Introduction to

Thermodynamics
Prepared by
Engr Joseph R. Ortenero
Mapua Institute of Technology at Laguna
Malayan Colleges Laguna
Thermodynamics
--a science in which the storage, transformation, and the transfer
of energy are studied.

*Energy is stored as internal energy (associated with

temperaure), kinetic energy (due to motion), potential energy
(due to elevation) and chemical energy (due to chemical
composition).

*Energy is transformed from one of these form to another; and it

is transferred across a boundary as either heat or work.
Thermodynamic system
--a definite quantity of matter most often contained within some
closed surface.

Surroundings
--all matter external to the system.
* Thermodynamics is concerned with the interactions of a system
and its surroundings, or one system interacting with another. A
system interacts with its surroundings by transferring
energy across its boundary.

Types of Sytem
 Isolated System  a system does not exchange energy with the
surroundings.
 Closed Sytem  a system does not exchange mass with its
surroundings but energy can be exchange
 Open Sytem  a system exchanges mass and energy with its
surroundings
*In many cases, an analysis is simplified if attention is focused on a
volume in space into which and or from which, a substance flows
(control volume).
Example: A pump, turbine, an inflating balloon

Control surface  the surface that completely surrounds the

control volume.
 PROPERTY AND STATE OF A SYSTEM
*A matter in a system may exist in several phases: (a) solid (b)
liquid (c) gas.
Phase  a quantity of matter that has the same chemical
composition throughout; that is, homogeneous.
Property  any quantity which serves to describe a system
State  is the condition of a system as described by giving values
to its properties at a particular instant.

Example of Properties: pressure, temperature, volume, velocity,

position
*The essential feature of a property is that it has unique value
when a system is in a particular state and this value does not
depend on the previous states that the system passed through
(state function and path function comparison)

* Since a property is not dependent on the path, any change

depends only on the initial and final states of the system.
*A small number of independent properties suffice to fix all the
other properties and thus the state of the system.
Duhem’s Theorem
--- if a system is composed of a single phase, free from magnetic,
electrical and surface effects, the state is fixed when any two
properties are fixed.
Gibbs Phase Rule (after Willard Gibbs)
 N=C-P+2
Two General Types of Thermodynamic Property:
Intensive Property  a property does not depend on the mass of
the system, e.g., temperature, pressure
Extensive Property  a property depends on the mass of the
system, e.g., volume, momentum
*An extensive property can be converted to intensive property by
dividing the property by mass, specific property, or by mole,
molar property.
Example: specific volume, molar volume, specific enthalpy, molar
enthalpy
Thermodynamic Equilibrium
When properties are constant from point to point and when
there is no tendency for change with time.

Metastable Equilibrium  if a system undergo a large change in

its properties when subjected to some small disturbance.
Example: a mixture of gasoline and air, a large bowl on a small
table
*When a system changes from one equilibrium state to another
the path of successive state through which the system passes is
called a process.

*If, in the passing from one state to the next, the deviation from
equilibrium is infinitesimal, a quasiequilibrium process occurs
and each state in the process may be idealized as an equilibrium
state.
Example: compression and expansion of gases in an internal
combustion engine
An example of the difference between a non-equilibrium process
and a quasi-equilibrium process
*When a system in a given initial state experiences a series of
quasi-equilibrium processes and returns to the initial state, the
system undergoes a cycle.

*At the end of the cycle the properties of the system have the
same values they had at the beginning.
*The prefix iso- is attached to the name of any property that
remains unchanged in a process.
Example:
Isothermal – constant temperature process
Isobaric -- constant pressure process
Isometric/Isochoric – constant volume process
Isentropic – constant entropy process
Isenthalpic – constant enthalpy process
In addition these processes are also of interest in thermodynamics
Adiabatic – no heat transfer/exchange with the
surroundings
UNITS
Density, Specific Volume, Specific Weight
Density is mass per unit volume
ρ = m/V
Specific volume is the reciprocal of density, that is, volume per
unit mass
V = V/m
Specific weight (or weight density) is weight per unit volume
γ = W/V = ρg

*For water the density at ordinary condition is 1000 kg/m3 or

62.4 lbm/ft3. Weight density is 9810 N/m3 or 62.4 lbf/ft3.
PRESSURE
*The effect of normal force acting on an area.
Pressure variation with elevation
*Atmospheric pressure varies with elevation. Hydraulic
pressure varies with depth.
The equation for pressure variation with elevation;

For liquids (pressure variation with depth);

For gases, the density should be expressed as a function of height,

z, in order to evaluate the integral.

Some thermodynamic calculations require absolute pressure.

Pabs = Pgauge + Patm
*A negative pressure is often called a vacuum. A gauge
pressure of -50 kPa would be referred to as a vacuum of 50
kPa, with the sign omitted.
 Temperature
Thermal equilibrium
The state of two systems when their temperatures are postulated
to be equal.
Two systems have equal temperature if no change occurs in any
of their properties when the systems are brought into contact
with each other.

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

 If two systems are equal in temperature to a third, they are
equal in temperature to each other.
ENERGY
Internal Energy
The energy associated with the translation, rotation, and
vibration of the molecules, electrons, protons, and neutrons,
and the chemical energy due to bonding between atoms and
between subatomic particles.

* A substance always has internal energy; if there is molecular

activity, there is internal energy. We need not know the
absolute value of internal energy, since we will be interested
only in its increase or decrease.
Kinetic Energy
Energy possessed by moving objects.
dW=ma dl
dW= m dl du/dt
Ek= mu2/2

Potential Energy
energy possessed by an object in relation to its poosition/
elevation.
Ep= mgz
Work
The product of force and distance.
dW = F dl

The work accompanies a change in volume of a fluid is

encountered often in thermodynamics.
dW= -PA d(V/A)
Heat
heat always flows from a higher temperature to lower one.
temperature is the driving force for the transfer of energy as
heat.
the calorie was long defined as that quantity of heat which
when transferred to one gram of water raised its temperature
by one degree Celsius.
Law of Conservation of Energy
States that the energy of an isolated system remains constant.
Energy cannot be created or destroyed in an isolated system;
it can only be transformed from one form to another.
END OF MODULE
1. The reading on a mercury manometer at 25C (open to the
atmosphere at one end) is 56.38 cm. The local acceleration
of gravity is 9.832 m/s2. Atmospheric pressure is 101.78
kPa. What is the absolute pressure in kPa being measured?
The density of mercury at 25C is 13.534 g/cm3.
2. An instrument to measure the acceleration of gravity on
Mars is constructed of a spring from which is suspended a
mass of 0.40 kg. At a place on Earth where the acceleration
of gravity is 9.81 m/s2, the spring extends 1.08 cm. When
the instrument package is landed on Mars, it radios the
information that the spring is extended 0.40 cm. What is
the Martian acceleration due to gravity?