Behavioral Neuroscience

Week 3
Neural Physiology and Circuits

I. Physiology of Neurons
II. Rene Descartes’ “reflex”
A. Thought to be automation that was produced by hydrolics, so he thought
that means behavior was similar.
B. Dualism
1. Mechanical aspect vs. physical aspect
2. Mind-body dualism
C. He also thought the soul was located in the pineal gland
D. A reflex is produced by fluid movements through canals to head would
cause pineal gland to move musle to retract from fire
E. Obviously, today we know thats not how it works
III. Sensory neurons, interneurons and motor neurons in CNS cause reflexes
A. However its slightly more complicated
IV. Building Blocks: Neurons
A. Golgi stain
1. Golgi (1843-1926) first one to record neurons
2. Even 100 years later we still use Golgi stain method
3. Axon vs. dendrite
↓ ↓
No spines spines on it
B. What are neurons made of?
1. Plasma membrane envelops entire neuron and acts like a skin ⇒ lipid
bilayer
2. Cytoskeleton provides structure
(1) Microtubules
(a) Run the length of neuron - tubelike
(2) Neurofilaments
(a) Fibrous filaments in proximity of
microtubules particularly near axon
(3) Actin filaments
(a) High concentrations towards axon terminal
and some aspects of dendrites
3. Internal structure beyond cytoskeleton
(1) Within Soma is cytoplasm
(2) Within cytoplasm there is organelles
(a) Endoplasmic reticulum
(i) houses lipids for construction and
packaging in membrane and carry
ribosomes
(b) Golgi apparatus
 (i) Packages proteins in vesicles
(c) Mitochondria
(i) Helps produce ATP energy
(d) Nucleus
(i) Houses nucleolus = center of
nucleus and houses DNA material
(ii) Vital function of the nucleus is to
utilize genetic material
(iii) Important for protein synthesis (brain
development and brain functions
(synapses and neurons)
4. Outside of neuron = extracellular space
5. Inside of neurons = intercellular space
6. Protein synthesis in neurons - neuronal proteins
a) DNA gets transcribed to mRNA so it can exit the Nucleus
of the cell
b) When it comes in contact with the right ribosome it can
translate into protein
c) Neuronal proteins can be transported outside the neuron
to
(1) provide growth factors and
(2) adhesion molecules (growth of synapses) or
(3) when inserted into plasma membrane can form
channels
(4) Or function as a receptor
(5) Can remain in cytoplasm to produce amino acids
that can turn into neurotransmitters (precursors)
7. How does neuron move stuff like neurotransmitters inside?
a) Axoplasmic transport (neuron moves stuff within neuron)
(1) Neurotransmitters get shipped in vesicles
anterograde via kinesin
(2) If it moves in reverse order its retrograde
axoplasmic transport because they can also take
things in via dynein
(3) Microtubules = sidewalk/highway
V. Building Blocks: Glial cells
A. Outnumber neurons 3:1
B. Diverse functions
1. Supply nutrients (astrocytes)
2. Immune factors (astrocytes and microglia)
3. Regulate chemical environment (ependymal cells, microglia,
satellite cells and astrocytes)
4. Structure and encapsulate (myelin) neurons
a) Radial glial, schwann cells, and oligodendrocytes
 5. Remove/breakdown debris from dead cells and pathogens
(schwann cells, microglia)
C. Astrocytes
1. Supply nutrients
a) → production of ATP (major source of energy)
b) They form junctions near blood vessels because they carry
glucose
c) The astrocyte takes up glucose to be converted to lactate
d) Lactate will be carried to neuron that makes contact
e) Then the mitochondria can convert it into ATP
D. Oligodendrocyte
1. Has cell body and processes but in proximity to axon and neurons
2. Starts wrapping around axons and forms myelin sheath
VI. Action potentials
A. Relevant background info
1. Extracellular space of neurons that is controlled by electrostatic
pressure + diffusion
a) Sodium (Na+)
b) Chloride (Cl-)
2. Diffusion vs. Electrostatic pressure - the two forces at work in
neurotransmission
a) Diffusion=concentration gradient=something diffusing
b) The force exerted by the attraction of opposite charges
and the repulsion of similar charges
c) Both of these forces can work together to create
equilibrium or to create a stronger force to move certain
ions in certain directions

d) Interior of the cell is negative relative to the exterior.

3. Sodium and chloride highest concentration outside the cell, but
also inside the cell but at a lower concentration
4. Anions are responsible for the - 70 mV net charge inside the cell
5. Again, so the intererior of the cell is more negative, the exterior is
more positive
6. Being that the inside is more negative, sodium is attracted to that
and wants to go inside
a) Chloride - diffusion will want to move chloride inside but it
will be repulsed because the chloride is negative and the
interior is already negative. = balance
b) Potassium - highest concentration inside but force of
diffusion is going to want to force it out, but static pressure
will keep it in = balance
c) Protein (Anion) attracted to outside too but they generally
cannot move through the membrane
7. Most ions actually leak through the membrane to different extents
a) Potassium has the highest permeability compared to all the
other ions.
b) Chloride also has a pretty high permeability, sodium has a
low permeability
c) So there are some leaky channels that control permeability
of the ions but its relatively tight for most of the ions except
potassium
8. Sodium-Potassium Pump (otherwise called transporter)
=countermeasure for leakage
a) Functions to maintain net charge of -70 mVby moving
potassium into the cell and sodium outside the cell
(1) Ratio of 3 sodium exiting and 2 potassiums
entering
(2) Fuel of this pump is ATP
(a) So most of the ATP that is used up by a
neuron is for the Sodium-Potassium pump
(3) Maintains resting health of neurons

9. Membrane Potentials and action potentials

a) Plasma membrane of the neuron exists throughout entire
neuron not just cell body
(1) In regards of electrical properties, Focus on axons
itself where there is no myelin
b) Electrical charge difference across a membrane
c) Studies about this come from giant squid axon studies
(1) Take axon of a squid and tie off ends on both sides
and cut out axon and put it in saltwater
(2) Measure changes in voltage with a voltmeter
(3) Take electrode and penetrate into axon itself nad
measure electrical charge difference between outside and
inside ⇒ that’s how we get membrane potential
 d) Membrane potential at rest, then measure
(1) Pass positive charge through the axon - by adding
voltage = increases voltage, gets closer to
zero=depolarization
(2) Pass negative charge and decrease voltage, make
it more negative= hyperpolarization
e) However, it will reach the point of threshold of excitation and
membrane potential will massively depolarize ⇒ that’s what we
call an action potential, brief but strong increase in electrical
charge of the membrane
(1) So the membrane potential doesn't just come
back, it obviously hyperpolarize repolarize
10. How does this actually happen?How is an action potential
triggered?
a) The hardware:
(1) Voltage sensitive ion channels allow for the move
of ions into the cell
(a) They are located into axon
(b) They are excitable ion channels that allow
for the movement of ions into the cell
(c) When they sense a certain amount of
voltage/excitation they will open or close
(2) The two primary voltage sensitive ion channels are:
(a) voltage gated sodium and
(b) voltage gated potassium channels
b) The process:
(1) If a sodium channel opens sodium rushes in in a
very large quantity
(2) Potassium goes out of the cell but not as fast
(3) Cellular concentration changes
B. During the action potential
1. Once an action potential is triggered
(1) Sodium channels open up
(a) Sodium ions enter, potassium ions leave
slowly
(2) Potassium channels open
(a) Potassium begins to leave the cell more
(3) Sodium channels become refractory
(a) No more sodium enters the cells
 (4) Potassium conditunes to leave the cell ⇒ membrane
potential returns to its resting level
(5) Potassium channels close and Sodium channels
reset
(6) Hyperpolarization: Extra potassium outside diffuses
away
C. Conduction of an action potential down the axon
1. Latency increases the further away the point of stimulation is
(takes longer the further away)
D. Action potentials travel at different speeds
1. Factors that contribute:
a) Diameter of axon
b) Thickness of myelin sheath
(1) Decrement (decrease) in membrane potential
under the nodes and thus action potential gets
regenerated/recharges over and over
(2) That is called saltatory conduction
(3) Without nodes, channles woudl have to be open all
the time and that wouldnt be very efficient
E. Laws of action potentials
1. All or none law
a) Once an action potential was triggered, it is propated
to the end of the fiber without decrement so like the
action potential doesnt become less, it never does.
2. Rate law
a) Variations in intensity of a stimulus or other information
being transmitted in axon are represented by variations in
rate of action potentials (frequency)
VII. Optogenetics
A. Light senstive channels get implemented in neuron tissue
1. Algea have a Light sensitive protein
2. Take the gene for taht
3. Insert the DNA into specific neurons in teh brain
4. Neurons communicate by firing
5. You can get neurons to fire by just flashing a blue light
6. Thus, generate an action potential
⇒ this is useful for medication resistant depression
B. They developed another type to inhibit/prevent an action potential
1. This is useful for seizure activity
C. Optogenetics can be used at the cellular level to define pathways that are
involved in emotion, cognition, behavior or model treatments for
disorders.