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Contents

List of Boxes, Figures and Tables xii

Acknowledgements xiii
Notes on Contributors xiv
List of Abbreviations xvii

1 Contemporary Security and Strategy 1

Craig A. Snyder
The study of security 2
Development of strategic studies during the Cold War 5
Post-Cold War developments and the shift in thinking 8
Structure of this book 10
Glossary of key concepts 15
Questions for discussion 15
Further reading 15

2 Realism and Security Studies 17

Sean M. Lynn-Jones
Introduction 17
What is realism? 18
The development of realist thought 22
Criticisms of realism 24
Realism and critical security studies 27
Realism and the democratic peace 28
Debates in contemporary realist theory 30
The future of realism 34
Realism and contemporary security studies 40
Conclusion 41
Glossary of key concepts 42
Questions for discussion 43
Further reading 43

3 Beyond Strategy: Critical Thinking on the New Security

Studies 45
David Mutimer
Beyond strategy: security, critical theory and the end of
the Cold War 47
Whose security? 49
How to achieve security 54

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viii Contents

How to study security 60

Critical Security Studies 66
Conclusion: beyond security? 68
Glossary of key concepts 70
Questions for discussion 70
Further reading 71

4 Environmental Security 72
Dean Coldicott and Thomas O’Brien
Introduction 72
Environmental security of the state 73
Ecological security 77
The environment-conflict nexus 79
Environment and human security 82
Securitization and governance 84
Conclusion 86
Glossary of key concepts 87
Questions for discussion 87
Further reading 88

5 Human Security 89
J. Peter Burgess and Jonas Gräns
Introduction 89
The concept of human security 90
Key conceptual and theoretical debates around human
security 93
Understanding the security in human security 95
Human security in practice 96
Conclusion 101
Glossary of key concepts 103
Questions for discussion 103
Further reading 103

6 Security Implications of the Arms Trade 105

Mike Bourne
Conventional arms, military expenditure and security 106
Small arms and light weapons (SALW) 108
The developing SALW regime 110
Implementation 116
Transfer controls 116
Marking and tracing 119
Stockpile controls 120
Disarmament 122
Monitoring and transparency 123
Conclusion: future direction 124
Glossary of key concepts 126
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Contents ix

Questions for discussion 126

Further reading 126

7 Thinking and Rethinking the Causes of War 128

J. Marshall Beier
Theory and impasse 130
Causae belli: sketching the terrain of debate 132
Out of bounds: the political beyond the debates 137
New ways of war and old ways of thinking 140
Conclusion: rethinking war and the questions we ask 143
Glossary of key concepts 145
Questions for discussion 145
Further reading 145

8 The Evolution of Strategy and the New World Order 147

Geoffrey Till
Introduction: on strategy in general 147
Strategic thinking: the traditional schools 152
The second wave 153
Inter-war airpower theory 157
Blitzkrieg ideas 159
Military thinking in the Cold War 162
Post-Cold War challenges 166
The military strategies of the post-Cold War era 166
The expeditionary impulse 169
Peace support operations 171
Security and counter-terrorism operations 171
Glossary of key concepts 173
Questions for discussion 173
Further reading 174

9 The Transformation of War 175

Andrew Latham and Kabir Sethi
Introduction 175
Transformation of the ‘warfighting paradigm’ 177
Transformation in the ‘social mode of warfare’ 184
Transformation in the ‘historical structure of war’ 186
Conclusion 196
Glossary of key concepts 197
Questions for discussion 199
Further reading 200

10 Nuclear Strategy 201

Andy Butfoy
Introduction 201
US nuclear strategy 202
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x Contents

The other nuclear powers 210

Conclusion 217
Glossary of key concepts 219
Questions for discussion 220
Further reading 221

11 Challenges and Opportunities for the Nuclear

Non-Proliferation Regime 222
J.D. Kenneth Boutin
Introduction 222
The horizontal nuclear non-proliferation regime 223
Threats to the nuclear non-proliferation regime 229
Non-proliferation directions and implications 237
Conclusion 238
Glossary of key concepts 239
Questions for discussion 239
Further reading 240

12 Terrorism and Insurgency 241

Michael Boyle
What is terrorism? 242
The causes of terrorism 245
Al-Qaeda and the future of terrorism 252
What is insurgency? 256
The dilemmas of counter-insurgency 259
Conclusion 262
Glossary of key concepts 263
Questions for discussion 263
Further reading 264

13 Intervention: The Utility of Force in International Politics 265

Michael Arnold
Definition of intervention 266
Types of intervention 268
Non-peace operations 269
Peace operations 273
To intervene or not to intervene 276
Criteria for success 278
What are the mechanics of a successful intervention? 281
Conclusion: the future of military intervention 286
Glossary of key concepts 287
Questions for discussion 287
Further reading 288
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Contents xi

14 Great Powers and the International System 289

Nick Bisley
Introduction 289
Great powers, definitions and history 290
Great powers: a quaint anachronism? 298
The greatest great power 303
Glossary of key concepts 310
Questions for discussion 311
Further reading 312

15 Regional Security and Regional Conflict 312

Craig A. Snyder
What is a region? 313
Regionalism 315
New regionalism theory 317
Development of regional security 320
Regional security threats 323
Conclusion 328
Glossary of key concepts 328
Questions for discussion 329
Further reading 329

Bibliography 330
Index 356
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Chapter 1

Contemporary Security and

Strategy
CRAIG A. SNYDER

This chapter raises the following main points:

• The study of security has experienced a series of debates around

the nature of the threats to security.
• The early security scholars, as distinct from those who studied
strategy and warfare, took a broad approach and argued that
military and non-military means could achieve security.
• During the Cold War the study of security focused on the most
pressing security issue of the day – the nuclear standoff between
the two superpowers.
• In the post-Cold War era the broader approach to the study of
security returned to the fore and included non-state actors and
non-traditional sources of insecurity.

The study of security has been transformed by two major events – the
end of the Cold War and the terrorist attacks on the United States in
2001. These events have forced a major rethink about the basic
assumptions underlying security studies. At stake are some of the key
concepts in security studies, in particular, and international relations,
in general: security, power, conflict and the nation state. During the
Cold War academic theorizing about international conflict had been
dominated by bipolarity and the dangers of great power conflict.
Academics and policy makers alike sought to explain, and predict, all
forms of conflict within the international ‘system’ through the lens of
the bipolar superpower conflict between the United States and the
Soviet Union.
With the demise of the Cold War, new concepts of security that
addressed not only the military realities of the contemporary world but
also the political, economic and social realities were developed. On the
military side questions raised by traditional inter-state rivalry – nuclear
strategy, deterrence, proliferation of weapons of mass destruction and
the future nature of war – continued to prevail. Added to these,
however, were debates concerning the theoretical foundations of

1
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2 Craig A. Snyder

strategy, understandings of the concept of security, as well as, eco-

nomic, social and political sources of conflict.

The study of security

Most writing in the area of strategic or security studies focuses on

either traditional approaches to traditional issues such as John
Mearsheimer’s (2001) examination of great power politics, or take new
approaches to new issues such as Cynthia Enloe’s (1989) work on fem-
inist investigations of global power relationships. Others, such as Marc
Levy (1995) in his work on environmental security, Brad Roberts
(1990) on human rights, and Myron Weiner (1992–3) on migration,
look at a new issues using traditional approaches. That is, these works
seek to broaden the realist conception of security to include non-mili-
tary threats to security such as the environment, human rights and the
movement of people across international borders. Yet another
approach, which this volume undertakes, is to recast the debate on tra-
ditional issues such as deterrence, proliferation and the causes and
transformation of war using new approaches. The focus of this book,
therefore, is to move beyond the realist analysis that has come to domi-
nate the field of security studies and address the underlying continuities
of these new approaches. It also explores a deepening of the agenda of
security studies by examining different levels of security, either down to
the societal or individual level or up to the regional or global level. A
common belief of this type of writing is that the realist focus on mili-
tary threats to the state emanating from outside of its borders is no
longer sufficient as a means of determining what, or who is being
secured, what these threats look like and from where they originate
(Krause and Williams, 1996: 230). Steve Smith (2005: 57) argues that
the debate over the broadening and deepening of the concept of secu-
rity has been supported by the events of and in response to 11
September 2001. While it did bring military force back to the forefront
of security discourse and the US-led war on terror has primarily been a
state-on-state conflict (with little or no role for international institu-
tions), the attacks cannot be explained using traditional understand-
ings of international security or the traditional approaches to the study
of security. The attacks were by a non-state actor who used non-tradi-
tional means and were motivated not by traditional political ideology
but by a combination of antipathy towards Western forms of moder-
nity and liberalism and also of US policies in the Middle East.
Before we can understand the nature of the debate over the approach
to the study of security, we must understand where security studies fits in
the wider conceptual framework of international relations (IR). It may
seem logical to distinguish security studies as being a sub-field of interna-
tional relations much like international law. However, the problem with
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Contemporary Security and Strategy 3

Figure 1.1 Conceptual mapping of international security

this is that one cannot separate many important elements of security

studies from the political, economic or social elements of the interna-
tional system. One cannot simply study the military implications of war
without understanding the roots of the rivalry between actors, such as
considerations of power, status, ideology and wealth (Buzan, 1987: 4).
Michael Sheehan (2005: 1) argues that ‘security’ is at the very core of IR
and it is the centrality of security issues that led to the creation of the dis-
cipline of IR in the first place and is the reason that IR can be distin-
guished from other related disciplines such as political science, history,
economics, and so on. However, politics remains at the very root of war,
something the early strategists, especially Clausewitz, who saw war as
the violent form of politics. For Richard Betts (1997: 7) this is a funda-
mental issue that of ‘how to make force a rational instrument of policy
rather than mindless murder [that is,] how to integrate politics and war’.
While the distinctions between the various sub-fields are in many
instances artificial and difficult to identify precisely for specific issues
they are important in terms of providing a framework for analysis of
security issues. The broad scope of security studies provides academic
legitimacy while strategic studies provide intellectual coherence to the
military core.

Strategic and security studies: What’s in a name?

The term strategic studies has been closely associated with an
American approach to the study of the military aspects of the Cold
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4 Craig A. Snyder

War. This has also been described as national security studies because it
was generally Americans studying American security (see, Garnett,
1987: 7). One of the distinctive elements of strategic studies has been
its focus on military strategy. As an academic discipline the early focus
was on how wars start, how they can be avoided, or if not avoidable,
then fought in the most efficient manner possible (Farrell, 2010: 1). To
this end, the focus of traditional strategic studies has been the military
means that actors in the international system employ to gain their
political objectives or ends. While states are the principal actors in the
international system, due primarily to their command over the over-
whelming bulk of military power, non-state actors, such as terrorists,
separatists or national liberation movements are also included.
However, that these non-state actors are usually involved in an attempt
either to gain control of an existing state, or to create a new state,
underscores the pre-eminence of states (Buzan, 1987: 3).
Nevertheless, just what is strategy? The traditional view is that
strategy involves the use or the threat of the use of force in interna-
tional relations. Therefore, strategic studies is about how the instru-
ments of force influence the relations between states.
Alongside the American dominated strategic studies a ‘British’ or
‘English’ School evolved that looked at a wider range of issues under
the name security studies. Security studies came to the fore in the
1980s and early 1990s as a response to the militaristic focus of
strategic studies. Security studies and strategic studies differ not in their
basic assumptions about how the world works but in what we consider
security threats.
As has been mentioned above, strategic studies is based upon the
realist interpretation of IR. Indeed, they are often treated as synony-
mous. Both feature a distinctive worldview based on assumptions
about the nature of the political environment, the significant actors in
the political environment, and the characteristic manner in which polit-
ical actors interact with each other (Boutin and Snyder, 2008: 71).
Realists argue that due to the anarchic nature of the international
system states should be sceptical of possibilities of permanent peace,
ideas of world government, disarmament and concepts such as collec-
tive or cooperative security (Garnett, 1987: 9–10). As a result, strategic
studies focuses much more on military threats to states while security
studies broadens the definition to include non-military threats not only
to states but also to non-state actors and sub-state groups.
Security studies also incorporates a further variant, that of critical
security. This takes a critical theory approach and raises questions
about the nature of the international system itself and the power rela-
tionships that form the system. Critical security questions the basic
realist assumption that the international system is a predetermined
entity, or given, that cannot be changed. Rather critical theorists argue
that the international ‘system’ is socially constructed, that is it exists
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Contemporary Security and Strategy 5

because we have agreed that it should exist. This does not mean any
conscious decisions were made but that human interaction has created
the structures of the international system and they are not natural nor
absolute in their nature. That is, unlike the realists who see the interna-
tional system as anarchic, the critical theorists see anarchy as a socially
constructed structure. For critical security therefore, the focus is on
changing the way we think about security and the role, and indeed the
very makeup, of the actors, in the system. David Mutimer in Chapter 3
takes up this approach in more detail.
While security studies adopts a broad definition of security and as a
result is much closer to IR than strategic studies it does have one
important difference and that is that it deals not only with the causes
and consequences of war, which is the primary area of interest for
many IR scholars, but also the conduct of war. The conduct of war is
as important an area of scholarship as the decision to go to war, and
the result of the war, tends to rest on the military dimension rather
than the political. Betts (1997: 9) makes this point when he argues that
the different patterns of World War I and World War II (that is,
Germany’s ability to control Western Europe in the early 1940s, as
opposed to its inability to do so between 1914 and 1918) cannot be
explained only by reference to indices of power (that is, the size of the
population, armed forces and the economy, amount of natural
resources available, etc.). Rather the success of the German military to
develop the Blitzkrieg strategy incorporating new military technology
and the doctrine of armoured warfare provided the key ingredient to
initial German success in World War II. Likewise, the ultimate defeat
of Germany in this war was a result of a combination of the develop-
ment of attrition warfare and the strategic and political miscalculations
of the German leadership.

Development of strategic studies during the Cold War

Before we can fully understand the implications of the end of the Cold
War on strategic studies it is important to understand how the field
developed before and during the Cold War. The first book to examine
the broader questions of security and war prevention was Quincy
Wright’s Study of War published in 1942. It deviated from the work of
the classical strategists (as we will see in Chapter 8), which considered
war as a tool of statecraft. Rather than looking at problems of national
security or alternatives for national strategy Wright looked to diplo-
macy, international understanding, arbitration, national self-determina-
tion, disarmament and collective security as guarantors of international
peace and stability (Baldwin, 1995: 119–20).
In the immediate aftermath of World War II the study of war con-
tinued along this line. In the aftermath of the defeat of Nazi Germany
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6 Craig A. Snyder

the anti-fascist allies (the United States, Britain, France, the Soviet
Union and China) sought to create a new world order that would
ensure global peace and stability. International institutions such as
the United Nations, the World Bank and the International Monetary
Fund emerged at this time to assist in: decolonization; economic,
social and political development; and the management of interna-
tional crises. In the heady days of the early post-war period security
analysts built on the work of Quincy Wright and examined four key
themes, first, that security was not the primary concern of all states
at all times but merely one concern that varied in importance from
one historical context to the next. Theorists in this area looked at cal-
culations as to the trade-off between military security and other
values such as economic welfare and individual freedom. Second, mil-
itary and non-military tools of statecraft would be important to
national security. Third, the recognition of the security dilemma (that
is, the actions that one state takes to increase its security in turn
decrease the security felt by others) led to cautious use of military
power. Fourth, linkages between national security and domestic
affairs, such as the economy, civil liberties and democratic processes
were made (Baldwin, 1995: 122).
However, this period of optimism was quickly overtaken as a result
of the growing tension and mistrust between the two leading World
War II allies. The US and the USSR divided over their political and eco-
nomic ideologies of democracy and capitalism versus communism
clashed over the nature of the post-war system that was emerging.
While the US sought to establish an international political economic
structure that favoured capitalism (especially American capitalist inter-
ests), the Soviets were more concerned with exporting the worker’s rev-
olution and overthrowing capitalism at a global level (and, at a more
practical level, exercising its control over Central and Eastern Europe:
an area of strategic importance to the security of the Soviet Union). As
a result of this growing mistrust, tensions between the wartime allies
increased to the point where the notion of a ‘Cold War’ developed
between the US-led ‘West’ and the Soviet-led ‘East’. The most physical
representation of this East–West divide was the division of Europe
between the Soviet controlled eastern half of the continent and the US-
led western half. This division included the division of not only
Germany but also the former German capital of Berlin. This division
was a result of the original system for the post-war occupation of
Germany where each of the allies was given a zone of control. While
the French, British and Americans transferred their zones to a new
Federal Republic of Germany (commonly referred to in English as
West Germany), the Soviets transferred their zone to the German
Democratic Republic (or East Germany).
Strategic analysts, at this time, began to focus on the possibility of a
major conflict between the US and the Soviet Union. Added to the mix
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Contemporary Security and Strategy 7

of conventional strategic analysis was the issue of the role of nuclear

weapons. As is discussed in Chapter 10 while the US maintained a
monopoly on nuclear weapons, these were seen as just another weapon
in the US arsenal, albeit a strategic rather than a tactical weapon. That
is, nuclear weapons were considered as a war ending or war prevention
weapon. However, the implications of a global nuclear war emerged in
1949 following the first Soviet nuclear test. This was followed in 1957
with the introduction of intercontinental ballistic missiles with the
Soviet launch of the Sputnik 1 satellite onboard the ‘R-7’ ballistic
missile. This development provided the Soviets with the ability to strike
directly at the continental United States and removed the United States’
monopoly on both nuclear weapons but also the ability to use them as
a strategic weapon vis-à-vis its Cold War rival. Theo Farrell (2010: 2)
argues that ‘[i]t would be no exaggeration to say that strategic studies
really took off . . . with the onset of the nuclear age: the prospect of
nuclear annihilation concentrated the minds of academics and ordinary
folk on the causes and impact of [nuclear] war.’
While the type of security study that Quincy Wright had advocated
continued throughout the Cold War, it was marginalized because of the
narrowing of the focus of strategic studies onto nuclear weapons and
the increased chance of global nuclear war. Strategic studies flourished
in this period because nuclear deterrence was, by its very nature, theo-
retical rather than practical. The major questions raised at this time
were concerned with arms control and limited war. As a result, the
Cold War security agenda was conceptualized through the concept of
deterrence. The complexity of the rivalry between the two ideologically
based blocs was simplified to questions of alliance management and
nuclear stability. It was commonly assumed that state behaviour was
based on a policy of power or security maximization with the strategy
of influencing rivals to act in certain ways through threat manipulation
and force projection (Kolodziej, 1993: 16).
This was a major shift in thinking. While the previous scholars
focused on defining security and how important it was as compared to
other goals and how this should be attained, the new focus was on
how weapons of mass destruction could be used as a policy instrument
without risking a nuclear exchange. This type of thought, however,
placed too much attention on military tools that led to an overem-
phasis on the military aspects of national security over other elements
such as historical, cultural or political contexts (Baldwin, 1995: 123;
and, Betts, 1997: 12–13).
As a result of this focus on the abstract theories of nuclear deterrence
and limited nuclear war, many in strategic studies in the late 1960s
through to the early 1980s found themselves unable to respond to con-
temporary strategic issues such as the Vietnam War and other post-
colonial wars of national liberation. The academic strategic analysts
were too specialized in global strategic issues such as the Soviet-US
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8 Craig A. Snyder

rivalry that they were unable to offer insights into these regional con-
flicts. Indeed, they tended to explain them in terms of the Cold War
divide and deemed them ‘proxy wars’ (Baldwin, 1995: 124). Moreover,
those strategists (such as Pike, 1966; Race, 1972; Blaufarb, 1977;
Cable, 1986; Shafer, 1988; and, Lomperis, 1996) that did look to
Third World conflicts tended to be practitioners rather than academic
theorists. They focused on examining case studies of counter-insur-
gency operations concluding that the American experience in Vietnam
demonstrated that theories failed when applied to the real world (see
Betts, 1997: 13).
Other scholars such as Betts (1982), Joseph Bouchard (1991), Eliot
Cohen (1985), John Keegan (1976), Edward Luttwak (1987),
Mearsheimer (1983), Posen (1984), Stephen Rosen (1991) and Martin
van Creveld (1977, 1985) did look to non-nuclear military issues, but
continued to focus upon the Cold War divide. These scholars ques-
tioned the assumptions of the effectiveness of the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization’s (NATO) conventional forces to fight a war in Europe.
The questions asked by this group focused on the political, economic,
social, technological, organizational and doctrinal aspect of the NATO
forces. However, strategic studies also found itself, due to its limited
focus on these types of military issues, challenged by other fields such as
peace studies and international political economy, which could better
explain issues such as détente, economic interdependence, Third World
poverty and environmentalism. Most significantly the 1973 OPEC Oil
Embargo brought home the idea that threats to the Western living stan-
dards came from non-military sources as well as military ones (Baldwin,
1995: 124; and, Betts, 1997: 20). With the renewal of the Cold War in
the 1980s under the Reagan presidency, strategic studies also underwent
a revival. The focus of strategic studies from this point until the end of
the Cold War remained on the study of the threat, use, and control of
military force – in other words the use of military means to meet mili-
tary challenges (Baldwin, 1995: 124–5).
In summary, the Cold War affected the focus of the research conducted
in strategic studies. It focused attention away from the broader questions
of how security policy fits into the larger foreign policy goals and toward
technical and theoretical aspects of nuclear weapons and strategies, East–
West relations, and the security problems of the United States and
Western Europe. Nuclear weapons added a particular twist to the focus
of strategic studies: that is strategic analysts were studying how to use the
threat of the use of force while they also worked to prevent such usage.

Post-Cold War developments and the shift in thinking

There is common agreement among security analysts as to the implica-

tions of the end of the Cold War on the field of security studies. First,
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Contemporary Security and Strategy 9

the role of military power was scrutinized. While the old school of
strategic studies accepted that questions of force had to be seen in the
wider context of the political and economic aspects of the international
system, the revival of liberal notions of multilateral cooperation that
accompanied the end of the Cold War de-legitimized force as a tool of
statecraft. For some this means that military threats declined in rele-
vance while for others military tools were less useful. Second, there
was a need to re-examine the way we thought about security. For some
this was a result of fundamental changes to the post-Cold War environ-
ment and for others the failure of strategic studies to predict the end of
the Cold War. Third, there is a need to expand what was meant by
security. Again, for some this meant expanding the definition to
include the effect of domestic issues on the national security agenda of
states and for others it meant treating non-military threats to the
national well-being as security threats. While military threats from
states was by no means eliminated, new asymmetrical threats came to
the fore such as nuclear proliferation, terrorism, security effects of
climate change and human security (Baldwin, 1995: 118; Freedman,
1998: 52-3; Smith, 2005; and, Mabee, 2009: 3).

Re-defining security
In order for security studies to continue to be relevant in the contem-
porary era it needs to shift its thinking about security, in particular, the
relevance of security as the primary goal of states. While strategic ana-
lysts during the Cold War insisted on the primacy of security is it still
plausible to insist on this today? First questions as to the relevance of
security as the primary goal of states need to be addressed. While
strategic analysts in the past have insisted on the primacy of security is
it still plausible to insist on this today? Security is important but how
much security is needed and are there other national interests that are
of at least equal importance at a very basic level? How good is security
if there is no food, arable land or drinkable water in a country? How
effective have our security policies been if they have resulted in ‘blow-
back’ through the rise of other threats, such as environmental issues, or
new rivals such as terrorists?
While military security may indeed be important to states that con-
front hostile neighbours, for others military security is not of primary
concern at all times. Many in the West, in particular, question the mar-
ginal costs of security. Most would accept that the Western states have
an over abundance of security and therefore the return on a dollar
spent on security will be smaller that the return that dollar would
provide if spent on other goals not in abundance. In other words if in
an era where the military budget provides for more security than is
considered necessary it would be cost-effective to reduce the military
budget and spend that money on other projects such as cleaning up the
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10 Craig A. Snyder

environment or feeding the people (Baldwin, 1995: 126–8). Even in the

post-9/11 environment questions arise about how much the West’s
Middle East policies have not so much caused but perhaps facilitated
the rise of militant Islamic extremism. Questions are also raised about
the extent and nature of the West’s response to the threat. These
examine not only the cost of the military actions conducted in the
name of the so called ‘war on terror’ but also the extent that civil liber-
ties have been sacrificed in the name of ‘national security’.
The second aspect in re-defining security, strategic studies has also
tended to favour examinations of means to security and not the goals
of security. That is, strategic analysts study the use of military force
without devoting equal attention to the purposes for which it is used.
Barry Baldwin (1995: 12830) calls this very un-Clausewitzian. During
the Cold War most saw military threats as the primary source of
threats to states; therefore, it was understandable that they also consid-
ered the use of force as the primary response. However, in the contem-
porary era with the recognition that threats to security can come from
other issues such as environmental degradation, resource depletion,
disease, forced migration and organized transnational crime, among
others, security can only come from a balance of all instruments of
foreign policy. Likewise, the response to the attacks on the US in 2001
have tended to focus on the military dimension rather than exploring
the political, social or economic dimensions of the antipathy that
groups like al Qaeda have towards the West.
As we will see in Chapter 2 strategic studies has been closely linked
to the IR theory of Realism that regards states as the principal actors in
the international system, it is therefore difficult for strategic studies to
address domestic sources of insecurity (Baldwin, 1995: 130-1). In the
contemporary era the object of security is shifting away from the state
to the individual or sub-state group. This implies a focus on how indi-
viduals can threaten the state (or ruling regime) or how the state can
threaten the security of individuals, mainly in the name of regime
preservation or national security.

Structure of this book

In order to explore fully the implications of the shift from strategic to
security studies, it is important to understand the theoretical basis of
both approaches. As such, the book begins with an examination of the
leading theoretical positions within strategic and security studies,
beginning with realism followed by alternative approaches to how we
think about security. This then leads into an examination some of the
current debates within the field: the causes of war, the evolution of
strategic thought, the transformation of war, nuclear strategy, prolifer-
ation, terrorism, intervention and regional security.
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Contemporary Security and Strategy 11

Chapters 2 and 3 deal with more contemporary theories of security.

Chapter 2 introduces Realism, the dominant paradigm in IR and
strategic studies. It begins by defining Realism, tracing the develop-
ment of realist thought and responding to the key criticisms of
Realism. The chapter then addresses key debates in current realist
theory such as the offence/defence variants of structural realism and
whether the distribution of power or the level and source of threats are
the key determinants of state action. The chapter then goes on to
explore the future of Realism after the end of the Cold War. In this
section, Sean Lynn-Jones examines Realism’s failure in predicting the
end of the Cold War, its continued relevance in the contemporary
world and Realism’s ability to predict future international politics.
Chapter 3 critiques the Realist approach to security studies offering a
different perspective to the subject. David Mutimer introduces critical
theories of security. The object of this chapter is to explore the thinking
that has developed from a recognition of the limitations of the under-
standing of ‘security’ promoted by realism. Mutimer begins by arguing
that traditional definitions of security – the protection of the state from
armed attack – are insufficient. He states that the question needs to be
broken down into its constituent parts: whose security? how can this
security be provided? and how should security be studied?
Chapters 4 to 6 focus on non-military challenges to security, they
focus on the class of non-military security threats against which mili-
tary force has little or no utility. These may be either local or global in
character, but their impact will register on the security of states sooner
rather than later, if they are not doing so already. Of course many of
these matters overlap and reinforce each other. These should be
regarded as security concerns for states insofar as they directly threaten
the peace and prosperity of a country and its citizens, and indirectly
insofar as they give rise to violence and undesirable political and
strategic change. Chapter 4 examines Environmental Security. Dean
Coldicott and Thomas O’Brien examine key environmental security
issues such as the impact of human-generated climate change in general
and global warming in particular, violence conflict caused by resource
depletion (for example, deforestation; over-fishing, etc.), and conflict
over scarce resources such as water, arable land, and so forth. In
Chapter 5 Peter Burgess and Jonas Gräns explore the concept of
human security. Human security encompasses conflict prevention,
crisis management and civil-military cooperation. It focuses on the
security of people instead of the security of states. Yet this is to be pro-
tected in a world of states, which implies that national governments
are responsible for providing for the security of its people. Yet, more
often than not, these very governments are a source of threats to the
security of their people, especially when they claim that human free-
doms have to be curtailed in the interest of national security. Thus, the
international community comes in as a potential protector of human
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12 Craig A. Snyder

security. States also have the ‘Responsibility to Protect’ their citizens in

cases of genocide, massive human right violations, famine, poverty and
in the long run the consequences of climate change. The primary
responsibility is with the state itself. If the state is unwilling or unable
to do so it yields the international community and the international
organizations. Chapter 6 examines the security implications of the
arms trade. The arms trade is a major cause of human rights abuses.
Over the past decade, the small arms trade has been a growing concern
of states and the United Nations, resulting in three UN nonbinding
international instruments regarding the trade and use of small arms
and light weapons (SALW). In the chapter Mike Bourne assesses the
formation of the small arms regime over the past decade and the
current problems associated with the illicit trade of SALW, especially
with respect to post conflict measures to curb internal violence.
Chapters 7 to 9 take on more traditional topics of security and con-
flict by looking at the causes of war, the evolution of strategic thought
and the impact of the information revolution on armed forces and con-
flict. Chapter 7 begins this section with an inquiry into the causes of
war from a number of contending theoretical perspectives. Here
Marshall Beier explores successive explanations of war, its causes, and
the conditions for peace as well as critiques highlighting the weak-
nesses of each. In each instance, connections are made between these
debates and those concerning competing conceptions of security as dis-
cussed earlier in the book. The approach taken uncovers insights into
the causes of war through a range of inquiries into the conditions for
peace as well as through engagement with more direct cause-and-effect
types of explanations. This gives a greater sense of both the various
accounts of the causes of war and the broader political contexts in
which those accounts are embedded.
In Chapter 8 Geoffrey Till explores the evolution of strategic
thinking from the classical era to the contemporary world. He begins
with a brief survey of the development of classical strategic thinking
that rehearses the essential points made by the most influential thinkers
but focuses on changing concepts of what strategy means and entails.
This section concludes with a review of the widening of the concept of
security and its impact on strategic thinking. In the next section he
looks at the ‘novelty’ of contemporary security threats and offers an
analysis of the problems these set for contemporary strategic thinkers.
The focus here is the shift to network centric warfare, joint operations
and the role of doctrine. The final section focuses on maritime expedi-
tionary operations. In this Till explores the nature of contemporary
maritime threats, the impact of sea-based globalization, competing par-
adigms of naval development and naval thinking and state-centred and
system-centred approaches.
In Chapter 9 Andrew Latham and Kabir Sethi explore the rather
rapid development of literatures dealing with the transformation of
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Contemporary Security and Strategy 13

war. They argue that at the level of the warfighting paradigm, there is
now an extensive body of research both describing and prescribing
changes in the way the world’s dominant militaries conduct combat
operations on the battlefield. On a somewhat deeper level, what they
call the social mode of warfare, the literature traces significant changes
in the way state-society complexes organize for, prosecute and experi-
ence warfare. Finally, on the temporal level of the longue durée,
scholars have begun to analyze transformations in what they call the
historical structure of war – that is, the constellation of deep struc-
tures, practices and discourses that define the very nature of ‘war’ and
distinguish it from other forms of politics and violence.
Chapters 10 to 15 explore contemporary security issues such as the
implications of nuclear and other weapons of mass destruction, ter-
rorism and insurgency, the implications of intervention strategies, the
role of the great powers and finally, approaches to regional security.
In Chapter 10 the main question is: how do the established nuclear
weapon states (China, France, India, Israel, Pakistan, Russia, the UK
and the US) view their weapons in terms of national security? In
answering this question, Andy Butfoy explores key themes, such as
deterrence and war-fighting strategies. There is a case study on the
United States as the largest nuclear-armed state. After a brief overview
of Cold War doctrine, the nexus between nuclear weapons and devel-
opments in US strategic thinking since the end of the Cold War is
examined. These developments include the deployment of missile
defences, American reflection on the usability of nuclear weapons, the
impact of terrorism, the identification of an ‘axis of evil’, and the com-
mitment to maintain US military superiority as a foundation stone for
world order.
In Chapter 11 Ken Boutin examines an issue that has returned to the
forefront of the security agenda, propelled by prominent examples of
successful proliferation and evident interest on the part of a number of
other states in following a similar path. This chapter examines the key
trends and developments that are threatening the global non-prolifera-
tion regime. It begins with an assessment of the state of the non-prolif-
eration regime at the end of the Cold War. The chapter then proceeds
to consider the forces driving horizontal proliferation and structural
developments that are contributing to proliferation concerns. It will
then examine how the non-proliferation regime is adapting to these
challenges. The chapter concludes by considering the impact on non-
proliferation norms of the non-proliferation and counter-proliferation
policies of developed states such as the US.
In Chapter 12 Michael Boyle examines the threat of terrorism and
insurgency as they have evolved through the 20th century and assesses
the nature of contemporary global terrorism. In the chapter he evalu-
ates the strategies and tactics of terrorists and insurgents and their rela-
tive effectiveness in achieving their political objectives. The chapter
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14 Craig A. Snyder

concludes with an assessment of the effectiveness of counter-terrorism

strategies of the west.
In Chapter 13 Michael Arnold looks at the effectiveness of interven-
tion and international peacekeeping. In this, he does not look at the
legality or morality of these interventions but rather at the require-
ments for an intervention force to succeed. It explores the nature of
new wars and contemporary conflicts in which interventions are likely
to be undertaken. The chapter examines important changes in the
forms of armed conflict that occur in the less developed world that
challenge many of the assumptions of conventional thinking about
security.
In Chapter 14 Nick Bisley assesses the role of great powers in interna-
tional security. In the past their power, capacity and structural advan-
tages have brought with them special rights and responsibilities but in
the contemporary world, there is good reason to question whether the
term makes sense. Given the predominance of the US, the role of nuclear
weapons and globalization, the idea of great powers seems somewhat
anachronistic. This chapter considers the role of great powers in contem-
porary security and strategy and explores the way in which the structure
of the international system provides differing incentives for state behav-
iour. On the one hand, the predominant power in the international
system has a marked taste for unilateral approaches to security and
strategy. Yet, even the US recognizes that there are times when it cannot
‘go it alone’. The chapter concludes with a consideration of the tensions
that exist between unilateral and multilateral means for great powers to
achieve their strategic and security aims.
The final chapter in the book explores regional approaches to secu-
rity. It is at the regional level that most conflict since the end of World
War II has occurred. In the chapter I discuss the changing role of the
two key regional security institutions NATO and the Association of
Southeast Asian Nations as the two most successful regional security
organizations in the promoting of regional identity and effective
regional security mechanisms. The chapter concludes with a survey of
the key issues and challenges that are involved in regional security such
as conflict over resources, boundary disputes, both on land and at sea,
ethnicity and nationalism, among others.
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Contemporary Security and Strategy 15

Glossary of key concepts

‘Rogue’ state: Rogue states are those that are seeking to threaten
global peace and stability. These states generally have authoritarian
governments guilty of human rights abuses, sponsor terrorism, and
are seeking to acquire weapons of mass destruction. The term is
controversial and critics have applied it to the US and Israel.
Security dilemma: This is where actions that one state takes to
heighten its security (such as, building up its military) can lead
other states responding in a similar manner, producing increased
feelings of insecurity in the first state (who then seek to build up
its military even more). This can create conflict, even when no
side really wants it (see Jervis, 1978).
Proxy wars: These are wars where the great powers of the day use
other states or non-state actors as surrogates. These were
common during the Cold War where the superpowers used them
to extend their rivalry without risking escalation to nuclear war.

Questions for discussion

1. Are strategic studies and security studies compatible or com-

peting approaches to the study of security?
2. Has the expansion of the definition of security enhanced the
study of security or is it now impossible to study security
because the subject is so wide?
3. Was the Cold War focus of strategic studies on the dangers of
nuclear war between the superpowers a reasonable response to
the danger of a global nuclear holocaust?
4. Should military means to security take precedence over non-mil-
itary means?
5. How has the rise of global terrorism changed the way we study
security? Has it justified the return to a military-first approach
or does it undermine the state-centric notions of traditional
approaches to the study of security?
6. What are the main security challenges facing us today?

Further reading
Baldwin, D.A. (1995) ‘Security Studies and the End of the Cold War’, World
Politics, 48: 117–41.
Betts, R.K. (1997) ‘Should Strategic Studies Survive?’, World Politics, 50: 7–
33.
9780230_241503_02_Ch1 19/08/2011 15:12 Page 16

16 Craig A. Snyder

Boutin, J.D.K. and Snyder, C.A. (2008) ‘New Approaches to Security: From
Strategic Studies to Security Studies’, in Totman, S. and Burchill, S. (eds)
Global Risks and Crises, London: Oxford University Press.
Buzan, B. (1987) An Introduction to Strategic Studies: Military Technology
and International Relations, London: Macmillan.
Farrell, T. (2010) ‘General Introduction’, in Farrell, T. (ed.) Security Studies:
Critical Concepts in International Relations, London: Routledge.
Freedman, L. (1998) ‘International Security: Changing Targets’, Foreign
Policy, 109: 48–63.
Garnett, J. (1987) ‘Strategic Studies and its Assumptions’, in Baylis, J., Booth,
K., Garnett, J. and Williams, P., (eds) Contemporary Strategy: Vol 1
Theories and Concepts, London: Holmes & Meier Publishers.
Kolodziej, E.A. (1993) ‘Whither Security Studies after the Cold War?’ in
Bajpai, K.P. and Cohen, S.P. (eds) South Asia After the Cold War:
International Perspectives, Boulder: Westview Press.
Krause, K. and Williams, M.C. (1996) ‘Broadening the Agenda of Security
Studies: Politics and Methods’, Mershon International Studies Review, 40:
229–54.
Smith, S. (2005) ‘The Contested Concept of Security’, in Booth, K. (ed.)
Critical Security Studies and World Politics, Boulder: Lynne Rienner.
9780230_241503_18_Indx 25/08/2011 16:41 Page 356

Index

ABMT, see Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty Anglosphere, the, 314, 320

Aberystwyth, University of Wales, 67
absolute enemy, 144
Abu Ghraib, 54
Adaptive planning, 219
Adger, Neil, 76
Afghanistan
as war of global risk, 193
insurgency in, 184, 260–1, 285–6
nation-building operations, 121, 122, 123,
275, 276, 278
Soviet invasion of, 272
US-led invasion of, 20, 36, 60, 242, 262,
271, 308–9
Africa
causes of conflict in, 123
Central, 115, 325
East, 114, 115, 120, 325
Horn of, see Africa, East
inter-state wars in, 324–5
interventions, 281
North, 99, 114
peacekeeping in, 274,
pre-colonial wars, 139
regionalization in, 314, 323
southern, 85
small arms and light weapons, 111, 113,
114, 115, 117, 120
water shortages in, 80
West, 114, 115
African Union (AU), 114, 323
AIDS, see HIV/AIDS
AirLand Battle concept, 161
airpower, 157–9, 163, 166–9, 186
al-Qaeda, 10, 37, 141, 207, 241, 242, 248,
249, 250, 251, 252–6, 286
see also al-Qaeda in Iraq
al-Qaeda in Iraq, 262
Algerian War, 165
Allan, Tony, 327
alliances, 7, 22, 23, 25, 27, 38, 55, 214,
295, 314, 315, 318
see also individual alliances
Albania, 118
Allison, Graham, 253
amphibious approach, 162
amphibious assault, 162, 263
amphibious operations, 156
amphibious thinking, 170
Annan, Kofi, 92, 124, 177
anarchists, European, 247
anarchy, 5, 19, 23, 24, 29, 37, 293, 298,
315, 316, 318
Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (ABMT) (1972),
205
anti-personnel landmines, see landmines
Arab–Israeli wars, 325
Arab League, 279, 323
Arab Model Law on Weapons,
Ammunitions, Explosives and
Hazardous Material, 114
Arab nationalism, 325
Arab Spring, see Arab uprising, 2001
Arab uprising
2011, 325
against Ottoman Empire, 257
Arar, Mahar, 54, 58
armed force, see force
armed forces, 5, 12, 107, 148, 150, 153,
177, 182, 183, 191, 262, 282, 286
see also military forces
arms, see nuclear arms; small arms and light
weapons
arms control, 7, 55, 59, 106–8, 110,
112–13, 114–15, 116, 117–18,
119–20, 122–25, 205, 207, 208, 223,
224, 231, 234–5, 237, 305, 306
arms embargoes, 116–17, 119–20
arms races, 107, 129, 205, 209
arms trade, 12, 105–9, 190
see also small arms and light weapons
arms trafficking, 93, 109, 110–11, 112, 114,
119–21
Aron, Raymond, 23, 292
APT, see ASEAN plus Three
Arquilla, John, 181
ASEAN, see Association of Southeast Asian
Nations
ASEAN plus Three (APT), 321
ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF), 321
ASEAN way, 321
Asia, 86, 99, 114, 254, 267, 302, 306,
321–2
see also Asia Pacific; East Asia; Northeast
Asia; South Asia; Southeast Asia;
Southwest Asia; and individual
countries
Asia Pacific, 314, 320, 321, 322, 327
see also Asia; East Asia; Northeast Asia;
South Asia; Southeast Asia;
Southwest Asia; and individual
countries
assassination, 243–245
Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN), 114, 121, 321–322

356
9780230_241503_18_Indx 25/08/2011 16:41 Page 357
atomic shock, 162, 163
AU, see African Union
Aum Shinrikyo cult gas attack on Tokyo
subway, 246
Australia
and the Anglosphere, 314
and the Asia Pacific community proposal,
321
East Timor, intervention, 267, 268, 275,
276, 280
intervention capabilities of, 282
military capability of, 280
security of aboriginal peoples, 49, 50
small arms and light weapons, 114
Solomon Islands, intervention in, 267,
268, 276
water shortages in, 80
see also Intervention Forces East Timor
Baader–Meinhof Gang, see Red Army
Faction
ballistic missile defence (BMD), 205
see also national missile defence
ballistic missiles, 7, 222, 286
see also Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty;
cruise missiles; national missile
defence; missile defence
Balkans, see individual countries
Barnett, Jon, 72, 76–81, 86,
Beckett, Ian, 260
Bellamy, Alex, 98, 268
Bennett, James, 314
Berlin, 6, 203, 271
Betts, Richard, 3, 5, 8
bin Laden, Osama, 249, 253, 255
biological attacks, 253
biological warfare, 92
biological weapons, 121, 206, 207, 214,
218, 253, 256
black market,
nuclear material on the, 253, 290
small arms and light weapons on the, 109,
123
Blair doctrine, 266, 278
Blair, Tony, 218, 277
Blitzkrieg, 5, 159–62, 176
Boot, Max, 183
Booth, Ken, 47, 49, 50, 57, 66, 67, 68
Bosnia, 91, 118, 121, 123, 273, 276, 280
Bosnia and Herzegovina, see Bosnia
Bouchard, Joseph, 8
Bougainville Island, 323
Boutros-Ghali, Boutros, 91
Boyd, Daniel, 53
Brauch, Hans, 73, 74
Brazil, 211, 310
Britain
and Air Control, 159
and Iraq, 172, 260, 270, 270–1
and the Anglosphere, 314
and the Congress of Vienna, 295
Index 357
and World War I, 29
and the League Council, 296
and World War II, 6
and the War of 1812, 29
as an arms exporter, 106
as a great power, 303
intervention capability of, 282
military capability of, 280, 286
nuclear strategy of, 202, 213, 214, 215,
218
nuclear weapons of, 13, 211, 212, 213,
219, 225, 317
relations with US, 30, 55, 268, 317
sea power of, 155, 156
Victorian, 301
British way in warfare, 151, 157
Brown, Chris, 296, 299
Bull, Hedley, 110, 292, 293, 294, 301, 316
Bush, George H.W,. 305, 314
Bush, George W., 21, 34, 59, 141, 172, 207,
208, 236, 237, 242, 250, 269, 280,
284, 299, 305, 308, 314
Bush, George Sr, see Bush, George H.W.
Butterfield, Herbert, 19
Buzan, Barry, 49, 51, 67, 95, 313, 318
Callwell, Major General Sir Charles, 157
Cambodia, 86, 118, 123, 244
Campbell, David, 68
Canada, 50, 53, 57–8, 282, 286, 314, 322,
322, 323
see also North America
Carr, E.H., 22
Castex, Raoul, 161
Castro, Fidel, 258
Catholic Church, 26
causes of war, 12, 128–44
CCP, see Chinese Communist Party
central deterrence, 219
Central Europe, 6, 35, 52, 321
see also Eastern Europe; Europe
centre of gravity, 153, 284
see also armed forces; decisive points;
Clausewitz
Chechnya, 132
chemical warfare, 92, 209, 214, 218, 253
chemical weapons, 206, 207, 209, 253, 256
Chernavin, Admiral Vladimir, 150
children as terrorist targets, 253
China
and anti-personnel landmines, 108
and cluster munitions, 108
and cyberwar, 167
and small arms and light weapons, 112,
117
and the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty,
225
and World War II, 6
and the Spratly Islands dispute, 326
arms exports of, 107, 111, 113
as a great power, 303, 310
9780230_241503_18_Indx 25/08/2011 16:41 Page 358
358 Index
China – continued
as a market economy, 266
intervention capability of, 282
nuclear strategy of, 211, 215, 216, 217
nuclear weapons of, 13, 202, 212, 216,
219, 223,
relations with India, 300
relations with North Korea, 228, 322
relations with Southeast Asian states, 272,
327
relations with US, 20, 203, 208, 229, 272
the warring states period, 152
China Precision Machinery Import and
Export Corporation, 229
Chinese Communist Party (CCP), 258
citizenship, 49, 50
civil liberties, 6, 10, 59
civil society, 119, 124, 318–319
civil war, 40, 108, 110, 122, 132, 138–41,
273, 274, 280, 324
civilian casualties, 107–8, 158, 169, 252,
255, 270, 285
class warfare, 144
Claude, Inis, 23
Clausewitz, Carl von, 3, 136, 137, 138, 139,
141, 143, 148, 150, 152, 153, 154,
155, 169
climate change, 9, 11, 12, 18, 34, 39, 40,
55–6, 73, 74–5, 83, 87, 91, 308
climate–security nexus, see
environment–security nexus
Clinton, Bill, 236, 305, 314
cluster munitions, 106, 108
see also anti-personnel landmines
Coady, Tony, 267
Cocklin, Chris, 82
coercion, 148, 164, 243, 260, 261
Cohen, Eliot, 8
Cohn, Carol, 64, 65
Coker, Christopher, 175, 185, 193, 194
Cold War, the
and small arms and light weapons, 108, 122
and the non-proliferation regime, 13, 226,
229, 234, 236
arms spending during, 106
arms transfers during, 107, 119
effectiveness of the United Nations during,
277, 297
end of, 1, 9, 11, 171, 206, 227, 235, 236,
266, 274, 275, 277, 297, 299, 304,
305, 306, 310, 315, 320, 321
insurgencies during, 260
military thinking during, 63, 162–6
nuclear strategy during, 131, 134, 202–6,
210, 214, 269, 277, 300
peacekeeping during, 274
proxy wars during, 15
realism and predicting the end of, 11, 18,
34–6
regionalism during, 314, 315, 318, 320,
321
study of security during, 1, 5–8, 9, 10, 17,
23, 26, 36, 37, 40–1, 47, 48, 52, 56,
68, 89, 95
superpower rivalry during, 302, 310, 317
US strategy during, 13, 202–6, 207, 214,
306
collective defence, 318, 323, 329
see also alliances
collective identity, 52, 194
collective security, 5, 96, 296, 297, 318, 329
Commission on Human Security, 92
common security, 56, 77
communal identity, 314
community, 10, 12, 52, 75, 77, 82, 83, 91,
96, 97, 98, 100, 101, 114, 115, 116,
122, 123, 137, 138, 139, 140, 143,
147, 210, 216, 223, 224, 229, 231,
234, 237, 238, 266, 274, 277, 319
community security, 82, 83, 91
compellence, 216, 218, 219, 268–9, 270–1,
272
competition
between insurgents and incumbents, 256,
261
between states, 317, 329
international, 31
over resources, 40, 76, 81, 313, 324
US–Soviet, 37
Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT),
224
Concert of Europe, 297, 311
see also Congress of Vienna; Congress
System
conflict, 1, 2, 6, 12, 14, 25, 40, 84, 91, 99,
105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 118, 119,
125, 141, 148, 149, 152, 153, 154,
165, 166, 167, 168, 172, 181, 184,
186, 188, 191, 195, 196, 199, 204,
265, 272, 277, 280, 284–5, 291, 328
civil, 89, 90,
climate change and, 83
cultural dimension of, 151
East–West, 47
ethnic, 18, 34, 37, 92
international, 1, 163–4
realist theory and internal, 31, 36, 37, 39,
40, 42,
resource, 55, 56, 73, 77, 79–80, 81–3, 85,
86, 92
sources of, 2, 8, 11, 14, 15, 19, 22, 39,
56, 73, 74, 79–80, 81–3, 107, 111,
134–5, 142, 169, 262, 300, 313,
323–7
Third World, 8
water, 80–1
see also environment–conflict nexus;
high-intensity conflict
conflict management, 116, 274, 275–6
conflict prevention, 11
conflict resolution, 19, 28, 268, 279, 287,
319
9780230_241503_18_Indx 25/08/2011 16:41 Page 359
Congress System, 295, 297, 310
Congress of Vienna, 295
see also Congress System; Concert of
Europe
constructivism, 67, 319
Convention on Certain Conventional
Weapons, see Inhuman Weapons
Convention
community security, 91
cooperative security, 4, 319, 329
Copenhagen School, 27, 51, 52, 58, 70, 95
see also securitization; security, societal
Corbett, Sir Julian, 150, 154, 156, 157, 162,
170
Council of Europe, 320
counter-insurgency, 8, 165–6, 172, 242, 256,
259–62, 284
counter-terrorism, 166, 171
Croatia, 118,123, 324, 325
crime, 75, 99, 106, 108, 109, 110, 111, 119,
126, 172, 248, 250, 325
see also transnational crime
crimes against humanity, 97, 99, 100, 278
criminal gangs/enterprises, 109, 111, 138,
142, 171, 190, 326
critical security, 4, 5, 27–8, 45–70, 315, 319
critical theory, 4, 45, 47–8, 68, 70
Croatia, 118, 123, 326
cruise missiles, 55, 222
Cuba Missile Crisis (1962), 164
cybersphere, 181
cyberwar, 167, 181
Czechoslovakia, 27, 325
Dalby, Simon, 56, 57, 77, 82, 83
decisive battle, 152, 161
decisive points, 153
see also centre of gravity
democracy, 6, 21, 250–1, 307, 309, 314
democratic peace theory, 28–30
Democratic People’s Republic of Korea
(DPRK), see North Korea
Der Derian, James, 142
de Seversky, Alexander, see Seversky,
Alexander de
desecuritization, 60, 67, 69
see also securitization
détente, 8, 20, 36
deterrence, 1, 2, 7, 13, 63, 202, 203–4, 205,
206, 207, 209, 210, 213–15, 216, 217–
18, 219, 239, 268, 269, 270, 272, 300
deterrence-through-denial, 219
deterrence-through-punishment, 219
Deudney, Daniel, 81, 84
Deutsch, Karl, 319
developed countries, 75, 76, 78, 81, 98, 218,
225, 227, 233, 255, 261, 286, 305
developed states, see developed countries
developing countries, 75, 76, 80, 81, 98, 99,
191, 226–7, 234, 249, 286
see also Group of 77; Third World
Index 359
developing states, see developing countries
Disarmament, Demobilization and
Reintegration Programmes of (DDR),
122–3
disasters 74, 75–6, 90, 91, 101, 268, 266
see also environment, disasters
Dobbins, James, 276
Douhet, Guilo, 157, 158, 167
drugs, illegal 323
Duffield, Mark, 141, 142, 187, 188, 189,
194
Dum-Dum bullets, 107
East Asia, 39, 270, 305, 309
see also Asia Pacific, Northeast Asia;
Southeast Asia; and individual
countries
East Asia Summit (EAS), 321
Eastern Europe, 6, 35, 321
see also Central Europe; Europe
East Germany, see German Democratic
Republic
East Timor
Australian military assistance mission in
(2006), 267, 276
InterFET mission in (1999), 267, 275, 280
ecological security, 56, 73, 77–9, 80, 87
Economic Community of Central African
States (ECCAS), 115
Economic Community of West African
States (ECOWAS), 115, 274
Convention on SALW, 115, 117
economic integration, 312, 320, 321, 322
economic interdependence, 8, 38, 39, 80,
302
economic intervention, 266
economic power, 299
economic security, 83, 91, 98, 107
emancipation, 50, 57, 59, 66
emerging nuclear states, see non-
proliferation
employment, 91, 97, 160, 173, 349
environment–conflict nexus, 73, 79–80, 81
see also environment–security nexus
environmental disaster, 74
environmental protection, 92
environmental security, 2, 9, 10, 39, 55–7,
72–88, 91, 93, 97, 98, 313, 324
and human security, 82–4
and violent conflict, 79
environment–security nexus, 72, 73–4
see also environment–conflict nexus
equality, 222, 225, 226, 236, 238, 293, 294,
316
see also inequality
Eritrea, 116, 118
escalation ladder, see ladder of escalation
ethnic cleansing, 101, 169, 277, 278, 279
ethnic conflict, see conflict, ethnic
ethnicity, 14
ethno-nationalism, 324, 325
9780230_241503_18_Indx 25/08/2011 16:41 Page 360

360 Index

Europe use or threat of use of, 4, 8, 20, 21, 25,

colonial wars, 261 29, 36, 37, 40, 46, 57, 69, 85, 151,
division during the Cold War, 6 191, 270, 279, 297
genocide in, 49 Foucault, Michel, 50, 65, 68, 130
immigration laws, in, 53–4 4th generation warfare, 172
international relations of, 296 Fox, Coleen, 85–6
intervention capability of, 286 FMLN, 260
‘new’ and ‘old’, 320–1 France
nuclear industry in, 232 and Iraq, 321
nuclear warfare in, 205 and the Congress of Vienna, 295
pre-modern, 189 and World War I, 29
regionalism, 315, 316, 320–1 and the League Council, 296
security in, 52 and World War II, 6
strategic thinking in, 149, 152, 178 as an arms exporter, 106
16th- and 17th-century military as a great power, 303
revolution in, 178–9, intervention capability of, 282
and small arms and light weapons, 109, Napoleonic, 257, 295
114, 118, nuclear strategy of, 202, 211, 214, 215
relations with the US, 203, 214, 302 nuclear weapons of, 13, 211, 212, 225
terrorist activity in, 250, 254 relations with Central and Eastern Europe
see also Central Europe; Easter Europe; states, 321
Western Europe; and individual relations with the European Union, 321
countries relations with Germany, 29, 295, 316, 321
European Common Foreign and Security relations with US, 268, 320–1
Policy (CFSP), 321 Frankfurt School, 48, 68
European Defence Community (EDC), 320 see also Critical Security
European Security and Defence Policy Frederick the Great (of Prussia), 37, 149,
(ESDP), 321 289
European security, 51 free trade, 22, 322
European Security Strategy (ESS), 100 friction, 153
European Union (EU), 26, 90, 274, 321, see also fog of war
328 Fuller, Major General J. F. C., 159, 161
Europeans, 52, 320, 321 Fuller, William, 151
Ewin, Pauline, 85 fundamentalism, 248
existential deterrence, 213
existential threat, 95 G77, see Group of 77
expeditionary operations/warfare, 12, 166, Galtung, Johan, 143
170 Galula, David, 165
export controls Garnett, John, 54
for SALW, 112, 114, 115, 117–18, 121 gender, 50, 125
for WMDs, 226, 232–4 genocide, 12, 100, 110, 188, 266, 277, 278,
extended deterrence, see deterrence 279, 282
extraordinary measures, 58, 69, 85 Georgia, 118, 123, 167
German Democratic Republic, 6, 204
Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front, Germany
see FMLN and Iraq, 321
financial crises, Asia (1997–98), 267, 321–2 and World War I, 5, 29
Finland, 29 and World War II, 5, 161, 167, 268,
First World War, see World War I 275
flexible response, 201, 203– 205, 214 as an arms exporter, 106
see also nuclear strategy as a non-nuclear power, 211
FLN, 246–7 division of, 6
fog of war, see friction in warfare Federal Republic of, 6, 205
food security, 91, 93, 98 Nazi, 5, 29, 49, 244
force neo-Nazis in, 247
and strategic studies, 3, 9, 10, relations with Central and Eastern Europe
as tool of statecraft, 9, 37, states, 321
as determinant of patterns of international relations with France, 29, 316, 321
relations, 292, 316 relations with the US, 320–1
legitimate/justified use of, 277 see also German Democratic Republic;
projection, 7, 282 Prussia
9780230_241503_18_Indx 25/08/2011 16:41 Page 361
Giddens, Anthony, 51, 63
Gilpin, Robert, 21, 23, 34
Glaser, Charles, 22, 31, 32
global illicit trade, see black market
global war on terror, 202, 207, 328
globalization, 12, 14, 21, 34, 38–9, 90, 91,
142, 166, 171, 187, 188, 190, 191,
193, 195, 197, 241, 255, 277, 286,
299, 302–3, 310, 323, 324, 326,
Gorshkov, Admiral Sergei, 162, 163
grand strategy, 40–1, 160, 166, 289, 304,
306, 307, 308, 309, 310
Gray, Colin, 276
great power conflict, 1, 26–7, 29, 40, 131,
145
great power politics, 2, 24,
great powers, 13, 14, 15, 23, 31, 37, 40,
132, 162, 210, 211, 274, 289–310
Greece, 29, 194, 199
Greenham Common Peace Camp, 55
Grieco, Joseph, 21
Group of 77, 99
guerrilla operations/warfare, 153, 256–9,
262, 326
Guevara, Che, 258
Gulf War (1990–91), 37, 151, 168, 179,
180, 181, 183, 207, 231, 234, 272,
273, 278, 279, 281, 297
Gusterson, Hugh, 65
gypsies, 50
Haass, Richard, 267, 268, 269, 271, 272,
273, 274
Haiti, 276
Hamas, 45, 46, 246, 325
Hardin, Garret, 74
hazards,
rapid-onset geophysical hazards, 74, 75
rapid-onset hydrometeorological, 74, 75
slow-onset, 74–5
health security, 83, 91, 98
hearts and minds, 154, 165, 260, 366
hegemony, 25, 33, 300, 307
legalized, 294
Hettne, Bjorn, 313, 317, 318, 319, 320, 323
HEU, see highly enriched uranium
Hezbollah, 45, 270, 325
HIC, see high-intensity conflict
HIC, see high-intensity conflict
high-intensity conflict (HIC), 183
high-technology,
combat, 183
industries, 230, 233
research and development (R&D), 233
weapons, 180
Hiroshima, 125, 162, 163, 167, 203, 206
historical structure of war, 13, 175, 177,
184, 186–7, 195–8
Hobbes, Thomas, 19, 23
Hobsbawm, Eric, 252
Hoffman, Bruce, 243, 245, 246, 255
Index 361
Holdren, John, 80
Hollis, Martin, 133
homeland security, 172
Homer-Dixon, Thomas, 55, 56, 82
hostage situations, 204, 268, 273
Howard, Michael, 136, 256
human insecurity, 81, 102, 125
human rights, 2, 12, 14, 91, 92, 93, 99, 105,
106, 107, 108, 111,125, 192, 287, 305,
307, 325
human security, 9, 11, 39, 50, 57, 73, 78,
84, 89–102, 125, 265
broad definition approach, 93, 100
and European Security Strategy, 100
and freedom from fear, 57–8, 91
and freedom from want, 91, 98
Canadian Approach, 92
components of, 91
concept of, 90–4
disease as threat to, 98
definition of, 92
narrow school, 92, 93, 100
Human Security, Commission on, see
Commission on Human Security
humane warfare, 175, 185, 198
humanitarian
aid/assistance, 40, 189, 261, 267, 268,
269, 273, 278, 281
catastrophe, 39
challenges, 100
disasters, 266
emergencies, 40
intervention/operations, 40, 170, 268, 321
threats, 39
humanitarianism, 106, 108, 185, 186, 199,
268, 287
humans as referent object of security, 18, 27,
50
Hussein, Saddam, 207, 216, 242, 244, 271,
279, 324
see also Iraq War
IAEA, see International Atomic Energy
Agency
ICC, see International Criminal Court
ICISS, see International Commission on
Intervention and State Sovereignty
idealist approaches, 22, 36
identity, 24, 25, 28, 51, 52, 194, 325
identity politics, 142, 144, 326
ideological security, 51
ideological terrorism, 252, 263
IED, see improvised explosive device
improvised explosive device (IED), 172,
284
India
as an emerging power, 300, 303, 310
intervention capability of, 281, 282
nuclear proliferation, 225, 227, 230–1,
235, 236, 238, 239
nuclear strategy, 211, 213
9780230_241503_18_Indx 25/08/2011 16:41 Page 362
362 Index
India – continued
nuclear weapons, 13, 202, 210, 211, 212,
236, 299, 300
elations with China, 300
relations with Pakistan, 36, 39, 211–12,
214, 215
relations with the US, 227, 235
Indian Ocean Tsunami (2004), 268, 273
Indochina, French failure in, 165–6
Indonesia, 113, 267, 280
Industrial Revolution, 179, 194
industrial states, see developed countries
industrial total warfare, 185
industrial warfare, 172, 276–7
INF, see Intermediate Nuclear Forces Treaty
information
revolution, 12, 180, 183, 326
technology, 92, 168, 180, 181
warfare, 185, 285
information-based weapons, 186
information-related conflict, 181
Inhuman Weapons Convention, 107–8
insecurity, see security
institutionalism, see neo-liberal
institutionalism
insurgency, 13, 96, 138, 143, 165, 183, 184,
203, 242, 245, 255, 256–9, 260, 262,
263, 272, 279, 283, 286, 326
see also counter-insurgency
intelligence, 154, 177, 213, 270, 272, 279,
281, 282, 284, 285,
Inter-American Convention against the Illicit
Manufacturing of and Trafficking in
Firearms, Explosives, Ammunition and
Other Related Materials (CIFTA), 113–
14
intercontinental ballistic missiles, see ballistic
missiles
interdependence, 36, 80, 286, 290, 313,
319
see also economic interdependence
interdiction, 236, 268, 269, 272–3, 278,
286,
see also Proliferation Security Initiative
InterFET, see Intervention Forces East Timor
Intermediate Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF),
224
International Action Network on Small
Arms (IANSA), 124
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA),
224, 225, 228, 231, 270–1
International Commission on Intervention
and State Sovereignty (ICISS), 97, 266,
278
International Criminal Court (ICC), 99
international law, 2, 138, 208, 277, 286,
287, 292, 294, 297, 305
International Monetary Fund (IMF), 6, 98,
267, 304
international political economy (IPE), 8, 21,
34
international relations, 1, 2, 4, 26, 28, 37,
48, 61, 72, 81, 95, 96, 99, 128, 175,
291, 292, 296, 315, 328
international security studies, 17, 18, 20,
internet, terrorist use of, 254, 255
intervention, 10, 13, 14, 81, 265–87
and state sovereignty, 96, 97, 101, 266,
276–8
criteria for success, 14, 278–81
definition of, 266–8, 278
direct, 266, 268
indirect, 266, 268
humanitarian, 40, 93, 96, 170, 268, 321
into developing states, 81
mechanics for successful, 281–6
military, 97, 265, 266, 267–8, 287
non-military, 266–7, 287
non-peace operations, 269–73, 287
peace operations, 273–6, 287
see also individual conflicts
Intervention Forces East Timor (InterFET),
267, 275, 280
Intra-state conflict, 105, 107, 132, 265, 277,
324, 325, 326
IRA, see Irish Republican Army
Iran
and the Axis of Evil, 207
as a rogue state, 206, 230, 236–7
as an arms exporter, 113
as a nuclear proliferator, 223
nuclear programme, 223, 230, 231, 233,
299
nuclear strategy, 216, 280
nuclear weapons, 212, 216, 239
relations with Iraq, 309, 324
relations with Israel, 216
relations with the US, 207–8, 209, 229,
273
Iraq
and the Axis of Evil, 207
and the non-proliferation treaty, 227
and small arms and light weapons
(SALW), 120
and terrorism, 59, 141, 216–17, 242, 244,
249
as a rogue state, 206
insurgency in, 183, 184, 260–1, 262, 276,
280
invasion of Kuwait (1990), 36, 324
nuclear weapons programme, 227, 230,
232, 234, 270
protection of Kurds in Northern, 273
relations with Britain, 159, 270–1
relations with Iran, 309, 324
relations with Israel, 249, 270
relations with the US, 207–8, 216–17,
236, 270–1, 280
sanctions against, 279
weapons of mass destruction, 270
see also Gulf War; Iraq Surge, Iraq War
(2003)
9780230_241503_18_Indx 25/08/2011 16:41 Page 363
Iraq Surge, 284–5
Iraq War (1990–91), see Gulf War
Iraq War (2003), 20, 36, 59, 60, 132, 141,
142, 151, 172, 183, 193, 208, 242,
262, 269, 270, 275, 278, 281, 302,
305, 308, 314, 320–1
Ireland
and the Anglosphere, 314
Northern, 165, 275
Irgun, 244, 245, 262
Irish Republican Army (IRA), 247
Israel
and anti-personnel landmines, 108
and cluster munitions, 108
and the non-proliferation treaty, 225
and terrorism, 244, 246, 249, 268, 273
and water security, 327
as a rogue state, 14
as an arms exporter, 106–7
nuclear strategy, 211
nuclear weapons, 13, 202, 211, 212, 230
relations with Iran, 216
relations with Iraq, 249, 270
relations with Lebanon, 45–6, 169, 270
relations with rogue states, 206
war with Arab states, 159, 325
ISTC, see International Science and
Technology Center
Italy, 75, 250, 268, 294, 296, 314
Japan, 139, 161, 163, 211, 228, 258, 259,
268, 270, 275, 296, 322, 327
Jenkins, Brian, 245, 251
Jervis, Robert, 308, 313
Jews, 50
Jomini, Antoine-Henri de, 147, 150, 153,
155, 159, 173
Jordan, water security, 327
just war theory, 277
justice, 19, 23, 37, 92, 99
Kaczynski, Theodore, 251
Kagan, Frederick, 183
Kahn, Herman, 65, 163, 164
Kaldor, Mary, 100, 142, 184, 187, 194, 195,
197, 325
Kampani, Gaurav, 233
Kant, Immanuel, 153
Kapstein, Ethan, 17
Karp, Aaron, 121
Katzenstein, Peter, 314
Keegan, John, 8, 168
Kegley, Charles, 17, 34
Kennedy, Paul, 291
Kenya, 165
Keohane, Robert, 25, 36, 315, 316
Khan, Abdul Qadeer, 234
Kilcullen, David, 256
Kissinger, Henry, 20, 23, 36, 163, 261
Kitson, Frank, 165
Klein, Bradley, 52, 53
Index 363
knowledge, as a social process, see shared
knowledge
Korea
Japanese invasion of (1592–8), 139
see also North Korea
Korean War (1950–53), 162
Kosovo War (1999), 121, 168, 169
Krasner, Stephen, 21
Krause, Keith, 64, 67
Kriesberg, Louis, 312
Kurds, 273
Kuwait, 36, 207, 216, 279, 297, 324
Laclau, Ernesto, 140
ladder of escalation, 163, 164
landmines, 106, 108
Ottawa Treaty, 108
Laqueur, Walter, 247
Lawrence, T.E., 257–8, 259
Layne, Christopher, 20, 31, 33, 38
leaderless resistance, 254, 263
League Council, 296
League of Nations, 242, 296
Lebanon, 45–6, 169, 270, 273
Lebow, Richard, 17, 35
Lehi, see Irgun
Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich, 140, 153, 162
Levant, the, 327
Levy, Jack, 28, 130, 131, 144, 293
Levy, Marc, 2, 57, 59
liberal way of war, the, 175, 185
liberalism/liberalist approaches, 2, 21, 247
Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE),
see LTTE
Liberia, 274
Libya
and the non-proliferation treaty, 227
arms embargo against, 116
and terrorist, 271
as rogue state, 206
intervention in, 40, 97–8, 100,
nuclear programme, 227, 230, 233,
relations with the US, 207–8
US air strikes on (1986), 271
Liddell Hart, Basil, 148, 151, 157, 159, 161
light weapons, 12, 105, 106, 108, 111, 126,
190, 191
limited war, 7, 156, 165
limited nuclear war, 7, 204
Liotta, P.H., 93, 100
Lipschutz, Ronnie, 80
Little, Laura, 82
London Club, see Nuclear Suppliers Group
long war, the, see global war on terrorism
low intensity operations, 165
LTTE (Tamil Tigers), 246
Luttwak, Edward, 8
Macedonia, and small arms and light
weapons, 118, 121, 123
Machiavelli, Niccolo, 19, 22, 152
9780230_241503_18_Indx 25/08/2011 16:41 Page 364
364 Index
Mack, Andrew, 94, 261
MAD, see mutual assured destruction
Madrid bombings (2004), 255
Mahan, Alfred Thayer, 148, 150, 151, 154,
155, 156, 157, 163
major conventional arms (MCA), 106, 107
Malayan Emergency, 165
Malaysia, 282, 326
Malešević, Siniša, 195–6
Mali, 123
man-made disasters, see disasters, man-made
man-portable air defence systems
(MANPADS), 114
Mao Tse-Tung, 257, 258
Maoz, Zeev, 30
Marighella, Carlos, 165, 258, 259
Marx, Karl, 50
Marxism/Marxist approaches, 21, 35, 42,
48, 139, 140, 247, 249
MCA, see major conventional arms
McInnes, Colin, 175, 185, 186
Mearsheimer, John, 2, 8, 19, 20, 24, 31, 32,
36, 37, 61, 291, 300
media, 142, 171, 245, 251, 261
Mexico, 322
Middle East, 2, 10, 45, 80, 99, 114, 216,
230, 248, 250, 251, 302, 305, 306,
314, 323, 325, 328,
see also individual countries
migration, 2, 10, 52–53, 82, 92, 326
military assistance, 107, 267, 268, 272
military expenditure, global, 59, 106–7
military force, see force
military forces, 39, 46, 59, 160, 166, 172,
173, 182, 199, 214, 282, 284, 313,
321, 326, 329,
see also armed forces
military–industrial–media–entertainment
network, 142
military revolution, 176, 178–180
military security, 6, 9, 39, 54, 80, 106, 171,
304, 316, 326
military strategy, 4, 20, 63, 148, 152
Millennium Declaration, 1991, see 1991
Millennium Declaration
Millennium Summit, 2000, see 2000
Millennium Summit
missile defence, 13, 205, 208, 211, 219
see also national missile defence
Missile Technology Control Regime
(MTCR), 224
Mitchell, William (‘Billy’), 157, 158, 167
Morgenthau, Hans, 19, 20, 22, 23, 24, 36
MTCR, see Missile Technology Control
Regime
Mueller, John, 256
multilateral cooperation, 9, 117, 318,
multinational corporations, 22, 26
see also non-state actors
multinational enterprises (MNEs), 226, 234
see also non-state actors
multinational organizations, 19
see also non-state actors
Münkler, Herfried, 189, 190, 191, 194
Muslims, 53, 54, 69, 249
mutual assured destruction (MAD), 205–6,
213, 220
NAFTA, see North American Free Trade
Agreement
Nagasaki, 124, 162, 163, 137, 203,
Nagl, John, 261
Nairobi Protocol, 115, 117, 118, 121
Nairobi Protocol for the Prevention, Control
and Reduction of SALW in the Great
Lakes Region and the Horn of Africa,
see Nairobi Protocol
nation building, 268, 275, 276
national identity, see identity, national
national interest, 23, 33, 40, 129, 136, 137,
141, 142, 265, 267, 287
National Liberation Front (FLN), see FLN
national missile defence (NMD), 207, 208,
211
see also missile defence
NATO, see North Atlantic Treaty
Organization
Nazi Germany, see Germany, Nazi
Ndayi, Zoleka, 319
neo-liberal institutionalism, 315
see also liberalism/liberalist approaches
neo-realism, see realism, structural
netwar, 181,
Neufeld, Mark, 62
new regionalism theory/new regionalism,
313, 315, 317–20
new wars, 14, 132, 141–3, 176, 177,
187–96, 197, 325, 326
New Zealand, 314
NGOs, see non-governmental
organizations
Nicaragua, and small arms and light
weapons, 118, 123
Niebuhr, Reinhold, 19, 22
9/11,10, 53, 59, 68, 69, 141, 143, 207, 208,
246, 249, 256, 269, 270
1999 Millennium Declaration, 92
non-governmental organizations, 90, 92,
105, 106, 108, 111, 116, 117, 119,
124, 125, 171, 277
non-peace interventions, 268
non-proliferation
Additional Protocols, 228
and emerging nuclear states, 223, 226,
228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 237,
238, 239
horizontal, 223–39
national measures, 225, 228
norms, 223
of small arms and light weapons, 108–9
regime, 13, 222–9
second tier, 233
9780230_241503_18_Indx 25/08/2011 16:41 Page 365
non-proliferation – continued
supply-side controls, 226, 232, 234, 236,
239
vertical, 223, 224, 230, 231, 232, 235,
237, 239
weaponization, 239
see also, United States, non-proliferations
strategies of
Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), 209, 214,
223, 224, 225, 226–227, 228, 230, 234,
235, 237, 238, 239
non-state actors, 1, 4, 5, 15, 26, 39, 40, 90,
109, 111, 112, 113, 118, 119, 188, 190,
191, 202, 226, 233, 235, 267, 277, 325
see also multinational corporations;
multinational enterprises;
multinational organizations; non-
governmental organizations;
separatists; terrorists
NORAD, see North American Aerospace
Defense Command
North America, 49, 232, 322–3
see also Canada; Mexico; United States
North American Aerospace Defense
(NORAD), 322
North American Free Trade Agreement
(NAFTA), 323
North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO), 8, 14, 53, 121, 122, 141, 161,
162, 168, 274, 286, 314, 320
North Korea, 40
and Korean War, 162
and non-proliferation treaty, 225, 227,
228, 230, 231
and the Axis of Evil, 207
and terrorism, 251
as a nuclear proliferator, 216, 223
as rogue state, 206, 208, 216, 230, 236–7
nuclear strategy, 210, 280
nuclear weapons, 202, 210, 211, 212,
232, 233, 239, 299, 309, 317
relations with Britain, 218
relations with the United States, 207–8,
228, 236–7, 299, 317, 322
see also Six Party Talks
Northern Ireland, 165, 275
NPR, see Nuclear Posture Review (1994),
(2001–2), (2010)
NPT, see Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
NSG, see Nuclear Suppliers Group
nuclear abolition, 209, 219
nuclear disarmament, 224, 225–6, 227, 235,
237, 238
nuclear deterrence, see deterrence
nuclear fuel cycle, 228
nuclear industrial development, 230, 232, 233
nuclear non-proliferation, see non-
proliferation
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT),
223, 224–225, 226, 227, 228, 230, 234,
235, 237, 238, 239
Index 365
Nuclear Posture Review (NPR) (1994), 206,
208
Nuclear Posture Review (NPR) (2001–2),
207–8
Nuclear Posture Review (NPR) (2010), 209
nuclear proliferation, see non-proliferation
nuclear strategy, 1, 10, 201–19
against rogue states, 206–7, 208, 216–17
against terrorism, 216–17
and damage limitation, 219
and escalation dominance, 205
and first-strike, 207, 212, 213, 219
and first-use, 204, 205, 207, 209, 210,
214, 215, 217, 219
and hold at risk, 208, 219
and intra-war deterrence, 205, 219
and strategic culture, 134, 151
counter-city targeting, 204
countervailing, 204
flexible response, 203–5, 214–15
gendered nature of, 64
leading and hedging, 206
massive retaliation, 203
thinking about the unthinkable, 65
political context of, 210, 218–19
see also individual countries; deterrence;
missile defence; mutually assured
destruction
nuclear suppliers, 231–2
emerging secondary, 230, 232–4, 239
established, 232
Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG), 226, 232,
236
nuclear war, 7, 15, 25, 55, 64, 65, 163–4,
167, 203, 306, 328
nuclear warfare, 164–5
see also limited nuclear war
nuclear weapons
and great power status, 14, 210–11, 300
and non-state actors, 222
and rogue states, 206–7, 208, 216
and strategic culture, 162
and terrorism, 216, 253, 256
as a form of airpower, 163, 167–8
as quasi-equalisers, 217
as threat to citizens, 55
as war ending or prevention tool, 7, 272,
300–1
conventionalization of, 208
deterrent effect of, 164, 203
development of, see non-proliferation
effect on naval strategy, 162–3
elimination of, 209, 223, 235, 238
escalation, 164
gendered nature of, 64
political use of, 7, 201, 203, 213, 218–19
production of, see non-proliferation
programs, see non-proliferation
proliferation of, see non-proliferation
strategic studies focus on, 6–7, 8, 13, 55,
64
9780230_241503_18_Indx 25/08/2011 16:41 Page 366
366 Index
nuclear weapons – continued
thinking about the unthinkable, 65, 163,
164
usability of, 13, 164, 205–6, 213, 218–19
world order function of, 202, 209–10
see also individual countries
Nye, Joseph, 36, 316, 324
OAS, see Organization of American States
Obama, Barack, 202, 209, 214, 223, 237,
238, 304, 305, 314
O’Hanlon, Michael, 182, 280
oil, 8, 327
OODA Loop, 169
OMFTS, see operational manoeuvre from
the sea
OPEC, see Organization of the Petroleum
Exporting Countries
operational art, 160, 170
operational level of war, 160
operational manoeuvre, 160, 161, 169
operational manoeuvre from the sea
(OMFTS), 169, 170
operational manoeuvre group, 161
Organiszation of Petroleum Exporting
Countries (OPEC), 8
Organization for Security and Cooperation
in Europe (OSCE), 90, 113, 114, 121,
320, 323
Organization of American States (OAS),
113, 323
organized violence, 138, 177, 181, 186, 187,
189, 194, 197, 198, 199, 325, 326
OSCE, see Organization for Security and
Cooperation in Europe
Osgood, Robert, 23, 36, 148, 149, 329
Owen, Taylor, 93
Pakistan
as an arms exporter, 113
as an emerging power, 300
nuclear proliferation, 225, 226–7, 230,
231, 232, 233, 234, 239, 253, 299
nuclear strategy, 213, 214, 215
nuclear weapons, 13, 202, 210–11, 212,
253, 299
relations with India, 36, 39, 211–12, 214,
215
Palestine, 244, 327
Pacific Islands Forum (PIF), 114, 323
Pape, Robert, 37, 247
Paret, Peter, 136
peace building, 275
peace camp, see Greenham Common Peace
Camp
peace interventions, 268
peace movement, 205
Peace of Westphalia, 144, 194, 195
peace studies, 8
peace support operations (PSO), 166, 170,
171
peacekeeping, 14, 92, 97, 108, 267, 268,
269, 274, 275, 277, 280, 321, 323
peace-making, 268, 275
Pearl Harbor, 167
people’s war, 256
personal security, 75, 83, 91 93
Peru, 250
Philippines, 327
PIF, see Pacific Islands Forum
pluralistic security community, see security
community
POE, see point of entry
point of entry (POE), 283
police forces, 109
police forces operations, 275
political security, 82, 83, 84, 91
population
growth and mobility, as source of
insecurity, 81
movement, 74
Posen, Barry, 8, 27, 31, 36, 37, 40
post-structuralism, 68
poverty, 12, 39, 50, 81, 90, 91, 92, 98, 99,
100, 101, 108,
as a cause of terrorism, 249–50
Third World, 8
power, 1, 3, 21, 22, 43, 50, 69
and human nature, 23
balance of, 23, 29–30, 42
competition for, 29
distribution of, 11, 20, 24, 30–2
maximization, 20, 23, 24, 33, 34, 35
ojection, 156, 170, 202, 290, 300, 305, 327
see also airpower; seapower
Programmes of Disarmament,
Demobilization and Reintegration, see
Disarmament, Demobilization and
Reintegration, Programmes of
pre-emptive attack, see war,
preemptive/preventive
precision guided munitions, 142
preventive strike, see war,
preemptive/preventive
proliferation, see non–proliferation
Proliferation Security Initiative (PSI), 236,
237, 273
proxy wars, 8, 15
Prussia, 289
Congress of Vienna, 295, 310
see also Germany
PSI, see Proliferation Security Initiative
PSO, see peace support operation
punitive attack, 269, 271–2
R2P, see Responsibility to Protect
R&D, see research and development
racism, 53
radiological dispersal device (RDD), 222
RAND Corporation, 260
rapid-onset geophysical hazards, see
hazards, rapid-onset geophysical
9780230_241503_18_Indx 25/08/2011 16:41 Page 367
rapid-onset hydrometeorological hazards,
see hazards, rapid-onset
hydrometeorological
Ray, James, 29, 30
Razack, Sherene, 53–4
RDD, see radiological dispersal device
real enemy, 139, 144
realism/realist approaches
anarchic international system, 4, 5, 19–20,
23, 26, 293
and cooperation between states, 21–2
and critical theory, 27–8, 48, 315
and change in the international system,
24–5
and grand strategy, 40–1
and end of Cold War, 11, 18, 34–6
and environmental security, 39–40, 57, 78
and ethnic conflict, 37
and globalization, 21, 38–9
and human security, 39–40, 94, 95
and identity and culture in states, 24, 25,
151
and internal conflict, 37
and national interest, 265
and power maximiszation, 20, 23
and primacy of states in international
relations, 10, 19, 24, 26, 57
and regional analysis, 315
and security maximiszation, 20, 23, 32
and terrorism, 37–8
and the causes of war debate, 133
and the democratic peace, 28–30
and the distribution of power among
states, 20, 24, 31–2, 290–1
and the international response to US
power, 38
and the obsolescence of war, 36–8
and the level and direction of threats,
31–2
and the use or threat of use of force, 20,
21
as an academic approach, 19
classical, 22–3, 33, 42
defensive, 31, 33, 42
economic, 21
hard-line approach of, 20–1
hegemonic, 33
hegemonic rivalry and, 23–4, 32–3
military focus of, 7
moral implications of, 24, 25–6
neoclassical, 32, 33, 42
neorealism, see realism, structural
offensive realism, 31, 33, 43, 291
philosophical tradition, 19
rational actor assumption of, 20
scientific method of, 61–2
structural, 11, 23–4, 31–4, 33, 43
realpolitik, 22, 25
reciprocity, 21, 312, 313, 316
Red Army Faction, 247
Red Brigades, 247, 250
Index 367
referent objects of security, 70
refugees, 81
regime change, 207, 239, 271
region, definition of, 312, 313–14
regional cooperation, 115, 315, 316, 320
regional identity, 14, 314, 315, 317, 319,
324
regional security integration, 321, 322
regional security threats, 312
regionalism, 312, 313, 315, 317, 319–20,
321
regionalization, 312, 315, 319, 320, 322,
323, 325
regionness, 313, 315, 317, 318–19, 320,
321, 323
religious fundamentalism, 248
religious terrorism, 248
rescue, 268, 269, 273, 278
research and development (R&D), 227, 230,
233, 234
polycentric approach to, 233
resources
as source of insecurity, 313, 324, 327
conflicts, 14, 79, 81, 82–3, 92, 326
depletion, 10, 11, 91
scarce/scarcity, 11, 40, 73, 74, 76–7,
79–80, 81, 83, 85, 86, 324
Responsibility to Prevent, 98, 102
Responsibility to Protect, 12, 40, 86, 96, 97–
8, 102, 266
revolution in military affairs (RMA), 142,
176, 178–84, 186, 193
Revolutionary United Front (RUF), Sierra
Leone, 119, 281
Richardson, Louise, 243, 245, 249
risk-transfer war, 176, 185
RMA, see revolution in military affairs
Roberts, Brad, 2
Roberts, Michael, 178, 179
Robertson, Geoffrey, 277
rogue states, 14, 206, 207, 208, 209, 216,
217, 230, 232, 236, 237, 270, 287
Ronfeldt, David, 181
Rosecrance, Richard, 18
rule of law, 28, 69, 92, 189, 296, 314
Rumsfeld, Donald, 167, 216, 321
Russia
and anti-personnel landmines, 108
and cluster munitions, 108
and West European security, 52
and World War II, 161, 268
as an arms exporter, 106–7, 111
as great power, 295, 303, 310
Congress of Vienna, 295
intervention capability of, 282
military spending of, 59
military strategy, 161, 163
non-proliferations strategies of, 223, 225
nuclear strategy of, 215
nuclear weapons, 13, 202, 206, 208, 210,
211, 212, 219, 224, 237
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368 Index
Russia – continued
radical nationalism,
relations with Estonia, 167
relations with Georgia, 167
relations with the US, 20, 209, 224,
strategic culture, 151–2
Tsarist, 247, 255
see also Six Party Talks
Rwanda, 36, 37, 97, 274
SAARC, see South Asian Association for
Regional Cooperation
Sageman, Marc, 248
SALT, see Strategic Arms Limitation Talks
SALW, see small arms and light weapons
sanctions, 116, 119, 228, 229, 232, 266–7,
272, 279
Sarin attack (Tokyo 1995), see Tokyo
subway attack (1995)
Schelling, Thomas, 108, 163
Schmid, Alex, 243, 245
Schmitt, Carl, 68, 139, 140
seapower, 155, 156, 162, 173
second Cold War, 36
Second United Nations Emergency Force
(UNEF II), 274
Second World War, see World War II
securitization, 58–60, 64, 67, 70, 84–6, 95
and claiming of special rights, 58
and environmental security, 73, 84–6
implications for the study of security, 60,
64
of war on terror, 59–60
see also desecuritization
securitization studies, 67
security
as a social construction, 67
as emancipation, 49–50, 57, 66
community, see community security
cooperative, see cooperative security
ecological, see ecological security
environmental, see environmental
security
food, see food security
human, see human security
personal, see personal security
political, see political security
societal, 51–4, 324
study of, 1–5
water, see water security
security community, 319
Security Council see United Nations Security
Council
security dilemma, 6, 15, 32, 37, 64, 108,
300
security studies, 1, 2–5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 17–18,
19, 27, 40–1, 46, 47, 48, 57, 61, 65, 66,
68, 70, 86, 89, 241, 254
separatists, 4
see also non-state actors
Serbia, 50, 123, 169, 324, 325
Serbia and Montenegro, see Serbia
Serbs see Serbia
Seversky, Alexander de, 157, 167
shared knowledge, 317
Shaw, Martin, 185, 193, 195
Sheehan, Michael, 3
Shining Path guerrilla movement, 250
ship to objective manoeuvre (STOM), 170
shock and awe, 168
Sierra Leone, 116, 119, 123, 281
and small arms and light weapons, 118
Simpson, Gerry, 294
Six Party Talks, 228, 322
slow-onset hazards, see hazards, slow-onset
small arms and light weapons (SALW),
105–25
brokering controls, 118
disarmament, 122–3
International Tracing Instrument, 120
Interpol database of, 120
marking and tracing, 119–20
monitoring and transparency, 123–4
production of, 109
regional conventions controlling, 113–15
stockpile controls, 120–2
trade in, 109
trade during the Cold War, 119
transfers to non-state actors, 118–19
voluntary weapons collection programmes
(VWCPs), 123
see also export controls, SALW; major
conventional arms (MCA)
Small Arms Survey project, 124
Small Arms Survey Transparency Barometer,
124
small wars, 242, 257, 261
Smith, Steve, 2, 133
Snedden, Chris, 85–6
Snyder, Jack, 18, 24, 27, 31, 151
societal security, see security, societal
soft balancing, 39
Solomon Islands, 114, 267, 276, 323
Somalia, 119, 275, 276, 281
South Africa, 122, 123, 234, 274, 314
South Asia, 39, 323
South Asian Association for Regional
Cooperation (SAARC), 115, 323
South China Sea, 326
Southeast Asia, regionalization in, 14, 314,
321–2
see also Association of Southeast Asian
Nations
South East Europe Small Arms Clearing
House (SEESAC), 114
Southwest Asia, 314
sovereignty, state
concept of conditional, 277
constraints on, 39
principle of, 144, 293, 295
realist perspective on, 24–5, 26
edefinition of, 96–7, 192, 266, 277
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Index 369

Soviet Union terrorism, 9, 10, 13, 53, 59, 60, 216,

and the Cold War, 34
and the Vietnam War, 272
and World War II, 6
collapse/disintegration of, 34, 35, 47, 302,
304
military spending of, 59
military thinking in, 159–60
nuclear weapons, 203
invasion of Czechoslovakia (1968), 27
Red Army, 159–60
relations with France, 29–30
relations with Germany, 29–30
relations with Finland, 29
relations with the US, 1, 6, 7–8, 18, 20,
34–6, 37, 164, 202–6, 274, 297, 298,
300, 306
strategy of, 6
terrorism, 244
Spain, see Madrid bombings (2004)
Spanish–American War (1898), 29
spectator-sport warfare, 175–6, 185–6, 199
speech act, 67
Spratly Islands, 326, 327
Sputnik, 7
Sri Lanka, 246
stabilization operations, 170, 172, 267, 268,
269, 276, 281
state(s)
as referent object, 2, 48–9
pre-eminence of, 4, 19, 24, 46
sovereignty of, see sovereignty, state
STOM, see ship to objective manoeuvre
Straits of Malacca, 327
Strategic Arms Limitation Treaties (SALT),
244
strategic culture, 151–2
strategic studies, 3–8, 9, 10, 11, 46, 47–9,
50, 52, 54, 55, 55, 61, 63, 64, 65, 66,
68, 69, 70, 215
strategy, 5, 14, 41, 54, 61, 69, 147
definition of, 4, 12, 147–52
maritime, 154–7, 162–3
see also grand strategy; military strategy;
nuclear strategy
Stern Gang, see Irgun
structural realism, see realism, structural
structural violence, 143
Sudan, 40, 98, 323
Suganami, Hidemi, 141
suicide attacks, 246
suicide bombers, 172, 216, 245, 262
suicide terrorism, 247, 263
Sun Tzu, 147, 152, 153, 156, 159, 162, 169
supply-side controls, see export controls,
WMDs
sustainable development, 72–73
Svechin, Alexander, 160
Tajikistan, 123
Tamil Tigers, see LTTE
241–63, 302, 305
and realist theory, 18, 34, 37–8
and rogue states, 14, 206
and urban guerrilla, 258–9
catastrophic, 263
causes of, 245–52
chemical and biological, 253
concepts and definitions, 242–5
franchise, 255
homegrown, 262
nationalist, 263
new terrorism, 252, 254–6
nuclear, 202, 253
radical or ‘lone wolf’ terrorists, 263
psychological dimension of, 251–2
religious, 248–9
state use of, 244–5, 263
strategic logic of,
suicide, 247, 263
symbolic, 263
transnational, 92
see also al-Qaeda; counter-terrorism
terrorists, 4, 13, 40, 69, 190, 191, 207, 216,
242, 243, 246, 247, 250–6, 262–3, 270,
328
Third World, 8, 99, 159, 203, 206, 207, 214
Thirty Years’ War, 189, 294, 297
Thompson, Sir Robert, 165, 166
threshold states, 225, 231
Thucydides, 19, 22
Tokyo subway attack (1995), 246
total war, 186, 204, 277
Toynbee, Arnold, 292
trafficking, see arms trafficking; human
trafficking; narcotics trafficking
transformation of war, see war,
transformation of
transnational crime, 10, 105, 110, 114,
125
Trenchard, Sir Hugh, 159
Tucker, Robert, 36
Turkey, 30, 314
2000 Millennium Summit, 92, 124
Uganda, 118, 123, 268, 273
UK, see Britain
UN, see United Nations
UNAMSIL, see United Nations Mission in
Sierra Leone
under-developed states, see developing
countries
UNDP, see United Nations Human
Development Report
UNEF II, see Second United Nations
Emergency Force
UNITAF, see Unified Task Force (Somalia)
United Kingdom, see Britain
United Nations
and human security, 90, 91–2, 99–100,
and [nuclear] arms control, 206
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370 Index
United Nations – continued
and small arms and light weapons
(SALW), 12, 106, 108, 110–3, 115,
117, 118, 121, 122, 124, 125, 126
and the Korean War, 162
as international institution, 6, 26, 277,
296, 297, 299, 304
non-proliferation mechanisms, 234, 236
peace support operations, 171
peacekeeping, 92, 108, 274, 280
sanctioned military interventions, 279,
282, 286
stabilization missions of, 276
see also individual United Nations
programs, missions and organizations
United Nations Arms Register, 107, 124
United Nations Charter, 99, 291, 296–8,
299, 304, 307, 309–10
United Nations Convention against
Transnational Organized Crime, 110
United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP), see United Nations Human
Development Report
United Nations Human Development
Report, 82, 100, 102
United Nations Programme of Action to
Prevent, Combat and Eradicate the
Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light
Weapons in All Its Aspects (POA),
109–13
United Nations Protocol against the Illicit
Manufacturing of and Trafficking in
Firearms, Their Parts and Components
and Ammunition, 109–10
United Nations Security Council (UNSC),
55, 56, 99, 116, 234, 236, 266, 268,
271, 274, 277, 278–9, 296, 297, 298,
300
United Nations Special Commission
(UNSCOM), 270–1
United Nations Stabilization Mission in
Haiti (UNSMIH), 276
United States, the
Air Force, 163, 167–8
and Afghanistan, 20, 36, 60, 141, 193,
242, 262, 271
and anti-personnel landmines, 108
and cluster munitions, 108
and hostages in Iran (1980), 273
and Iraq, 20, 36, 59, 60, 141, 142, 151,
172, 193, 207–7, 216–17, 242, 260,
262, 270–1, 273, 278, 279, 284–5,
321
and the Anglosphere, 314
and the environment–conflict thesis/nexus,
77, 79
and the League Council, 296
and the revolution in military affairs, 142,
179, 180, 182, 183–4
and the study of security, 3–4, 23
and the United Nations, 296–7
and Vietnam War, 8, 20, 166, 261, 269,
272
and war on terror, 59–60, 68, 242
and wars of global risk, 193
and World War II, 6, 268, 269, 270
armed forces, 180, 203
Army, 161
as a rogue state, 14
as an arms exporter, 106–8, 111, 113,
117, 119
counter-proliferation strategies of, 13
domestic terrorists, 247, 250, 251, 253
foreign policy of, 21, 304–6, 308
grand strategy of, 40–1, 306, 310
intervention capability of, 280
intervention in Liberian civil war,, 274
intervention in Somalia, 275, 281–2
Marine Corps, 169, 170
military spending of, 59
National Security Strategy (2002), 270
Navy, 162, 163, 167, 170
non-proliferation strategies of, 13, 223,
225, 227, 234, 235, 236–8
nuclear strategy of , 6–7, 13, 63, 162,
163, 183, 202–10, 214, 217
nuclear weapons of, 6–7, 13, 50,
202–10, 212, 217, 219, 223, 224,
253
Office of Weapons Removal and
Abatement, 122
preventive attack, 270
primacy in international politics, 13, 14,
20, 38, 289, 290, 301–10
Proliferation Security Initiative (PSI),
272–3
relations with Australia, 280, 314
relations with Britain, 29, 55, 268, 280,
314, 317
relations with Canada, 54, 58, 314,
322–3
relations with China, 20, 207–8, 229
relations with France, 268
relations with Germany, 6, 268
relations with India, 235
relations with Indonesia, 267
relations with Iran, 207–8, 228, 299
relations with Japan, 162, 268, 270
relations with Libya (1986), 207–8, 271
relations with Kuwait, 279
relations with North Korea, 207–8, 228,
236–7, 299, 317, 322
relations with Russia, 207–8, 209, 224,
268
relations with Syria, 207–8, 229
relations with the Soviet Union, 1, 6, 7–8,
18, 20, 34–6, 37, 164, 202–6, 274,
297, 298, 300, 306
security of aboriginal peoples, 50
security relations with Europe, 320–1
strategic culture of, 142 151
see also 9/11
9780230_241503_18_Indx 25/08/2011 16:41 Page 371
UNMOVIC, see United Nations Monitoring,
Verification and Inspection Commission
UNPROFOR, see UN Protection Force
UNSC, see United Nations Security Council
UNSCOM, see United Nations Special
Commission
UNSMIH, see United Nation Stabilization
Mission in Haiti
USSR, see Soviet Union
van Creveld, Martin, 8, 136, 183
Van Evera, Stephen, 22, 31, 32, 33, 133
Viet Cong, 261
Vietnam, 8, 86, 165, 169, 203, 261, 269,
277
Vietnam War, 7, 20, 166, 272
Wæver, Ole, 27, 51, 51, 58, 59, 60, 64, 67,
69, 89
Walt, Stephen, 20, 31, 33, 36, 38, 40, 46,
47, 57, 304, 306
Waltz, Kenneth, 20, 23, 24, 27, 31, 32, 33,
35, 36, 38, 62, 94, 290, 291
war, 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 13, 18, 31, 45, 55, 59,
90, 107, 148–54, 156, 157, 167, 172,
175–99, 267, 277, 292, 293, 294, 296
and realist theory, 20, 22–4, 25–6, 27,
28–31, 32, 33, 34, 36–7, 40, 42, 61
and security studies, 46
anti-terrorism, 193
as a constraint on freedom, 50, 57
as an art, 149, 151, 152
as a tool of statecraft, 5, 141, 148
asymmetric, 256
causes of, see causes of war
civil, 40, 108, 110, 122, 132, 138, 141,
280, 324
cultural approach to, 151
cyber, see cyberwar
definition of, 13, 133, 136–7, 186
guerrilla, see guerrilla warfare
historical structure of, 13, 177, 184,
186–96, 197, 198
humanitarian, see humanitarian conflict,
185, 192
in the age of risk, 176, 185
laws of, 164, 166, 214, 253
levels of, 149, 160–1, 173
liberal way of, 176, 184, 189
limited, 7, 156, 165
network, 176, 187, 188
new, see new wars
nuclear, 7, 15, 25, 55, 64, 65, 163–4, 167,
202–6, 209, 210, 213, 218, 306, 328
of national liberation, 7, 256
of the third kind, 175
on terror, 2, 10, 59–60, 68, 107, 141, 202,
207, 242, 260, 328
operations other than, 183
partisan, 256
people’s, see people’s war, 153, 172
Index 371
post-human, 175, 193–4, 199
post-national, 191
pre-emptive/preventive, 208, 256, 287
principles of, 149–50, 181
proxy, 8, 15
risk-transfer, 176, 185
resource, 73, 79, 80
small, 242, 256, 257, 261, 262
social mode of, 184–6, 195, 196, 198
spectator-sport, 175–6, 185–6, 198
transformation of, 2, 10, 12–3, 175–99
water, 80–1, 327
see also individual conflicts; just war
theory
war crimes, see crimes against humanity
Warden, John, 168, 169
warfare, 91, 132, 150, 153, 156, 159, 160,
165–6, 167, 172, 173, 175–99, 202,
243, 252, 256–9, 262, 277, 281, 325,
326
see also 4th generation warfare; biological
warfare; British way in warfare;
chemical warfare; class warfare;
cyberwar; expeditionary
operations/warfare; guerrilla
operations/warfare; humane warfare;
industrial total warfare; industrial
warfare; information warfare; nuclear
warfare; spectator-sport warfare
war-fighting, 177, 178, 179, 180, 182, 184,
185, 199, 268
war-fighting paradigm, 13, 175, 177–8,
181–2, 184–5, 196, 199
warlords, 190, 191
wars of national liberation see war, of
national liberation
Wassenaar Arrangement, 117
water resources, 81, 86
see also war, water; water wars
water security, 80, 98
water wars, 80–1, 327
weak states, 254, 280
wealth, 3, 64, 81, 155, 189, 304, 324
weaponization, see non-proliferation
weapons, see arms trafficking; biological
weapons; chemical weapons; light
weapons; nuclear weapons; high-
technology weapons; weapons of mass
destruction (WMD)
weapons of mass destruction (WMD), 1, 7,
13, 14, 124, 125, 183, 206, 242, 253,
256, 270, 313
see also biological weapons; chemical
weapons; non-proliferation, nuclear
weapons
Weiner, Myron, 2
Wendt, Alexander, 197, 198, 317
Western Europe, 5, 8, 52, 162, 203, 204,
305, 306, 315, 320, 321, 328
see also Europe; Western European Union;
and individual countries
9780230_241503_18_Indx 25/08/2011 16:41 Page 372
372 Index
Western European Union (WEU), 321
West Germany, see Germany, Federal
Republic of
Wight, Martin, 19, 292
Williams, Michael, 64, 67
Williams, Paul, 268
WMD, see weapons of mass destruction
Wohlforth, William, 35, 36, 38
Wohlstetter, Albert, 163
Wolfers, Arnold, 23,36
women, 46, 54, 55, 99
World Bank, 6, 98
World Trade Center, 249
World War One, 5, 39, 128, 149, 156, 157,
158, 272, 277, 296
World War Two, 5, 14, 29, 36, 95, 159, 166,
168, 181, 203, 225, 232, 268, 275,
276, 306 313, 316
Wright, Quincy, 5, 6, 7
Wyn Jones, Richard, 65, 66
Yugoslavia, former, see Bosnia; Croatia;
Kosovo; Serbs/Serbia
Zalewski, Marysia, 128, 129, 130, 144
Zangger Committee, 226