective coating in pH conditions that are in and around the neutral range of
pH 7.

When steel is freshly galvanized, the zinc coating has not developed any protective oxidation films. Many
manufacturing processes, such as hot dip galvanizing, apply a passivation film (usually sodium dichromate based)
to the zinc’s surface to provide protection from accelerated corrosion in the youth period of the coating.

The type of oxide film formed on the surface will depend on the exposure location and condition. In normal
atmospheric exposures, the main reactions are as follows:

1. Initial oxidation 2Zn + O2 = 2ZnO (unstable)

2. Hydration 2Zn + 2H2O + O2 = 2Zn(OH)2 (unstable)
3. Carbonation 5Zn(OH)2 + 2CO2 = 2ZnCO3.3Zn(OH)2 + 2H2O (stable)
6Zn + 4CO2 = 8NaCl + 7O2 + 6H2O = 4Zn(OCl)2 + 2Zn(HCO3)2 + 8NaOH
4. In salty air
(unstable)
5. Industrial atmospheres Zn + O2 + SO2 = ZnSO4 (unstable)
 White rust on newly galvanized guard These old (l) and new (r) fence panels show the life cycle of a
rail section caused by nesting items in galvanized coating. Galvanized coatings are slowly eroded by
wet conditions. oxidation of the surface. The oxidised lower layers of the zinc-
iron alloy layer of the galvanized coating indicate that the
coating is nearing the end of its life.

For these reactions to proceed, moisture must be present. If the surface remains dry, very little oxidation will occur.
Thus, the time of wetness of the surface is an important factor in the determination of zinc coating life.

For the carbonation phase of the oxidation to occur, good air circulation is necessary to provide a source of carbon
dioxide.

Very rapid corrosion of zinc coatings can occur in their ‘youth’ period if they are stored in poorly ventilated, damp
conditions. The oxidation reaction proceeds to the hydration stage (Point 2 above), and will continue while moisture
is present. Nested galvanized products are particularly prone to this form of accelerated corrosion, which is
commonly called white rust or white storage stain.

The stable carbonate film, formed on the zinc’s surface are relatively thin – usually only a few microns in thickness.
Any action that removes these oxide films by abrasion or erosion will accelerate the consumption of the underlying
zinc, as more zinc is consumed in the re-formation of the oxide films.

While sulfates arising from industrial activities can significantly increase the corrosion rate of zinc coatings, the
stringent controls on sulfur-based emissions from industry has reduced the levels of sulfur oxides in the
atmosphere by more than 90% since the 1970’s.

The main drivers of corrosion of zinc coatings are the time the coating is wet and the presence of chlorides. Much
of Australia’s urban areas are in maritime environments, influenced to a greater of lesser degree by airborne
chlorides generated from ocean surf.

There is a large body of data on the performance of zinc in contact with chemicals of all types. The large number of
chemicals contained in this data makes it impractical to reproduce the information in the INGAL Specifiers Manual.

Should you require information about the performance of zinc (galvanized) coatings in contact with any specific
chemical, contact our technical services section at tech@iindgalv.com.au .

CORROSION RATES OF ZINC COATINGS

While galvanized coatings are frequently specified in terms of coating mass (grams per square metre), in practice,
coating thickness is used as a measure of the coating’s compliance with standards, as it can be readily measures
non-destructively.

If galvanized coatings are exposed to a particular environment, they will corrode at an approximately linear rate
over time. One this corrosion rate is established, the expected life of the coating can be calculated with a high
degree of confidence.

For example, a typical hot dip galvanized coating on a structural steel section is in the order of 100 microns in
thickness. The corrosion rate zinc in the Western Suburbs of Sydney is typically 1-2 microns per year. On that
basis, the 100 micron coating in that area should have a maintenance-free life of 50-75 years.

There are a number of Australian Standards either published or in draft form that contain information on the
classification of the corrosivity of atmospheres. These include AS/NZS 2312 and AS/NZS 2699.

Unfortunately, the corrosivity classification system in the existing Australian Standards is inconsistent. For example,
AS/NZS 2312 uses an A,B,C,D, E & F category classification which is largely narrative and somewhat subjective.
 Severe marine environments such as this ocean
front site may have zinc corrosion rates of around
20 microns or more per year. In this environment,
the galvanized coating on the guardrail has a
predicted life of 3-5 years.

AS/NZS 2699, on the other hand, uses an R0, R1, R2, R3, R4 and R5 rating criteria that is based on airborne salt
(chloride) deposition.

The draft standard – AS 4312 Corrosivity zones in Australia, uses a C1,C2, C3, C4 and C5 rating system that is
consistent with the system used in International (ISO) standards, specifically ISO 9223.

The corrosivity classifications in each of these standards are essentially guidelines. Industrial Galvanizers INGAL
Corrosion Mapping System has been developed in partnership with CSIRO to better estimate the corrosivity of
atmospheres throughout Australia. Details of this service are provided elsewhere in the INGAL Specifiers Manual.

AS/NZS 2699, on the other hand, uses an R0, R1, R2, R3, R4 and R5 rating criteria that is based on airborne salt
(chloride) deposition.
The draft standard – AS 4312 Corrosivity zones in Australia, uses a C1,C2, C3, C4 and C5 rating system that is
consistent with the system used in International (ISO) standards, specifically ISO 9223.

The corrosivity classifications in each of these standards are essentially guidelines. Industrial Galvanizers INGAL
Corrosion Mapping System has been developed in partnership with CSIRO to better estimate the corrosivity of
atmospheres throughout Australia. Details of this service are provided elsewhere in the INGAL Specifiers Manual.

The corrosivity classifications in the above charts are detailed below in condensed form.

C1 Very low – internal and sheltered locations remote from marine influence.
C2 Low – Rural areas, inland towns and cities.
C3 Medium – Most coastal urban areas more than one kilometer from the ocean surf
C4 High - Within one kilometer of ocean surf, depending on prevailing wind direction and topography.
C5 Very high – Ocean front locations subject to ocean surf aerosols.
T Tropical – Northern Australian regions subject to monsoon seasonal conditions.

For any corrosivity categories of C3 or below, galvanized coatings will provide whole-of-life protection for steel
against corrosion.

OTHER FACTORS AFFECTING COATING LIFE

Hot dip galvanized coatings versus zinc

Hot dip galvanized coatings are not technically zinc coatings, but are largely made up of zinc-iron alloys that usually
comprise between 50% to 100% of the coating. The thicker the galvanized coating, the closer the percentage of
zinc-iron alloys approached 100%.

The corrosion characteristics of the zinc-iron alloy layer has not been investigated to the extent of pure zinc
coatings. However, research undertaken by CSIRO and observations of hot dip galvanized items in service indicate
that the corrosions rate of the alloy layers is significantly lower that that of pure zinc. At a marine test site at Point
Fairy, Victoria, hot dip galvanized coatings have been found to corrode at less than half the rate of zinc coatings
exposed at the same site.

These two micrographs illustrate the difference between a continuously galvanized coating
(l) and a hot dip galvanized coating (r) The continuously galvanized coating is almost 100%
zinc while the hot dip galvanized coating, as well as being significantly thicker (122 microns
versus 20 microns) is almost 100% zinc-iron alloy.

The shape of the steel structure

The shape and orientation of a structure can have a significant influence on the durability of the galvanized coating.
The time the structure remains wet, and its ability to collect corrodents on its surface will affect the durability of the
galvanized coating.
For example, standard high voltage lattice towers constructed from steel angles bolted together are always hot dip
galvanized. The galvanized coating on these structures has a much shorter service life that an identical thickness
coating used on steel monopole structures in the same environments.

This is because the monopoles have smooth vertical surfaces with no overlapping joints or flat surfaces. They dry
quickly and do not accumulate contaminants.

The shape of a structure will have a significant impact on durability of the

galvanized coating. The lattice tower has many overlap[ping joints and horizontal or
upward facing surfaces. The galvanized monopole’s surface is smooth and vertical.
The galvanized coating on the pole will have at least 2X the life of that on the lattice
tower.

SUMMARY
The thickness of a galvanized coating is the factor that determines its durability. Once the environmental conditions
have been identified, it is a simple task to calculate the expected life of a galvanized coating of known thickness
with a high degree of confidence.

The Orica petrochemical plant at Port Botany, Sydney was galvanized in 1977.
Thickness testing of the galvanized coating after 25 years indicated that the
coating has a remaining service life exceeding 30years, with nearly 70 microns
of coating remaining of the original 100 microns.
Zinc Coating

Zinc metal has a number of characteristics that make it well suited for use as a coating for
protecting iron and steel products from corrosion. Its excellent corrosion resistance in most
environments accounts for its successful use as a protective coating on a variety of products and
in many exposure conditions. The excellent field performance of zinc coatings results from their
ability to form dense, adherent corrosion product films and a rate of corrosion considerably
below that of ferrous materials, some 10 to 100 times slower, depending upon the environment.
While a fresh zinc surface is quite reactive when exposed to the atmosphere, a thin film of
corrosion products develops rapidly, greatly reducing the rate of further corrosion. Click the link
above to view a chart depicting the expected service life to first maintenance (5% red rust) of
iron and steel based on the zinc coating thickness and the environment.

A number of different types of methods of applying zinc coatings to steel are commercially
available, each of which has unique characteristics. The products produced by each of these
processes have different uses depending on their applicability, relative economics and expected
service life. To find out more about the various zinc coatings click one of the topics below.
High Temperature Galvanizing
Production Process

High-temperature galvanizing is very similar to batch hot-dip galvanizing at a conventional

temperature (830ºF). The steel is run through a batch process beginning with multiple chemical
pretreatment tanks used to clean residues from the steel. The pretreatment of the steel begins
with a degreasing to remove dirt and oils from the steel. This stage is then followed by an
immersion in an acid pickling tank that removes oxides and mill scale from the surface of the
steel. After the steel has been adequately cleaned, it is submerged in a tank containing a flux
solution, which provides protection against oxidation prior to entering the galvanizing kettle.

The difference between this process and the normal hot-dip galvanizing process exists in the
galvanizing kettle. Not only is it run at higher temperatures, typically 1020 to 1040ºF (550 to
560ºC), but also the vessel holding the zinc is usually much smaller than the conventional
process. Due to the high temperatures that the holding vessel is operated at, it must also be
constructed of ceramics. Due to the poor heat conductivity of the ceramic, the vessel is normally
top-heated using fossil fuel burners, electric radiant elements, induction heating, or immersion
burners.
 The high temperature galvanizing process is commonly used for
small hardware items such as nuts and bolts. The coatings produced are extremely uniform and
allow for easy assembly without zinc buildup on the threads. Another advantage of the high
temperature process is the ability to control coating thickness on silicon-rich or reactive steels.
The coatings produced on these steels are thinner and more tightly adherent than coatings
produced in the conventional galvanizing process. Size limitations on steel that can be
galvanized at high temperatures exist due to the smaller size of the galvanizing kettle.

Coating Characteristics

The coating produced by high temperature galvanizing is very similar to that of the conventional
hot-dip galvanizing process, but with the absence of the Eta layer. The coatings produced are
typically duller than conventional galvanized coatings because the reaction between iron and
zinc goes to completion, mostly forming a coating of intermetallic iron-zinc alloy. The thickness
of the coating is highly dependent on the temperature. Coatings produced at temperatures of
approximately 1030ºF (555ºC) are typically 4 mils thick, depending on the immersion time in the
galvanizing bath. The corrosion performance of this coating is similar to the coatings produced
by conventional galvanizing and is strictly dependent on the coating thickness. To view a
service-life chart on the performance of zinc coatings, click here.

In-line, Continuous (Sheet) Galvanizing

Production Process

The continuous sheet galvanizing process is also a hot-dip

process. Steel sheet, strip or wire is cleaned, pickled, and de-oxidized on a processing line 500
feet in length, running at speeds of over 300 feet per minute. In the coating of sheet or strip, the
zinc bath contains larger amounts of aluminum than used in conventional hot-dip galvanizing
(0.15 to 0.25%). The aluminum (Al) suppresses the formation of the zinc-iron alloys, resulting in
a coating that is mostly pure zinc. In-line heat treatment can be used to produce a fully alloyed
(Fe-Zn) coating, called galvannealed steel.
Sheet products continuously coated with zinc-aluminum alloys are also commercially available.
Two alloy compositions currently in use are 55% Al-43.6% Zn-1.4% Si and a 95% Zn-5% Al-
trace mischmetal (cerium, lanthanum). These coatings are used to enhance the product life for
certain applications.

Coating Characteristics

After galvanizing, the continuous zinc coating is physically wiped using air knives to produce a
uniform coating across the width of the strip. A variety of coating weights and types is available,
ranging up to just under 2 mils (50 µm) per side. One of the most common coatings is Class G90,
which has 0.9 oz./ft2 of sheet (total both sides) or about 0.75 mils (18 µm) thickness per side.

Continuously galvanized sheet steels are used to make cars, appliances, corrugated roofing and
siding, and culvert pipe. The coated product can be suitably treated for painting for aesthetics or
to increase service life. Because of the thin coating, this product normally is used for interior
applications or where exposure to corrosive elements is mild.

Electrogalvanizing
Production Process

Electrogalvanized coatings are applied to steel sheet and strip by electro-deposition.

Electrogalvanizing is a continuous operation where the steel sheet is fed through suitable entry
equipment, followed by a series of washes and rinses, into the zinc plating bath.

The most common zinc electrolyte-anode arrangement uses lead-silver, or other insoluble
anodes, and electrolytes of zinc sulfates. Soluble anodes of pure zinc are also used. In this
process, the steel sheet is the cathode. The coating is developed as zinc ions in the solution are
electrically reduced to zinc metal and deposited at the cathode. Grain refiners may be added to
help produce a smooth, tight-knit surface on the steel.

Coating Characteristics

The electrodeposited zinc coating consists of pure zinc tightly adherent to the steel substrate. The
coating is highly ductile and the coating remains intact even on severe deformation. The coating
is produced on strip and sheet materials to coating weights up to 0.2 oz/ft2 (60 g/m2), or
thickness of up to 0.14 mils (3.6 µm) per side. On wire, coating weights may range up to 3 oz/ft2
(915 g/m2). Heat-treated and electro-coated wire can be cold drawn to about 95% reduction in
area, depending on the chemical composition of the wire, heat treatment, and diameter.

The electrogalvanized coating is paintable with suitable treatment, and the sheet product is used
in automobile and appliance bodies. Due to the extremely thin zinc coating on the sheet, painting
or other topcoating is recommended to improve the service life.
Zinc Plating
Production Process

Zinc plating is identical to electrogalvanizing in principle in that both are electrodeposition

processes. Zinc plating is used for coatings deposited on small parts such as fasteners, crank
handles, springs, and other hardware items. The zinc is supplied as an expendable electrode in a
cyanide, alkaline non-cyanide, or acid chloride salt solution. Cyanide baths are the most
operationally efficient, but they potentially create a pollution and hazardous material problem.

After alkaline or electrolytic cleaning, pickling to remove surface oxides, and rinsing, the parts
are loaded into a barrel, rack, or drum and immersed in the plating solution. Various brightening
agents may be added to the solution to add luster, but careful control of the bath and brightener is
needed to ensure a quality product. Post-plating treatments may be used to passivate the zinc
surface and at the same time impart various translucent colors to the coating. These post-plating
treatments may be used to provide a desired color or to extend the life of the plated coating.

Coating Characteristics

The normal zinc-plated coating is dull gray in color with a matte finish, although whiter, more
lustrous coatings can be produced, depending on the process or agents added to the plating bath
or through post-treatments. The coating is thin, ranging up to 1 mil (25 µm), restricting zinc-
plated parts to very mild (indoor) exposures. ASTM Specification B 633 lists four classes of zinc
plating: Fe/Zn 5, Fe/Zn 8, Fe/Zn 12 and Fe/Zn 25. The number indicates the coating thickness in
microns. The coating finds application in screws and other light fasteners, light switch plates and
other small parts. Materials for use in moderate or severe applications must be chromate
conversion coated.

The coating is entirely pure zinc, which has a hardness about one-third to one-half that of most
steels.
Metallizing

Production Process

The sprayed zinc coating is rough and slightly porous, with a specific gravity of 6.4, compared to
zinc metal at 7.1. Zinc corrosion products tend to fill the pores as the zinc corrodes in the
atmosphere. The coating adherence mechanism is mostly mechanical, depending on the kinetic
energy of the sprayed particles of zinc. No zinc-iron alloy layers are present.

Coating Characteristics

The coating can be applied in the shop or field; it gives good coverage of welds, seams, ends and
rivets, and can be used to produce coatings in excess of 10 mils (250 µm). Coating consistency is
dependent on operator experience and coating variation is always a possibility. Coatings may be
thinner on corners or edges and the process is not suitable for coating recesses and cavities.

Mechanical Plating
Production Process

Small iron and steel parts may be coated by drum tumbling with a mixture of proprietary
promoter chemicals, zinc powder and glass beads. After cleaning, the parts, which are usually
limited in size to about 8-9 inches (200-300 mm), and weighing less than one pound (0.5 kg), are
flash copper coated and loaded into a plating barrel. The barrel is then filled with chemicals,
glass beads and zinc powder and then tumbled. The tumbling action causes the beads to peen the
zinc powder onto the part. Thickness is regulated by the amount of zinc charged to the plating
barrel and the duration of tumbling time. After coating, the parts are dried and packaged, or post-
treated with a passivating film, then dried and packaged.
Materials mechanically plated must be simple in design. Complex designs with recesses or blind
holes may not be thoroughly coated because of inaccessibility to the penning action of the glass
beads. The media used as the compaction agent is also important: it must be large enough to
avoid being lodged in any cavities, recesses or small threads in the parts.

Coating Characteristics

The mechanically plated coating consists of a flash coating of copper followed by the zinc
coating. Coating thickness requirements contained in ASTM Specification B 695 range from 0.2-
4.3 mils (5 to 110 µm). While thicker coatings are possible, the common thickness on
commercial fasteners is 2 mils (50 µm). The coating has a density of about 0.45 oz./ft2/mil
compared to the hot-dip galvanized coating density of about 0.6 oz./ft2/mil. The hot-dip coating
has over 30% more zinc per unit volume than the mechanical coating.

The coating, upon micro cross-section, appears to consist of flattened particles of zinc loosely
bonded together. The bond between zinc and steel, and zinc-to-zinc, being mechanical in this
process, is weaker than the metallurgical bond found in hot-dip galvanizing. Edge, corner and
thread coating thicknesses are usually lower at these sharp radii areas due to minimal peening
action at these locations.

Painting (zinc-rich)
Production Process

Zinc-rich paints contain 65-94% metallic zinc in the film of the paint after it dries. The paints are
usually applied by brushing or spraying onto steel that has been cleaned by sandblasting. While
white metal blasting (NACE No. 1) is preferred, near white (SSPC-SP 10) or commercial blast
cleaning (SSPC-SP 6) are acceptable.

When the zinc dust is supplied as a separate component, it must be mixed with a polymeric-
containing vehicle to provide a homogenous mixture prior to application. Application is usually
by air spray, although airless spray also can be used. The paint must be constantly agitated and
the feed line kept as short as possible to prevent settling of the zinc dust. Uneven film coats may
develop if applied by brush or roller, and cracking may occur if too thick a paint coating is
applied.

Zinc-rich paints are classified as organic or inorganic, depending on the binder, and must be
applied over clean steel.

Coating Characteristics

Organic or inorganic zinc-rich paints usually are applied to a dry film thickness of 2.5 to 3.5 mils
(64-90 µm). Organic zinc paints consist of epoxies, chlorinated hydrocarbons and other
polymers. Inorganic zinc paints are based largely on organic alkyl silicates. The zinc dust must
be at a concentration high enough to provide for electrical continuity in the dry film. Otherwise,
cathodic protection will not occur. Even so, there is some question as to whether cathodic
protection is possible at all due to the encapsulation of the zinc particles in the binder.

Adhesion bond strengths of zinc-rich paints are in the order of a few hundred pounds per square
inch (psi), while galvanized coatings measure in the several thousand psi range. Zinc-rich
painting is similar to metallizing in that large articles can be coated in either the shop or field.
Limitations include cost, difficulty in applying, lack of coating uniformity (particularly at corners
and edges), and the requirement for a clean steel surface. Zinc-rich paints should be topcoated in
severe environments.

Inorganic zinc-rich paints that adhere by mild chemical reactivity with the substrate have good
solvent resistance and can withstand temperatures up to about 375ºC (700ºF). Cleanup is easier
than with organics, and they do not chalk, peel, or blister readily, and are easy to weld through.

Zinc contents of inorganic zinc-rich paints range up to about 0.35 oz. zinc/ft2/mil or about one-
half less zinc per mil than hot-dip galvanized coatings.

The properties of organic zinc-rich paints depend on the solvent system. Multiple coats may be
applied within 24 hours without cracking. Zinc-rich paints are often used to touch up galvanized
steel that has been damaged by welding or severe mechanical impact.

Organic zinc-rich paints do not have the temperature resistance of inorganic zincs, being limited
to 200 to 300ºF, are subject to ultraviolet (sunlight) degradation, and are not as effective as
inorganics in length of corrosion prevention.

Zinc dust/zinc oxide paints (MZP) are classified under Federal Specification TT-P-641G as Type
I, Type II, or Type III, depending on the vehicle. The vehicles used are linseed, alkyd resin, and
phenolic resin, respectively. These paints are widely used as either a primer or topcoat and show
good adhesion to galvanized steel, making them the logical choices for painting that substrate.
Type I is good for outdoor applications, Type II for heat-resistant applications and Type III for
water immersion or severe moisture conditions. Because of their lower metallic zinc content,
zinc dust/zinc oxide paints (MZP) cannot provide sacrificial protection to the base steel. When
used as a coating over galvanized steel, the service life of the galvanized coating is extended
because of the increased barrier protection of the paint. The service life of the paint is extended
in the event of a scratch or cut through the paint, since the volume of the zinc corrosion product,
being considerably less than that of rust, reduces the incidence of lifting and separation of the
paint film. MZPs can be top-coated with a variety of paint types if colors other than gray, green
or tan (from pigmented additives) are required.

Selection of Zinc Coatings

After the decision is made to use a zinc coating for corrosion protection, some factors must be
considered to ensure that the proper coating is selected for the intended application and service
environment. Obviously, zinc coating processes that are limited to small parts such as fasteners
or other small hardware, or operations limited to continuous lines in steel mills, such as
continuous galvanizing and electrogalvanizing, cannot be considered for the protective coating of
structural steel members.

The figure below lists the different types of zinc coatings and representative applications for
each. While a coating is not limited to those uses listed, the applications represent the most
common types of products coated by the process.

Zinc Coatings
Coating
Method Process Specification Applications
Thickness
Interior. Appliance
ASTM A Up to 0.28
Electrogalvanizing Electrolysis panels, studs, acoustical
879 mils1
ceiling members.
Interior or Exterior.
ASTM B
Zinc Plating Electrolysis 0.2 to 1.0 mils2 Fasteners and hardware
633
items
Interior or Exterior.
Mechanical ASTM B
Peening 0.2 to 4.3 mils2 Fasteners and hardware
Plating 695
items.
Interior or Exterior.
Items that cannot be
Zinc Spraying Hot Zinc galvanized because of
AWS C2.2 3.3 to 8.3 mils
(Metallizing) Spray size or because on-site
coating application is
needed.
Interior or Exterior.
Continuous Sheet ASTM A 1 Roofing, gutters,
Hot-Dip Up to 4.0 mils
Galvanizing 653 culverts, automobile
bodies.
 ASTM A
Interior or Exterior.
123
Nearly all shapes and
ASTM A
Batch Hot-Dip A minimum of sizes ranging from nails,
Hot-Dip 153
Galvanizing 1.4 to 3.9 mils3 nuts and bolts to large
ASTM A
structural assemblies,
767
including rebar.
CSA G 164
Interior or Exterior.
SSPC-PS
Items that cannot be
Guide 12.00,
galvanized because of
Spray 22.00
0.6 to 5.0 size or because on-site
Zinc Painting Roller SSPC-PS
mils/coat coating application is
Brush Paint 20
needed. Large structural
SSPC-PS
assemblies. Aesthetic
12.01
requirements.

1
Total for both sides of sheet
2
Range based on ASTM minimum thicknesses for all grades, classes, etc., encompassed by the
specifications.
3
Range based on ASTM and CSA minimum thicknesses for all grades, classes, etc.,
encompassed by the specifications.

Coating Thickness vs. Coating Weight

The usual criterion for determining the expected service life of zinc coatings is thickness: the
thicker the coating, the longer the service life. This is an acceptable criterion when comparing
zinc coatings produced by the same process.

When comparing zinc coatings produced by different processes, the thickness criterion cannot be
used without considering the amount of available zinc per unit volume. It is also important to
keep in mind various ASTM or other specifications as they relate to coating weight or thickness,
and reduce the coating requirements to a common denominator prior to making a comparison of
different zinc coatings.

While the coating densities for some of the different types of zinc coatings are nearly identical,
others differ considerably. The coating densities, in terms of thickness required to equal 1 oz. of
zinc per square foot of surface, are:

Hot-dip galvanizing (batch or continuous), electrogalvanizing, zinc

1.7 mils (43 µm)
plating
Zinc Spraying (Metallizing) 1.9 mils (48 µm)
Mechanical plating 2.2 mils (55 µm)
3-6 mils (75 – 150
Zinc-rich paint
µm)
Each of these thicknesses, representing the same weight per unit area of zinc, would be expected
to provide equivalent service life; i.e. 1.7 mils of hot-dip galvanized would give about the same
service life as 2.2 mils of mechanical plating or 3-6 mils (depending on the paint formulation) of
zinc-rich paint, assuming bond strength and edge protection are not factors.

It is also important to remember that for all continuous galvanized sheet materials, including
electrogalvanized, the coating weight is given in weight per unit area of sheet. To obtain the
amount of zinc per unit area of surface, the weight given must be divided by two, assuming equal
distribution on both sides. For example, an ASTM A 653 Class G90 sheet contains 0.90 oz.
zinc/ft2 of sheet or about 0.45 oz./ft2 on a surface. A G210 (2.10oz/ft2) sheet would have to be
specified to obtain about 1 oz/ft2 on each side of the sheet.

Economic Considerations

Selection from the wide range of coatings available for steel will normally depend on the
suitability of the coating for the intended use and the economics of the protective system. Factors
that affect the economics for a particular application include:

 Initial cost of the coating

 Coating life to first maintenance
 Cost of maintenance
 Hidden costs, such as accessibility of the site, production loss due to maintenance re-
coating, and rising wages for labor-intensive coatings, such as metal spraying and
painting

The choice of the most economical system should include both an initial and life-cycle cost
analysis. The American Galvanizers Association has developed an online calculator, which
taking data from a paint industry survey conducted by KTA Tator, Inc. and a galvanized industry
survey conducted by AGA, will provide an initial and life-cycle cost comparison of hot-dip
galvanizing to a number of paint systems. Visit www.galvanizeit.org/galvanizingcost to run your
own analysis.
Corrosion Resistance to Atmospheric
Corrosion
The following sections contain some specific information on the atmospheric corrosion
performance of the most popular systems used in normal atmospheric conditions.

Iron and Steel

Iron, in its various forms, is exposed to all kinds of environments. It tends to be highly reactive
with most of them because of its natural tendency to form iron oxide. When it does resist
corrosion it is due to the formation of a thin film of protective iron oxide on its surface by
reaction with oxygen of the air. This film can prevent rusting in air at 99% RH, but a
contaminant such as acid rain may destroy the effectiveness of the film and permit continued
corrosion. Thicker films of iron oxide may act as protective coatings, and after the first year or
so, could reduce the corrosion rate significantly as shown in the following Figure.
 Time-corrosion curves of three steels in industrial atmosphere, Kearny, NJ: (1) ordinary
steel; (2) Copper steel; and (3) Cor-ten.

While the corrosion rate of bare steel tends to decrease with time in most cases, the difference in
corrosivity of different atmospheres for a particular product is tremendous. Similar ranges in
corrosivity were determined by the ISO 9223 corrosion rates for steel. In a few cases, the
corrosion rates of ferrous metals have been reported as increasing with time, and careful analysis
of the exposure conditions generally reveals that an accumulation of contaminating corrosive
agents has occurred, thus changing the severity of the exposure.

It is generally conceded that steels containing low amounts of copper are particularly susceptible
to severe atmospheric corrosion. In one test over a 3 1/2-year period in both a marine and an
industrial atmosphere, a steel containing 0.01 % copper corroded at a rate of 80 µm/y, whereas
increasing the copper content by a factor of five reduced the corrosion rate to only 35 µm/y.
Other tests comparing gray cast iron, malleable iron, and low-alloy steels indicated that their
corrosion resistances were approximately the same.

Plain cast iron appears to have a corrosion rate about one half that of 0.2% copper steel in a
marine atmosphere. One has to be careful in citing such differences to stipulate the composition
of the carbon steel because corrosion behavior of carbon steels is influenced so markedly by
small variations in copper and phosphorus content. In an industrial atmosphere, a structural
carbon steel showed a penetration of about 20 µm, a copper structural steel about 10 µm, and a
low-alloy steel about 4 µm after five years of exposure.

As indicated in ISO 9223 , it is impossible to give a corrosion rate for steel in the atmosphere
without specifying the location, composition, and certain other factors. If one can relate exposure
conditions to those described in the literature, a fairly good estimate can be made of the probable
corrosion behavior of a selected material. However, all aspects of the exposure of the metal
surface must be considered. A high-strength, low-alloy (HSLA) steel may show an advantage in
corrosion resistance of 12:1 over carbon steel when freely exposed in a mild environment. As the
severity or the physical conditions of exposure change, the HSLA steel will show less
superiority, until in crevices or the backside of structural forms in a corrosive atmosphere, it will
be no better than carbon steel.

Very little needs to be said about the behavior of stainless steels (Types 200 and 300), which
contain high percentages of nickel and chromium, except that they can keep their shiny aspect
without tarnishing for many decades as illustrated in “The Mudra”, shown in the following
Figure , which was erected in the busy part of Toronto in 1974. The steels containing only
chromium (Type 400) as the principal alloying constituent tend to rust superficially, but the
others are relatively free from surface atmospheric corrosion. Many of them are susceptible to
SCC in many common environments.
 Toronto stainless steel sculpture the ‘Mudra’ by Ted Bieler completed in 1974. (Photo by
Tom Skudra courtesy of the Nickel Institute)

Copper and Copper Alloys

Copper and its alloys are not exposed to the atmosphere in great quantities when compared with
steel. However, this material brings aesthetic value to building construction, in addition to
excellent corrosion resistance. The black and then green patina formed on the surface provides
an attractive decorative finish, while sealing the metal from further corrosion. As a consequence,
some copper has been used for roofs, gutters, and as flashings on wood or composition shingled
roofs.

Example problem 9.6

Find in your neighborhood some structural elements made of copper and copper alloys
and report on their state and condition.

Extensive tests have been made of the corrosion resistance of copper and its alloys to various
atmospheres. Various alloys were exposed in rural, industrial, and marine atmospheres for
periods of up to twenty years. From data accumulated in these tests and the calibrations of
relative corrosivity of the test sites, a fairly clear picture can be obtained of the corrosion
behavior of copper. In addition to the corrosion penetration rates, one must be mindful of
dezincification of brasses and selective attack on some bronzes, as well as SCC illustrated by
season cracking of brass. These types of corrosion contribute to the failure of the material in
mechanical respects without significant weight changes or losses in thickness.

Where copper is used as flashing on roofs, corrosion has been encountered at the edge of the
shingles as a continuous groove. This effect is more pronounced when the atmosphere contains
both chlorides and sulfides, and with wood shingles as compared with roofs of other
composition. Tests indicate that all-copper roofs 0.5 mm or more in thickness such as the roof in
the following picture would last several centuries in an industrial atmosphere.
 Green copper roof on Quebec Armory

If the green patina on copper alloys is desired for aesthetic reasons, pre-treatment of the surface
with appropriate passivating solutions is recommended. If oxidation by sulfur compounds
precedes the desired reaction, the surface will present only a dark brown color for many years.
Nickel and Nickel Alloys
Electrodeposited nickel and electroless nickel are widely used as a protective coating for
atmospheric exposure, and some nickel alloys, while, selected for other reasons, are also exposed
to atmospheric corrosion. The results shown in the following Table were obtained for several
representative alloys. As can be concluded from the data, nickel tends to be passive in a marine
atmosphere. The ratio between the corrosion rate for nickel exposed to the industrial atmosphere
and that exposed to rural or marine atmospheres was 28:1.

Corrosion in mm/year of nickel and its alloys in various atmospheres.

Aluminum and its Alloys

Aluminum, in its many forms is exceeded only by steel in tonnage directly exposed to the
elements. It is produced in the form of wrought products, extrusions, and castings with a large
variety of alloying elements to impart desired mechanical properties. The atmospheric corrosion
behavior of aluminum products fits into some fairly well-defined patterns that are related to
composition.

While pure aluminum has excellent atmospheric corrosion resistance and is used extensively as a
cladding materials for this very reason, alloys containing copper and silicon as the principal
alloying constituents are susceptible and should be used with care. In a rural atmosphere, the
corrosion rate for most alloys is approximately 0.06 µm/y, with those containing large amounts
of copper about double this low rate. Changes in tensile strength because of corrosion vary from
0 to less than 1% for sheet material.

In a marine environment, the differences between alloys appear as a tenfold increase, from about
0.6 µm/y for the less corrosion-resistant materials, to about 0.7 µm per year for the better
materials. Pitting also is about 10 times greater in marine atmospheres. Corrosion can be much
greater in a severe industrial atmosphere than in the marine atmosphere.

Some aluminum alloys develop severe pitting and a voluminous white corrosion product under
some exposure conditions in a marine atmosphere. Aluminum roofs have been known to corrode
severely at the overlaps. Some aluminum alloys also can be attacked in their intergranular
regions when exposed after certain metallurgical treatments (cold working or precipitation
hardening). General intergranular attack or exfoliation can then occur. The attack tends to start at
sheared edges or punched holes, but is not restricted to these areas. Aircraft manufacturers, in
particular, must guard against this type of corrosion.

In designing aluminum equipment, care must be exercised to avoid dissimilar metal couples and
the attendant galvanic corrosion. Copper and rusty steel are particularly bad in contact with
aluminum. Due to the passive film on stainless steel, it can be used in contact with aluminum in
the atmosphere with little expectation of accelerated corrosion, despite the differences in
potential. In addition, designers should be aware of the possibility that some aluminum alloys
may be sensitized to intergranular corrosion by heat treatment.

As would be expected, constant exposure to moisture with a limited supply of oxygen to the
aluminum surface leads to the rapid corrosion of any aluminum apparatus or equipment
component. This is due to the highly reactive nature of aluminum that leads to formation of
oxides or hydroxides. In the presence of oxygen, a protective aluminum oxide film develops on
any aluminum surface. This oxide film is substantially unreactive with the normal constituents of
the atmosphere. If the film is removed by mechanical or chemical means and the aluminum
exposed to water, a rapid reaction sets in and large quantities of the aluminum are converted to
the hydroxide and subsequently to the oxide.

Most of the 1000, 3000, and 6000 series of wrought alloys, the magnesium, and the silicon
magnesium casting alloys are relatively immune to SCC in normal atmospheres. However, the
other alloys may be susceptible under some conditions. This subject should be investigated
carefully by the designer or user if stresses are high and the atmosphere is corrosive.

The usual corrosion behavior in the atmosphere involves pitting and roughening of the surface
with a fairly large decrease in the corrosion rate after the first one to three years of exposure. In a
marine atmosphere, the maximum pit depth might reach 150 mm within 2 years, yet not exceed
200 mm in 20 years. In an industrial atmosphere, initial pits might reach 4 mils in the first period
and not exceed 125 mm at the end of 20 years. In terms of average corrosion rate, the initial rate
would be about 0.08 mm/y, dropping to less than 0.3 mm/y by seven years.

Severe pitting has been encountered where aluminum surfaces were contaminated by either
alkaline dust or coral dust containing chlorides, followed by condensation. On some of the
South Pacific islands, dust collected from the surfaces of sheltered structures, such as those
inside aircraft wings, contained 67% chloride by weight.

In the design of aluminum structures, the usual precautions of avoiding crevices or pockets and
coupling with dissimilar metals must be observed. An example of this is in the overlapping
encountered between aluminum roofs and siding. In some marine or industrial atmospheres, the
aluminum perforated at the laps within a few months. In addition, stress concentrations should be
avoided, such as those found in some riveted structures, in the vicinity of welds, and at notches
or inside corners. Where it is impractical to avoid dissimilar metals, the aluminum should be
electrically insulated from the more noble metal by means of washers, sleeves, etc. In some
instances, covering the noble metal with an organic finish is sufficient to greatly reduce galvanic
couple corrosion.

To illustrate the problems encountered in designing aluminum structures, an amusing and fairly
well-known, yet illustrative story comes to mind. A new processing plant was built having an un-
insulated aluminum roof attached directly to steel support frames. This was known to have
worked well in several instances. However, the high RH in the plant caused condensation on the
cool roof during rainstorms, evenings, and cold spells in the winter.

Zinc and its Alloys

Zinc is exposed to the atmosphere in the form of galvanized sheet, as in flashings on roofs; as die
castings, and as coatings on steel, either hot dipped or electroplated. Studies of the corrosion of
zinc in the New York atmosphere indicated that there was less than a 10% difference between
the corrosion rate of galvanized iron, zinc die castings, and three grades of rolled zinc. It was
also found that the corrosion rate tended to be a linear function with time. In some instances,
where the rate changed after a period of time, it was concluded that the amount of contamination
in the atmosphere had changed.

The general behavior of zinc metal and zinc coatings is described in the ISO tables presented
earlier. Note the particularly low rates of attack on zinc as compared with steel in marine
exposures where chloride deposition is important. Such excellent resistance is acquired by the
hard, dense, protective products of corrosion in a chloride atmosphere. Similar results cannot be
obtained in a sulfurous atmosphere where the products are soft, voluminous, and non-protective.

Example problem 9.7

Find in your neighbourhood some structural elements made of galvanized steel and
report on their state and condition.

Zinc-base die castings usually are not exposed boldly to the outside atmosphere without a
protective coating. When breaks or pits occur in coatings such as nickel and chromium, the
corrosion of the die casting may be accelerated due to the dissimilar metal contact and thus give
a false impression of the corrodibility of zinc. Many small parts of machinery, household
appliances, and hardware are made of zinc-base die castings or "white metal” and are exposed to
an indoor atmosphere where their corrosion behavior is very good (White metal is typically 93
to 96% Zn, 4% Al, 0.05% Mg, and sometimes 1 to 3% Cu). In these cases where severe
corrosion is encountered in this relatively mild atmosphere, the cause may be improper alloy
selection or the use of material containing too high a percentage of impurities.

Galvanized steel is the most important application of zinc. Worldwide, the use of zinc for
galvanizing results in an annual consumption of more than three million tons of zinc, constituting
nearly one-half of the world zinc production. Most of these are hot-dipped galvanized coatings
containing a small amount of aluminum. Thickness of electroplated coatings is considerably
lower than those applied by the hot dip process. Galvanizing produces a zinc coating on the steel
surface and is one of the most effective methods for corrosion protection of steel. This is
attributed to the excellent corrosion resistance of zinc coatings, particularly in atmospheric
environments.

Corrosion rates for zinc, like other metals can vary by as much as two orders of magnitude in
atmospheric environments depending on the specific environmental conditions. Therefore, it is
important to know the specific corrosion rate in a given application environment in order to
effectively use zinc coated steels in outdoor structures. The most commonly used method for
corrosion life estimation of galvanized steels has been the use of generalized values for the
different types of atmospheres as shown in the following Figure.

Service life of hot-dip galvanized coatings as a function of zinc thickness and specific
environments.

This method uses a generalized value to represent the corrosion rates for five predetermined
atmospheric environments as a function of zinc coating thickness. Service life in Figure 9.43 is
defined as the time to 5% rusting of the steel surface. It can be used to estimate the service life of
a given coating thickness or to specify a coating for a given environment.

Example problem 9.8

Use one of the corrosivity maps to specify the thickness required of a galvanized
coating to achieve a useful life of fifty years in the various environments described on
that map.

The method is applicable to zinc-coated steel produced by batch or continuous galvanizing. It is

applicable to hot-dip, electrogalvanized, and thermal sprayed coatings. However, it does not
apply to coatings containing alloying elements larger than 1%. The method assumes that the
galvanized product is free of significant defects that could accelerate corrosion. Additionally the
service life prediction does not consider issues of water entrapment that can create severe crevice
chemistry.

Miscellaneous Alloys
Many other alloys are exposed to the atmosphere under a variety of circumstances. The resulting
corrosion problems tend to be specific. Lead and tin alloys tend to be inert in the atmosphere
unless some specific type of contamination exists. As far as exposure to the atmosphere is
concerned, tin appears mostly as a coating on steel containers where it can accelerate the
corrosion of the more anodic steel by pitting. Lead is sometimes used on roofs, but more often is
found indoors in chemical plants.

Due to their inertness, silver and gold are used as alloys to confer corrosion resistance to more
reactive metals. Silver reacts with sulfur compounds in the atmosphere to produce heavy
coatings of black silver sulfide. This corrosion product is soft and rubs off of electrical contacts.

Titanium alloys have very good corrosion resistance in the atmosphere, as do the iron-nickel
chromium alloys. There are many alloys that hold a specific place in the metal family, such as
pewter, speculum, constantan, and the like, which possess certain atmospheric corrosion
resistance properties, but are used so infrequently that they do not warrant general discussion.

Metallic Coatings
Any discussion of atmospheric corrosion should include consideration of the corrosion behavior
of various metallic protective and decorative coatings. These are usually divided into two general
categories:

 Coatings that confer protection to the basic metal, and

 Coatings that are used for decorative purposes.

As protective coatings, a distinction must be made between those such as zinc, cadmium, and
aluminum on steel that protect by sacrificial behavior, and those that must provide a substantially
continuous protective envelope around the protected metal. In the latter category are metals such
as nickel, tin, silver, brass, and chromium.

Sacrificial metals corrode as coatings in much the same manner as they do as solid metals until
the base or protected metal is exposed at pores or bared areas. The galvanic couple effect then
begins to accelerate the corrosion of the protective coating. This galvanic couple effect tends to
protect the base metal at the pores or bared spots. General corrosion of the sacrificial type of
coating tends to follow a linear function that is peculiar to the particular site.

This reaction is in contrast to what happens in the case of the more noble protective coatings that
act as an envelope and resist the atmosphere due to their inertness, passivity, or protective films.
As soon as a pore or bare spot appears, the corrosion of the base metal is accelerated. Die
castings of a metal such as zinc covered with a copper-nickel-chromium coating will suffer
severe corrosion at large pores or discontinuities in the coating.

While most metal coatings are applied by electroplating, some are produced by flame or plasma
spraying, hot dipping, electrostatic sputtering, or vapor deposition. The corrosion rate of a metal
coating is largely independent of the method of application, except where impurities play a role.
Powders of various metals have been attached to the surface of a base metal by either organic or
inorganic binders. Where these metal particles are in mutual contact, and in contact with the base
metal, they can perform much like a metallic coating. In noble types of coating, porosity is very
important and tends to decrease rapidly as the coating thickness increases beyond 13 mm. No
clear cut information is available on the factors that influence porosity in electrodeposited
coatings.

Polymeric Materials
Essentially all polymers freely exposed to the elements will change in some manner. The active
rays of the sun become potent agents of change in the organic materials. Further polymerization
of the resin can occur to produce embrittlement. Other types of new bonding can be triggered to
make polymers more crystalline. Any volatile component of the material, such as a plasticizer,
can be evaporated. The polymer chains may be simply oxidized and broken up to destroy the
product. Oxygen, ozone, and moisture act with the sunlight to degrade the plastics as illustrated
in the following Figure.
 Plastic material degraded over a few years of exposure to sun rays on a window sill.

The external evidence of attack may be blushing (loss of gloss), chalking, or change in color of
the product. This is often observed on the epoxy and polyester polymers when they have been
boldly exposed to the environment. However, only mechanical tests will reveal the extent of
degradation of either thermoplastic or thermosetting resins. The effect of high atmospheric
temperatures or heating from direct exposure to the sun can be particularly severe on
thermoplastic polymers. Creep or distension of the polyvinyl chloride and polyethylene plastics
will occur readily unless provision is made to prevent overheating or stressing of the materials.
Certain other thermoplastics can be dimensionally stable under normal atmospheric
temperatures. The strength of these thermosetting resins is not noticeably changed.
Polymeric materials should be thoroughly tested if they are to be exposed freely in the
atmosphere. ASTM Recommended Practice D1435 describes the appropriate conditions for such
a test exposure and suggests tests that might be used to evaluate changes in the materials.
Changes in mechanical and physical properties of the polymers are determined for definitive
results. Weight gains or losses can be of interest, but do not provide substantive results.
Accelerated cabinet testing of the materials can be performed with essentially the same validity
as when testing metallic materials. Poor materials can be eliminated, but extrapolation of the data
to forecast the life of plastic parts in the atmosphere should not be attempted. ASTM D1499, D
2565, and G26 may be used to ensure the controlled cabinet testing of the plastics. ASTM D750
should be used for the evaluation of the elastomers.

The preventive measures used to ensure the integrity of polymeric materials are similar to those
for metals, i.e., the exterior should be covered. The exterior surfaces are painted or metal plated
to provide a barrier between the material and the atmosphere. Alloying of the basic material with
small amounts of other resins can often upgrade the stability of the material.
How to Decide Between Anodizing, Painting, and Powder Coating

Anodizing | Organic Coatings | Recommendations | Conclusions

The purpose of this article is to help you decide what type of coating to
use -- anodizing, paint, or powder coating ? when specifying
architectural aluminum, whether the application is metal roofing,
storefront, or curtainwall. The application and desired appearance
dictate the finish selected.

WHAT IS ANODIZING?

Anodizing is a simple electrochemical process developed more than 50

years ago that forms a protective coating of aluminum oxide on the
surface of the aluminum. The lifetime of the finish is proportional to the
thickness of the anodic coating applied.

Aluminum oxide is a hard, durable, weather resistant substance that

protects the base metal. The coating may be colored by dyeing or may exhibit bronze tones through
diffraction phenomena produced by the coating. The coating grows from the base aluminum metal by this
electrochemical process. The coating is integral to the metal and can not peel or flake. The structure of the
coating is many small hexagonal pores, which are filled with a "seal" that hydrolyzes these pores to fill them
with inert aluminum oxide.

ADVANTAGES OF ANODIZING

1. In general anodizing is less expensive than painting with the exception of coil painted products.
2. Anodizing is harder than PVDF. Anodizing is better for aluminum in high traffic areas where the
coating is subject to physical abuse and abrasive cleaners.
3. Anodizing cannot peel off. The coating is actually part of the metal.
4. Anodizing gives aluminum a deeper, richer metallic appearance than is possible with organic
coatings. This is because an anodized coating is translucent, and one can see the base metal
underneath the coating. This translucence contributes to color variation problems, but anodizers are
doing a much better job of controlling the amount of color variation than in the past. Computerized
color matching with quantitative, objective color data is now possible.
5. Anodizing is unaffected by sunlight. All organic coatings will eventually fail due to exposure to ultra-
violet light.

In 1988 the Aluminum Anodizer's Council was formed by a group of anodizers who were concerned that the
market was unaware of the benefits of anodizing. The paint manufacturers were comparing excellent paint
to poor anodizing. It was no longer common knowledge in the commercial construction industry that there is
a difference between good and bad anodizing. Anodizing which is improperly sealed has poor chemical
resistance. Brand new anodizing with a thin coating thickness is nearly identical in appearance to an
Aluminum Association Class I (very thick!!) anodized finish. Very thin (sub-Class II) anodized coatings are
unsuitable for use on exterior curtainwall or metal roofing.

The advantage of a thicker anodic coating is its durability and longer life. The Achilles heel of anodizing is it's
chemical resistance. Eventually the surface of an anodic coating may succumb to acidic pollutants in urban
environments. Anodized surfaces, like other building components, must be protected from acidic attack
during construction.

After many years anodized surfaces may accumulate dirt and stains that look similar to chalking paint. This
"chalk" can be removed with a mild detergent combined with an abrasive cleaning technique. A small
amount of the anodic coating can actually be removed, leaving behind a renewed anodized finish which can
last for another twenty years. This is why anodizers say their product is "renewable". Once an organic
coating has failed, the only options are to re-coat the surface with another paint or replace the metal. When
an anodized coating appears to have failed, cleaning often results in a renewed appearance.
ANODIZING AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Anodizing appears to be compatible with today's environmental concerns. Though more research needs to
be done to determine the total environmental impact of different aluminum finishes, from a finisher's point
of view, anodizing does far less damage.

The chemicals from anodizing can be used by municipal waste water treatment facilities. The aluminum
sulfate from anodizing plants' effluent actually improves the solids settling efficiency of some waste water
treatment plants. Anodizing emits no ozone producing solvents (VOCs), and there are no heavy metals
involved in the process.

ORGANIC COATINGS

PAINTS AND POWDER COATINGS

The performance of any organic coating (paints or powders) depends on the pretreatment, resin and
pigmentation. With aluminum the pretreatment is of utmost importance. This is why organic coatings for
aluminum should be factory applied. Resins are often the weak link in an organic coating system. Some
resins, such as PVDF, have outstanding weatherability, while epoxy coatings are meant only for interior use.
There are many resins available for architectural use such as Urethanes, Polyurethanes, Aliphatic Urethanes,
Polyesters, Silicon Polyesters, Polyester TGICs, PVDF, etc. Only a few of these coating systems will last for
more than five years in exterior architectural applications. The American Architectural Manufacturers
Association (AAMA) has several excellent performance specifications for aluminum coatings, and AAMA
2605-98 is the most stringent specification for spray coated aluminum used in architecture.

An important aspect of AAMA 2605-98 is the requirement for actual ten year exposure in South Florida. It is
a good idea when evaluating different coatings to ask to see the results of Florida exposure. PVDF coatings
have been shown to pass AAMA 2605-98 in the widest variety of colors. (For coil coated products there is no
universally accepted specification although long term warranties are available.)

PVDF coatings are usually formulated as 70% PVDF and 30% other resins, acrylic usually predominating.
While 50% PVDF coatings are available, they do not meet AAMA 2605-98 in all colors. Chemical resistance
and resistance to UV light are the strengths of PVDF coatings. PVDF has come to dominate the curtainwall
and metal roofing markets because of its weatherability, and because of the wide variety of colors available.
Until 1990 all PVDF resin was sold under the trade name Kynar 500.

In the beginning of 1990 Pennwalt was bought by Atochem North America. As part of the sale, the Federal
Trade Commission stipulated that Atochem sell one of its two Kynar manufacturing facilities, after a series of
further mergers and aquisitions, PVDF is produce by two firms: Arkema Inc and Solvay Solexis. Solvay
Solexis is promoting PVDF under the trade mark Hylar 5000 and Arkema Inc uses the tradename Kynar 500.
Today, both Solvay Solexis and Arkema are providing PVDF resin to the five companies qualified to mix this
special coating: PPG Industries, Valspar, Morton, Glidden, and Akzo Nobel. There are also PVDF resins
imported into the U.S. which are not Kynar or Hylar. This is why throughout this article I have referred to
these resins as PVDF whenever possible.

ADVANTAGES OF PVDF COATINGS

1. PVDF is relatively chemically inert and will outlast anodizing in corrosive environments. Window
washers can be less discriminating about the types of chemicals they use to clean a building. If
extremely corrosive cleaners are used, however, even PVDF will show signs of damage.
 2. PVDF coatings offer nearly an unlimited selection of colors and are easy to manufacture in small
batches.
3. Coil painted sheet is less expensive than anodized sheet and does not craze as badly when
fabricated.
4. Color consistency is usually better than with anodizing. It is surprising, however, how many of our
customers do not expect the slight variations that are seen in the color of painted products. Metallic
metal flake coatings are especially prone to color variation. To improve color consistency, all the
metal for a project should be painted by one applicator in one set-up.

POWDER COATINGS

Liquid paint is composed of pigment, resin, and solvent. Powder paint is simply pigment encapsulated in a
powdered resin and is thus simply thought of as "Paint without the solvent." Powder coatings and liquid
coatings made from the same resin and pigment will have practically the same performance characteristics.
For a given resin, the decision to use a powder or liquid coating is simply a question of application
technique.

The real advantage of powder is the reduction in air pollution compared to liquid coatings. When powders
are cured in an oven they emit no VOCs. A disadvantage of powder is the large batch sizes that are typically
required by powder coatings. The powder manufacturers are aware of this problem and a few of them keep
colors in stock that they distribute in small batches. Several companies manufacture exterior grade powders
using a Polyester TGIC resin. Polyester TGIC powders are currently available in more stock colors than any
other powder. Several companies stock hundreds of colors of Polyester TGIC powders.

Some resins are more easily manufactured in liquid coatings and some are more easily manufactured in
powder coatings. A particular resin is usually manufactured in either powder or solvent based coatings, but
not both. Examples of this are epoxy which is predominantly a powder coating, and PVDF which historically
has been manufactured as a liquid coating. Many of the perceived advantages of powders over liquid
coatings such as hardness and gloss are actually characteristics of the resin.

Powder coatings from most manufacturers are only available in large batches and custom colors can be very
expensive. This is because each batch of powder must be ground to order using expensive grinding
equipment. Solvent born colors will continue to maintain their niche in the market because of the ease with
which small batches can be mixed. The ability to "mix and match" gives painters and their customers
unequalled flexibility and ease of use.
Southern Aluminum Finishing also applies epoxy based powders for interior applications such as furniture.
One note of caution about powders: they are prone to orange peel and the coating may appear to be
textured.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS

All the resins I have mentioned can theoretically be made in either solvent-born or powder coating
formulations. Some resins are easier to manufacturer and/or apply using solvent-born formulations, but
solvents cause air pollution. The force of regulation weighs heavily on the construction industry, especially
on solvent-born coatings. Solvent-born coatings for long-term exterior architectural applications are mostly
solvent-based where typically between 70 and 80% of each gallon of paint is evaporated during the paint
curing process. Included in the fumes are hydrocarbons which are termed VOCs (volatile organic
compounds) by the EPA, and are a precursor to ozone formation similar to automobile exhaust. Ozone is a
major component of smog and can cause eye, lung and throat irritation. Regulations such as the Resource
Conservation and Recovery act (RCRA) and the Clean Air Act will reduce ozone formation, though it will take
years for the Federal Regulations to translate into local action plans. If Southern California is an indicator of
future environmental regulations for the rest of the country, it may soon be illegal in the U.S. to spray many
solvent based coatings including PVDF without costly environmental equipment. This is driving up the cost of
solvent-born coatings.

Organic coating manufacturers may be forced to decide between recommending their applicators install
costly pollution control equipment, or developing powder coating technology. Powder coatings produce no air
pollution, and are becoming full-fledged competition for anodized and solvent-born coatings.

In order to meet AAMA 2605-98 all organic coatings for architectural aluminum including solvent born and
powder coatings require a hexavalent chrome pretreatment. This pretreatment is required for long-term
adhesion for exterior use, but it requires that applicators have extensive water pollution control equipment.
While this technology is well known and produces excellent adhesion results, the sludge from this process is
a hazardous waste and is difficult and costly to dispose.

In light of these new developments, specifiers may wonder what the best way is to specify a long lasting
painted finish. Our advice is to consult with your finisher, specify AAMA 2605-98, and to rely on the
expertise of coating manufacturers like PPG, Lilly, Akzo or Valspar who mix these coatings for the
architectural market.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CURTAINWALL AND METAL ROOFING

Earlier in this article, it was mentioned that PVDF had captured the curtainwall and metal roofing markets.
This is because for curtainwall and metal roofing, color consistency and color selection are more important
than abrasion resistance. With PVDF, a specifier may choose any color he wants, and it is likely to be readily
available since most applicators have the capability to mix their own coatings.

In most situations PVDF coatings exhibit excellent color consistency. This does not mean that color
consistency is perfect with paint. Contractors must be careful to have their metal coated at the same time in
the same place whenever possible to reduce the probability of color variation caused by different batches of
paint or application conditions. Often there is severe color variation within three and four coat metallic PVDF
coatings. Architect's objections to metallic paints are reminiscent of their objections to anodizing.

Care must be taken when applying touch-up paints because a perfect match is impossible between the
factory applied finish and a finish applied in the field. Touch-up paints are a problem for both painted and
anodized coatings. Touch-up paint should never be sprayed on, but touched on lightly with a brush. Touch
up paint usually fades and chalks at a different rate than the underlying coating.

When a live, translucent building exterior is desired, anodizing is a good finish for curtainwall. Architects
should require color range panels from the anodizer. The installer should be aware of the variability
expected from anodized panels. An installer may be able to sort some of the panels by elevation for a
desired effect. Sorting may also be required with metallic painted coatings. If a panel is outside the
approved color range, the finisher should not ship it. Importantly, it is also the installer's responsibility to
avoid installing metal that is not within range. When specifying anodizing for monumental use, be sure to
specify SAFINISH (Aluminum Association Class I). See the following chart for an explanation of Aluminum
Association Designations.

The reason for specifying SAFINISH anodizing (Class I) is to make an anodic coating as durable as possible.
Coating thickness is the most significant indicator of durability for anodized coatings. Coating thickness for
architectural use can be specified as either Class 1 (0.7 mils) or Class 2 (0.4 mils) per Aluminum Association
DAF 45, but often there is no specification. The "cheapest thing" is then installed, and in a few short years
the finish is pitted, stained and eroded.

Cheap anodized sheets are often sold with a coating thickness of 0.10 mils. A finish of this thickness also
might be called a 200, A21, A22 or A24. While this coating thickness is suitable for many applications,
specifiers should know that the integrity of this finish will not last more than a few years in exterior
architectural applications. The expected lifetime is much less in coastal environments. Coating thickness
makes an even more important difference in the durability of colored finishes. Colors will fade more quickly
with thinner coatings because they contain less of the coloring agent.
There is often enormous pressure to sell the "cheapest" product available. If a specification simply reads
"Clear Anodized," a 0.2 mil coating is the likely result. On the other hand, if a thickness of 0.8 mils is
specified, the coating will last at least four times longer. Simply restated, the life of an anodic coating is
proportional to its coating thickness, and a Class I coating is twice as thick as a Class II coating. This means
that in most situations, Class I coatings will last twice as long a Class II on the exterior of a building.

As previously mentioned, anodizing can be renewed by cleaning. Anodizing can often be restored when it
looks like it has failed, but when painted coatings fail there is little that can be done short of repainting the
entire building. Repainting a building is normally much more expensive than the cost of the original factory
applied finish, and quality control is not good on a job site. Both anodized and painted coatings require
regular maintenance, something most building owners do not consider.

STOREFRONT

The parts of a storefront which receive the most abrasion from traffic should be anodized. Anodizing's
superior abrasion resistance means it will outlast paint on a door stile, kick-plate or push/pull bar. On the
other hand, painting aluminum framing materials above the doors adds a nice accent to a storefront.
Sometimes, one will see aluminum doors installed in a mill finish to be painted at the job site. This is always
a mistake. Field applied PVDF coatings are also available. If a field applied PVDF coating is used, the
resulting finish will last longer than conventional paint, but its abrasion resistance will still belacking
compared to factory-applied PVDF or anodizing.

Anodizing will always have a place in the storefront market. Its abrasion resistance and cost effectiveness
for storefront applications are not likely to be matched by any organic coating. Specify SAFINISH coatings
for the most durable, long lasting finish.

CONCLUSIONS
The finish of choice depends on the application, and is not merely a matter of personal preference. Anodizing
is best suited to storefronts, and anywhere else a rich metallic appearance is desired. Anodized and
Polyester coatings are best for storefront and handrails. PVDF coatings are best suited for metal roofing and
curtainwall components. Anodized, PVDF and Polyester coatings could all be used on curtainwall, roofing and
storefront applications with satisfactory results.

There are many options available for finishing aluminum which is why it is such a popular construction
material. The question of which finish to apply is not always an easy decision because of all the options
available. I have tried to be objective to help the specifier decide what type of coating system to use when
coating architectural aluminum, whether the application is metal roofing, storefront, or curtainwall. The
conclusion I hope the reader draws from this article is to communicate your needs with your finisher or your
finisher's suppliers. With environmental regulations being the impetus behind many new developments,
there will soon be even more options to the already vast array of finishes available for aluminum.

-PennMcClatchey

http://www.glassmagazine.net/articles.php?id=806
Coating and Plating Specifications

PROCESS METAL APPLICABLE NORMAL REMARKS

SPECIFICATION COATING
THICKNESS
AND COLOR
OR
APPEARANCE
ALODINE See CHEMICAL
FILMS
ANODIZE - ALUMINUM MIL-A-8625 0.00002 -0.0003 Not to be applied with
CHROMIC ACID TYPE I - Conventional Clear to dark gray copper content in excess of
TYPE IB - Low depending on 50% silicon in excess 7.0%
Voltage alloy. and when total alloying
CLASS 1 - Non Dyed elements exceed 7.5% Non-
CLASS 2 - Dyed conductive, good paint base,
poor abrasion resistance, not
good for dyes except black,
should be used.
ANODIZE - ALUMINUM MIL-A-8625 TYPE II 0.00007-0.001 Not to be applied to
SULFURIC ACID CLASS 1 - Non Dyed Clear assemblies or part with
CLASS 2 - Dyed All Colors joints or recesses which
might entrap solution. Good
electrical barrier and paint
base. May be dyed in all
colors. Dichromate seal will
impart yellow color.
Produces excellent
 decorative finishes when the
part is either polished,
brushed, or bright dipped
prior to anodizing. Good
abrasion resistance.

ANODIZE - HARD ALUMINUM MIL-A-8625 TYPE III Unless otherwise Dense hard wear resistant
(includes Martin and CLASS 1 - Non Dyed specified, coating. Coatings are
Surge Hardcoat) CLASS 2 - Dyed 0.0016/0.0024 will approximately 50%
be applied. Color penetration and 50%
will vary alloy and buildup. Excellent dielectric
thickness. and heat absorption
properties. Should be
considered for salvage
applications. Sealing greatly
increases corrosion
resistance, but slightly
reduces wearing qualities.
Teflon sealing may be added
to increase lubricity.
ANODIZE - ALUMINUM NONE No Dimensional The ultimate seal for
DURASEAL change corrosion resistance on
All colors alloys. We have independent
salt spray tests that have
withstood 1,000+ hours
without pitting on 6061 and
2024 aluminum alloys.
ANODIZE - 5052-H34 & Aluminum Association CLASS I - 0.0007 Integral-color (non-dyed)
ARCHITECTURAL 6063-T6 Standard minimum hardcoat. Excellent
(Kalcolor process: ALUMINUM AA-A42 - CLASS I CLASS II - 0.0004 corrosion and abrasion
also called Bronze ALLOYS AA-A3A - CLASS II - 0.0007 resistance. Non-dyed
Anodize) ASTM B580 Light to dark integral-color is lightfast and
bronze. depends on alloy used.
CLASS I is recommended
for exterior applications and
CLASS II for interior
applications.
ANODIZE ALUMINUM NONE 0.0001-0.0004 A method of anodizing
PRINTING Clear letters, symbols, characters,
All colors logos, and numerals on an
anodized background. The
letters are of one color and
the background of another.
Superior to regular ink
printing because of the
corrosion and solvent
resistance of anodize, and is
an excellent alternative to
engraving.
BAKING ALL In accordance with No dimensional Used for hydrogen
applicable plating change Slight embrittlement or stress relief
specification staining may result before and/or after
 processing, for improving
the adhesion of plating the
base metal, and increasing
the hardness of plating.
BLACK OXIDE IRON, MIL-C-13924 No dimensional Poor abrasion resistance.
STEEL, CLASS 1 - Iron & Steel change Black Poor corrosion resistance
STAINLESS CLASS 2 - 400 series except for some 300 series
STEEL, stainless steel stainless steels with CLASS
COPPER, CLASS 3 - Fused salt 4 coating. Used where a
ALLOYS process black surface and low light
CLASS 4 - Stainless reflection is required.
steel MIL-F-495 Supplementary wax or oil
dip (VV-L-800 Preservative
Water Displacing Oil) Will
improve appearance and
corrosion resistance. Good
for decorative purposes
when base metal is polished
before processing protection
is included.
BLASTING ALL MIL-STD-1504 Removes metal For removing scale and rust,
(includes glass bead Dull to semi-bright etc., and blending
and powder blasting) imperfections. The amount
of metal removed will
depend on media selected.
May be used for decorative
and optical finishes.
Provides uniform matte
finish before decorative
processing.
BRASS ALL NONE .0002-.0005 Normally preceded by bright
Dull to bright nickel plate and pst treated
with a coat of clear lacquer
or baked enamel.
BRIGHT DIPS ALUMINUM, NONE Removes metal Chemical polishing which
BRASS, Bright improves appearance of
COPPER finishes on aluminum, bass
and copper. Used for
cleaning metal before
welding and pressure testing
CADMIUM ALL QQ-P-416 CLASS 1 - 0.0005 Most commonly used
TYPE I - Without CLASS 2 - 0.0003 plating. High density of
supplementary CLASS 3 - 0.0002 plate affords excellent
chromate treatment TYPE I - Clear corrosion resistance. TYPE I
TYPE II - With TYPE II - Gold coating is very susceptible to
supplementary TYPE II - Gray stains and fingerprints.
chromate treatment Dull to bright TYPE II coating is excellent
TYPE III - With for resistance to moisture
supplementary and humidity, and a paint
phosphate treatment base. Chromate colors
besides gold are clear, black,
and olive drab. TYPE III is a
good paint base. Stress relief
 is required on metal with a
hardness of Rockwell C34
or above before plating and
hydrogen embrittlement
relief is required on metal
with a hardness of Rockwell
C36 or above after plating.
CHEMICAL FILMS ALUMINUM MIL-C-5541 No dimensional Used mainly as a point base
(Alodine, Iridite, etc.) CLASS 1A for change that improves paint
maximum protection Gold or clear as adhesion. Good corrosion
against corrosion on specified. resistance. Electrically
painted or unpainted conductive. Normally gold
surfaces color unless otherwise
CLASS 3 for protection specified. CLASS 3 coating
against corrosion where is used primarily for low
low electrical resistance electrical resistance contact
is required. and has less corrosion
resistance that CLASS 1A
coating.
CHROMIUM ALL QQ-C-320 CLASS 1 - 0.0001 Decorative chrome is
CLASS 1 - Corrosion - 0.00005 (plus normally applied over
protective (decorative) underplate) copper and nickel plate.
TYPE I - Bright CLASS 2 - 0.002 TYPE I bright coating is put
TYPE II - Satin unless otherwise on either the base metal that
CLASS 2 - Engineering specified is polished or as is. TYPE II
(hard) Dull to bright satin coating is put on the
base metal that is either
blasted, grained or brushed.
Hard chrome is plated
directly on the base metal.
Parts requiring heavy metal
deposits should be
overplated and ground to the
final finished dimension.
CHROME PICKLE See DOW #1

CHROMIC ACID See DOW #19

TOUCH UP
COPPER ALL MIL-C-14550 CLASS 0 - 0.001 - Stop off for heat treat
0.005 (CLASS 0) and carburizing
CLASS 1 - 0.001 (CLASS 1). Undercoat for
min. other plated metals to
CLASS 2 - 0.0005 improve adhesion, corrosion
min. resistance, and to increase
CLASS 3 - 0.0002 electrical conductivity
min. (CLASS 2). Under tin
CLASS 4 - 0.0001 plating to prevent base metal
min. migration into the tin to
poison solderability (CLASS
3 and CLASS 4)
COPPER SULFATE See Testing
TEST
DICHROMATE See DOW #7
DOW #1 MAGNESIUM MIL-M-3171 TYPE I Removes 0.0006 - For temporary corrosion
(Chrome Pickle) 0.001 metal resistance. Affords such
Gray to brown protection as may be
required during machining,
shipment, and storage. My
be used as a paint base.
DOW #7 MAGNESIUM MIL-M-3171 TYPE III No dimension Good paint base. Best
(Dichromate change corrosion protection of the
Treatment) Brassy to dark chemical coatings for
rown magnesium. May be applied
to all alloys except EK30A,
EK+1A, EZ33A, HK31A,
M1A, HM31A, HM21A,
and LA141A.
DOW #9 MAGNESIUM MIL-M-3171 TYPE IV No dimension Good paint base. Used on
(Galvanic Anodize) change alloys that won't take DOW
Dark brown to #7 and parts requiring a non-
black reflective black coating.
DOW #17 MAGNESIUM MIL-M-45202 TYPE I CLASS C Machining allowances must
(Anodize) TYPE I - Light Coating 0.0001 - 0.0005 be made. Good paint base
CLASS C - Light green Light Green and corrosion protection.
coating TYPE II CLASS D Hard non-conductive
TYPE II - Heavy 0.0009 - 0.0016 coating. Castings should be
Coating Dark Green picked, prior to machining,
CLASS D - Dark green to remove scale and insure
coating uniformity of the coating.
The coating thickness is
approximately 40%
penetration and 60%
buildup.
DOW #19 MAGNESIUM MIL-M-3171 TYPE VI No dimensional Commonly used to touch up
(Chromic Acid Touch change rack marks, surface
Up) Brassy to Brown scratches, reworked areas,
and surfaces that have been
remachined or abraded.
DOW # 21 MAGNESIUM NONE Removes metal Good paint base. Poor
(Ferric Nitrate Bright Satin to Bright corrosion resistance. May be
Pickle) coated with laquer or clear
bake enamel to preserve
brightness.
DOW #23 MAGNESIUM NONE Under 0.0001 Layer of tin that retards
(Stannate Immersion) Gray galvanic corrosion from
dissimilar metals. Good
paint base and has low
electrical resistance.
DRY FILM See SOLID FILM
LUBRCATION LUBRICANT
or DRY LUBE
ELECTROLESS ALL AMS 2404 THICKNESS AS 100% uniformity of plating
NICKEL CLASS 1 - As plated, SPECIFIED thickness on all accessible
 no subsequent heat Semi-bright internal and external areas.
treatment Exceptionally good for
CLASS 2 - Heat treated salvage purposes. Good
to obtain required corrosion, oxidation, and
hardness wear resistance. Facilitates
CLASS 3 - On soldering on aluminum and
aluminum alloys, brazing on stainless steel.
nonheat-treatable, & CLASS 1 and CLASS2
beryllium alloys, coated steel parts. Rockwell
processed to verify C33 or above, are baked for
nickel adhesion hydrogen embrittlement
CLASS 4 - On relife. CLASS 2 coated parts
aluminum alloys, heat- are additionally heated to
treatable, processed to 450 degrees F. or more, to
verify nickel adhesion harden the nickel deposit.
This heat treatment should
increase the plating hardness
to 800 Knoop or better, for
CLASS 2 coatings.
ETCHING MOST NONE Removes metal. To improve appearance,
Dull to bright remove burrs and oxidation,
clean for spot welding, give
satin finish, etc.
GALVANIC See DOW #9
ANODIZE
GOLD ALL MIL-G-45204 CLASS 00 - GRADE A - Knoop
TYPE I - 99.7% gold .00002 min hardness 90 max.
min CLASS 0 - .00003 GRADE B - Knoop
GRADES A, B, OR C min hardness 91-129.
TYPE II - 99.0% gold CLASS 1 - .00005 GRADE C - Knoop
min. min hardness 130-200.
GRADES B, C, OR D CLASS 2 - .0001 GRADE D - Knoop
TYPE III - 99.9% gold min hardness 201 and over.
min. CLASS 3 - .0002 Good solderability,
GRADE A (only) min corrosion, and tarnish
CLASS 4 - .0003 resistance. When plated on a
min copper rich surface such as
CLASS 5 - .0005 brass, bronze, beryllium
min copper, copper strike or
CLASS 6 - .0015 plate, a nickel underplate is
min applied to prevent diffusion
Dull to bright of the copper and the gold.
Coating thickness of .00005
- .0001 is best for soldering.
HAE MAGNESIUM MIL-M-45202 TYPE I CLASS A It is generally agreed by
(A superior type of TYPE I - Light coating 0.0001 - 0.0003 most authorities that this
anodic coating) CLASS A - Tan coating Tan treatment is the best all
GRADE 1 - No post TYPE II CLASS A around coating for
treatment 0.0013 - 0.0017 magnesium in existence.
GRADE 2 - With Oatmeal to dark The coating thickness is
bifluoride dichromate brown approximately 35 to 40
post treatment percent penetration and 55
TYPE II - Heavy to 60 percent buildup. When
 coating selected organic post-
CLASS A - Hard brown treatments are applied, a salt
coating spray test of up to 1000
GRADE 1 - No post hours is possible. The
treatment coating is non-conductive.
GRADE 3 - With TYPE II coatings have
bifluoride- dichromate extremely good resistance to
post treatment abrasion. TYPE I light
GRADE 4 - With coatings are normally tan in
bifluoride- dichromate color. TYPE II heving
post treatment including coatings will range from an
moist heat aging oatmeal color to dark brown,
GRADE 5 - Same as depending on the thikness of
GRADE except double the coating. HAE coatings
bifluoride-dichromate are not affected by extream
post treatment tempurature variations. A
heavy coated panel heated to
1075 degrees F. and plunged
into ice water will show no
ill effects to the coating.
This process can be
selectively applied by
masking the areas that have
to be free of coating for:
electrical grounding, close
tolerance dimensions, heavy
buildups for salvage
purposes, etc. The coating
may be used on all
magnesium alloys.
HARDNESS/ ALL ASTM E18 No dimension Hardness testing is used to
CONDUCTIVITY MIl-STD-1537 change check the temper or
TESTING No appearance condition of materials. The
change results are expressed in the
Rockwell superficial
bardness of metallic
materials. Hardness values
for nonferrous alloys do not
give absolute correlation
with mechanical properties,
as with ferrous alloys.
Hardness testing on
nonferrous alloys should be
used to detect incorrect heat
treating or damage caused
by maching. Conductivity
testing uses electromagnetic
introduction to test physical
properties such as
hardening, anneling,
changes in alloy
composition, heat treating,
and aging, etc.
HUMIDITY TEST See TESTING
HYDROGEN See BAKING
EMBRITTLEMENT
RELIEF
IRIDITE See CHEMICAL
FILMS
IRIDITE #15 MAGNESIUM MIL-M-3171 TYPE Experience shows Good paint base on all
VIII it may remove alloys. Limited corrosion
metal protection. Used for alloys
Brassy to dark that won't take Dow #7.
brown Careful control is necessary
to avoid etching of base
metal.
MAGNETIC STEEL AND ASTM E14444 No dimensional This inspection method is
PARTICLE MAGNESIUM change used for detecting cracks,
INSPECTION MATERIALS No appearance seams, laps, inclusions,
change welding flaws, and
dicontinuities on the
surfaces of ferromagnetic
materials.
NICKEL ALL QQ-N-290 CLASS 1 There is a nickel finish for
(Electrodeposited) CLASS 1 - Corrosion GRADE A - .0016 almost any need. Nickel can
protective GRADE B - .0012 be deposited in soft or hard
CLASS 2 - Engineering GRADE C - .0010 form, dull or bright finish.
(Also see GRADE D - .0008 Corrosion resistance is
SULFAMATE GRADE E - .0006 related to the thinkness
NICKEL) GRADE F - .0004 applied. Low thermal
GRADE G - .0002 expansion. Slightly
CLASS 2 - as magnetic. CLASS 2 plating
specified will be .002 to .003 thick
unless otherwise specified,
but may be controlled to fit
any engineering application.
CLASS 1 coatings that
include copper undercoat are
used for decorative
chromium systems.
Embrittlement relief is
required on all metals with
hardnesses above Rockwell
C40.
PAINTING All MIL-T-704 Thickness as Our facilities can apply
(Spray) MIL-F-7179 specified matherials such as alkyd,
MIL-F-18264 Colors per FED- acrylic, epoxy, and
STD-595 or polyurethane enamels; vinyl
custom matched and acrylic lacquers;
varnishes and resin coatings;
epoxy, acid-wash, red oxide,
and zinc chromate primers.
Finishes such as class A,
hammertone, wrinkle, and
texture. Also, see SOLID
FILM LUBRICANT.
PASSIVATE STAINLESS QQ-P-35 No dimensional Dissolves all traces of
STEELS TYPE II - Medium change foreign metals such as
temperature nitric acid No appearance peices of iron particles, tool
solution with sodium change scrapings, chips, etc., that
dichromate additive will cause rust or stain spots
TYPE VI - Low temp. if they are not removed. A
nitric acid solution thin, transparent passive film
TYPE VII - Medium forms over the surface and
Temp. nitric acid prevents this condition from
solution occurring. The presence of
TYPE VIII - Medium rust and/or heavy heat treat
temp. high scale may necessitate a pre-
concentration nitric acid pickle. For the 400 and
solution precipitation hardening
series of stainless steels, the
proper heat treatment is very
important to ensure
complete passivation. Our
inspection personnel
conduct the required copper
sulfate, salt spray, and water
immersion inspection tests
in our own testing
department and chemical
laboratory in accordance
with MIL-STD-753 and
ASTM B117. (see
TESTING).
PENETRANT ALL MIL-STD-6866 .0002-.0004 metal This process is generally
INSPECTION TYPE I - Fluorescent removal on used on aluminum,
dye aluminum and magnesium, and stainless
TYPE II - Visible dye magnesium alloys steels. It can, however, be
METHOD A - Water No dimensional useful on other metals and
washable change on other materials. Detects cracks,
METHOD B - Post types of metals discontiuities, corrosion,
emulsifiable (lipophilic) No appearance welding flaws, laps, cold
METHOD C - Solvent change shuts and porosity.
removable Prepenetrant etching is
METHOD D - Post performed on aluminum and
emulsifiable magnesium parts. Critical
(hydrophilic) surface finishes and areas
with close tolerances are
masked, as required, to
protect them from metal
removal, prior to the etching
operation.
PHOSPHATE IRON AND DOD-P-16232 TYPE .0002-.0006 Used for corrosion
(Heavy) STEEL Z- Zinc base 1022 mg/sq ft protections of ferrous
CLASS 1 - Specified minimum coating metals. Also used to prevent
treatment of weight galling in cold extrusion and
supplementary Gray deep-drawing applications.
preservative Not recommended if the
CLASS 2 - MIL-C- coating is expected to come
16173 in contact with alkaline
 GRADE 1 preservative materials or to be exposed to
treatment temperatures above 200
CLASS 3 - No degrees F. CLASS 2 and
supplementary CLASS 4 coatings extend
preservative treatment the corrosion protection of
CLASS 4 - Chemically the phosphate. MIL-L-3150
converted oil may be used as an
alternative for very small
parts under CLASS 2.
CLASS 4 provides an
improved break-in coating.
PHOSPHATE IRON AND TT-C-490 Zinc base Minor dimensional Used for pretreatment of
(Light) STEEL TYPE I change base metal for organic
150-500 mg/sq ft coatings such as primer
TYPE V coating weight enamel, lacquer, etc.
Improves corrosion
500-1100 mg/sq ft resistance of the base metal,
coating weight. and promotes better
Gray adhesion between the base
metal and the organic
coating. Also, use for post
treatment of both cadmium
and zinc plating.
PICKLING ALL In accordance with Removes metal Generally used as a cleaner
applicable plating Cleaner and to remove corrosion, rust,
specifications brighter surface and scale from heat treating
or weling. The hazards
involved in this process
should be investigated
before using.
POLISHING ALL NONE Removes metal Bright buffing and satin
Satin to bright brushing, or graining for
plated or unplated
decorative finishes.
Removes surface
imperfections.
PREVENTIVE ALL MIL-C-16173 GRADE 1 - .004 Corrosion preventives are
COMPOUND GRADE 1 - Hard film max. (0 to 175 applied in a petroleum
SOLVENT GRADE 3 - Soft film degrees F. solvent. The solvent
CUTBACK COLD- GRADE 4 - resistant) evaporates leaving a
APPLICATION Transparent, non- tacky GRADE 2 - .002 protective film. GRADE 1 is
film max. (-40 degrees for metals exposed to
GRADE 5 - Hot water- F. resistant) outdoor weather, for up to
low pressure removable GRADE 3 - .001 one year. GRADE 2 is for
film maximum machine parts, indoors for
GRADE 4 - .002 up to six months. GRADE 3
max. (-40 to 175 is for displacing water and
degrees F. protection of interior parts
resistant) for up to four months.
GRADE 5- .001 GRADE 4 is for indoor or
maximum shed storage of parts. Also,
Brown to black where a tack-free or
translucent coating is
 required. GRADE 5 is the
same as GRADE 3 except
the film is removed with hot
water or low pressure steam.
SALT SPRAY TEST See TESTING
SANDBLASTING See BLASTING
SILK SCREEN ALL AS SPECIFIED No dimensional An excellent means to label
PRINTING (Also see ANODIZE change parts for identification and
PRINTING) All colors information with enamel,
epoxy, lacquer, plastisol or
vinyl inks. Print on metal
anodized, bare, painted,
plated, etc.
SILVER ALL QQ-S-365 .0005 unless Excellent conductivity.
TYPE I - Matte otherwise Application of light water
TYPE II - Semi-bright specified. dip lacquer or chromate
TYPE III - Bright Suggested are: treatment per GRADE A
GRADE A - With .0003 for soldering does not impair
supplementary tarnish- parts; .0005 for solderability. Greatly
resistant treatment corrosion increases conductivity of
GRADE B- Without protection of lesser metals. Ferrous
supplementary tarnish- nonferrous basis surfaces require and
resistant treatment metals and undercoat of .0005
increasing comprised of copper or
conductivity of nickel or any combination.
basis metals Nickel undercoat is
.005 minimum - advantageous when
See REMARKS corrosion protection is
important. .005 minimum
thick coating is suggested
for electrical contacts
depending on pressure,
friction, and electrical load.
SOLID FILM ALL MIL-L-46010 .0002-.0005 Pretreatment compatible
LUBRICANT TYPE I & TYPE II Dull gray to black with base material is
MIL-L-23398 normally necessary
MIL-L-45983 (anodize, chemical film,
MIL-L-81329 cadmium plate, blasting if
MIL-L-85614 required, etc.).
Low co-efficient of friction
reduces wear, prevents
galling and seizing.
Excellent fluid and
corrosion resistance when
used in conjunction with
pretreatment.
STRESS RELIEF See BAKING
SULFAMATE ALL QQ-N-290 .002-.003 or as Low stressed nickel deposit.
NICKEL CLASS 2 specified Used for wear and abrasion
Semi-bright resistance. Also, for heavy
buildups on worn parts and
for salvage purposes.
TESTING ALL PLATED ASTM B117 - Salt No dimensional These tests are designed to
AND spray change verify the integrity of
UNPLATED MIL-STD-753 No appearance various metals and metal
METHOD 100 - change surface finishes. The salt
Humidity spray method is used
METHOD 101 - Water extensively for testing of
immersion anodize, chemical films, and
METHOD 102 - plated metal coatings. The
Copper sulfate salt spray, humidity, water
immersion, and copper
sulfate methods are used to
check on the passivity of
stainless steel after the
passivation process.
TIN ALL MIL-T-10727 TYPE I - Dull (matte) or bright
TYPE I - Thickness not appearance must be
Electrodeposited specified, specified. Underplate of
TYPE II - Hot-dipped suggested are: copper or nickel must be
.0001-.00025 for used on brass and zinc
soldering alloys. Excellent
.0002-.0004 to solderability and fair
prevent galling or corrosion resistance. At
seizing room temperature TYPE I
.003 minimum to dull plating oxidizes or
prevent corrosion slowly but bright plating
of base metal oxidizes less readily. Parts
.0002-.0006 to to be soldered or used for
prevent case electrical contacts can be
forming in protected from oxide
nitriding formation by a preservative
TYPE II - .0007 coating of stearic acid as
minimum specified. TYPE I plating
Dull gray to bright may be fused but thickness
silver. will vary after treatment. A
maximum of .0003 thick
plating must be maintained
to permit satisfactory fusing.
TYPE II hot-dipped coating
is used on parts for
maximum corrosion
resistance.
WATER See TESTING
IMMERSION TEST
ZINC ALL ASTM B633 Fe/Zn 25 (25 Gives galvanic protection to
TYPE I - Without microns)-.001 base metal. Untreated
supplementary SC 4 (very severe) (TYPE I) zinc plating does
treatment Fe/Zn 13 (13 not maintain its bright
TYPE II - With colored microns)-.0005 surface for a very long
chromate conversion SC 3 (severe) period of time. TYPE II and
coatings Fe/Zn 8 (8 III treatments retard the
TYPE III - With microns)-.0003 formation of white corrosion
colorless chromate SC 2 (moderate) products on the plated
conversion coatings Fe/Zn 5 (5 surface. The service life of
TYPE IV - With microns)-.0002 zinc plating is a function of
phosphate conversion SC 1 (mild) conditions such as thickness,
coatings exposure, and usage. The
TYPE I - Clear Service Conditions are as
TYPE II - Gold follows: SC 4 - Very Severe:
TYPE III - Clear Exposure to harsh
TYPE IV - Gray conditions, or subject to
Dull to bright frequent exposure to
moisture, cleaners, and
saline solutions, and damage
by denting, scratching, or
abrasive wear. SC 3 -
Severe: Exposure to
condensation, perspiration,
infrequent wetting by rain,
and cleaners. SC 2 -
Moderate: Exposure mostly
to dry indoor atmospheres
but subject to occasional
condensation, wear, or
abrasion. SC 1 - Mild:
Exposure to indoor
atmospheres with rare
condensation and subject to
minimum wear or abrasion.