History of Islam-1

History of Islam
The history of Islam concerns the religion of Islam and its adherents, Muslims. "Muslim" is

an Arabic word meaning "one who submits to God". Muslims and their religion have greatly impacted
the political, economic, and military historyof the Old World, especially the Middle East, where its
roots lie. Though it is believed by non-Muslims to have originated in Mecca and Medina, Muslims
believe that the religion of Islam has been present since the time of the prophet Adam. Muslims
believe that prophets Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, among others, were all Islamic prophets, and
they have equal veneration in the Qur'an. The Islamic world expanded to include people of the
Islamic civilization, inclusive of non-Muslims living in that civilization.
A century after the death of last Islamic prophet Muhammad, the Islamic empire extended from Al-

Andalus (Spain) in the west to Indus in the east. The subsequent empires such as those of
the Abbasids, Fatimids, Almoravids, Seljukids,Ajuuraan, Adal and Warsangali in Somalia, Mughals in
India and Safavids in Persia and Ottomans were among the influential and distinguished powers in
the world. The Islamic civilization gave rise to many centers of culture and science and produced
notable scientists, astronomers, mathematicians, doctors, nurses and philosophers during
theGolden Age of Islam. Technology flourished; there was investment in economic infrastructure,
such as irrigation systems and canals; and the importance of reading the Qur'an produced a
comparatively high level of literacy in the general populace.
In the later Middle Ages, destructive Mongol invasions from the East, and the loss of population in
the Black Death, greatly weakened the traditional centre of the Islamic world, stretching from Persia
to Egypt, and the Ottoman Empirewas able to conquer most Arabic-speaking areas, creating an
Islamic world power again, although one that was unable to master the challenges of the Early
Modern period.
Later, in modern history (18th and 19th centuries), many Islamic regions fell under the influence of
European Great Powers. After the First World War, Ottoman territories (a Central Powers member)
were partitioned into several nationsunder the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres.
Islam itself is more a politic ideology than a religion. Although affected by ideologies such
as socialism and secularism during much of the 20th century, the Islamic identity and the imposition
of Islam on political issues intensified during the early 21st century. Muslim extremism and Islamic
regional and international conflicts greatly effected the attitude toward Islam in the contemporary
world.[1] Also, in the contemporary period, a set of ideologies holding interpretations of Islamic texts
that advocate the unification of religion and state - theocracy - has spread, and as a result,
the ideology has been criticized.
Major periods[edit]
Main article: Historiography of early Islam
The Islamic state and Muslims' system of government evolved through various stages.[2] The precise
dates of various periods in history are more or less arbitrary. The City-state period lasted from 620s
to 630s. The Imperial period lasted from 630s to 750s. The Universal period lasted from 750s to
around 900s. These correspond to the early period of post-classical history. The "Decentralization"
period lasted from around 900s to the early 1500s. This correspond to the high periodand late
period of post-classical history. The "Fragmentation" period lasted from around 1500s to the late
1910s. The contemporary period, referred to as theNational period, lasted from 1910s into the
twenty-first century.
Early sources[edit]
The study of the earliest periods in Islamic history is made difficult by a lack of sources.[3] For
example, the most important historiographical source for the origins of Islam is the work of al-Tabari.
[4]
While al-Tabari was an excellent historian by the standards of his time and place, use of his work
as a source is problematic for two reasons. For one, his style of historical writing nonetheless
permitted liberal use of mythical, legendary, stereotyped, distorted, and polemical presentations of
its subject matter. Second, al-Tabari's descriptions of the beginning of Islam post-date the events by
a large amount of time, al-Tabari having died in 923 CE.[5][6]
Differing views about how to deal with the available sources has led to the development of four
different approaches to the history of early Islam. All four methods have some level of support today.
[7][8]
The descriptive method uses the outlines of Islamic traditions, while being adjusted for the stories
of miracles and faith-centred claims within those sources.[9] Edward Gibbon and Gustav
Weil represent some of the first historians following the descriptive method. On the source
criticalmethod, a comparison of all the sources is sought in order to identify which informants to the
sources are weak and thereby distinguish spurious material.[10] The work of William Montgomery
Watt and that of Wilferd Madelung are two source critical examples. On the tradition critical method,
the sources are believed to be based on oral traditions with unclear origins and transmission history,
and so are treated very cautiously.[11] Ignaz Goldziher was the pioneer of the tradition critical method,
and Uri Rubin gives a contemporary example. The skeptical method doubts nearly all of the material
in the traditional sources, regarding any possible historical core as too difficult to decipher from
distorted and fabricated material.[12] An early example of the skeptical method was the work of John
Wansbrough.
Nowadays, the popularity of the different methods employed varies on the scope of the works under
consideration. For overview treatments of the history of early Islam, the descriptive approach is more
popular. For scholars who look at the beginnings of Islam in depth, the source critical and tradition
critical methods are more often followed.[7]
After the 8th century CE, the quality of sources improves.[13] Those sources which treated earlier
times with a large temporal and cultural gap now begin to give accounts which are more
contemporaneous, the quality of genre of available historical accounts improves, and new
documentary sources—such as official documents, correspondence and poetry—appear.[13] For the
time prior to the beginning of Islam—in the 6th century CE—sources are superior as well, if still of
mixed quality. In particular, the sources covering the Sasanian realm of influence in the 6th century
CE are poor, while the sources for Byzantine areas at the time are of a respectable quality, and
complemented by Syriac Christian sources for Syria and Iraq.[14]
Islamic origins[edit]
Main articles: Quraysh (tribe), Banu Hashim, Muhammad and Qu'ran
Islam began within the context of Late Antiquity.[13] In pre-Islamic Arabia, Arab people lived on
the Arabian Plate. In the south of Hedjaz (principal religious and commercial center of post-classical
Arabia), the Arabic tribe of Quraysh (Adnani Arabs), to which Muhammad belonged, had been in
existence. Near Mecca, the tribe was increasing in power. The Quraysh were the guardians of
the Kaaba within the town of Mecca and was the dominant tribe of Mecca upon the appearance of
Islam. The Kaaba, at the time, was used as an important pagan shrine. It brought revenues to
Mecca because of the multitude of pilgrims that it attracted. Muhammad was born into the Banu
Hashim tribe of the Quraysh clan,[15] a branch of the Banu Kinanah tribe, descended
from Khuzaimah and derived its inheritance from the Khuza'imah (House of Khuza'a).
According to the traditional Islamic view, the Qur'an (Koran) began with revelations to Muhammad by
the angel Gabriel in 610. Thehistory of the Qur'an began when its verses were revealed to the
Muhammad. The rise of Islam began around the time Muslims took flight in the Hijra, moving to
Medina.
In 628, the Makkah tribe of Quraish and the Muslim community in Medina signed a truce called
the Treaty of Hudaybiyya beginning a ten-year period of peace. War returned when the Quraish and
their allies, the tribe of 'Bakr', attacked the tribe of 'Khuza'ah', who were Muslim allies. In 630,
Muslims conquered Mecca. Muhammad died in June 632. The Battle of Yamama was fought in
December of the same year, between the forces of the first caliph Abu Bakr and Musailima.
See also: Early scholars of Islam

City-states and Imperial period[edit]
Main articles: Succession to Muhammad and Caliphate
After prophet Muhammad died, a series of Caliphs governed the Islamic state: Abu Bakr (632-
634), Umar ibn al-Khattab (Umar І, 634-644), Uthman ibn Affan, (644-656), and Ali ibn Abi
Talib (656-661). These leaders are known as the "Rashidun" or "rightly guided" Caliphs in Sunni
Islam. They oversaw the initial phase of the Muslim conquests, advancing through Persia, Egypt, the
Middle East and North Africa.
Umar improved the administration and built cities like Basra and canal and irrigation networks. To be
close to the poor, Umar lived in a simple mud hut without doors and walked the streets every
evening. After consulting with the poor, Umar established the first welfare state Bayt al-mal.[16][17]
[18]
The Bayt al-mal or the welfare state was for the Muslim and non-Muslim poor, needy, elderly,
orphans, widows, and the disabled. The Bayt al-mal ran for hundreds of years under the Rashidun
Caliphate in the 7th century and continued through the Umayyadperiod and well into the Abbasid
era. Umar also introduced child benefit for the children and pensions for the elderly.[19][20][21][22] The
expansion of the state, was partially terminated between 638–639 during the years of great famine
and plague in Arabia and Levant respectively. During Umars reign, within 10 years
Levant,Egypt, Cyrenaica, Tripolitania, Fezzan, Eastern Anatolia, almost the whole of Sassanid
Persian Empire including Bactria, Persia, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Caucasus andMakran were
incorporated into Islamic State. When Umar was assassinated in 644, the election of Uthman as
successor was met with increasing opposition. The Qur'an was standardized during this time.
Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, persecuted as religious minorities and taxed
heavily to finance the Byzantine–Sassanid Wars, often aided Muslims to take over their lands from
the Byzantines and Persians, resulting in exceptionally speedy conquests.[23][24] As new areas joining
the Islamic state, they also benefited from free trade, while trading with other areas in the Islamic
state, so as to encourage commerce, in Islam trade is not taxed, wealth is taxed.[25] The Muslims
paid Zakat on their wealth to the poor. Since the Constitution of Medina, was drafted by the Islamic
prophet Muhammad the Jews and the Christians continued to use their own laws in the Islamic State
and had their own judges.[26][27][28] Therefore they only paid for policing for the protection of their
property. To assist in the quick expansion of the state, the Byzantine and the Persian tax collection
systems were maintained and the people paid a poll tax lower than the one imposed under the
Byzantines and the Persians.
In 639, Muawiyah I was appointed as the governor of Syria after the previous governor Abu Ubaidah
ibn al-Jarrah died in a plague along with 25,000 other people.[29][30] To stop the Byzantine harassment
from the sea during the Arab–Byzantine wars, in 649 Muawiyah I set up a navy; manned
by Monophysitise Christians, Copts and Jacobite Syrian Christians sailors and Muslim troops. This
resulted in the defeat of the Byzantine navy at the Battle of the Masts in 655, opening up the
Mediterranean.[31][32][33][34]
When Umar was assassinated in 644, Uthman ibn Affan became the next caliph. As it is well known
that Arabic language is written without vowels, and when Qur'an reached the non-Arabic speakers,
people began having different dielects and phonics which was changing the exact meaning of verses
in the Qur'an. This was brought to the notice of Uthman ibn Affan. Begun in the time of Uthman ibn
Affan, the compilation of the Qur'an was finished sometime between 650 and 656, Uthman sent
copies to the different centers of the expanding Islamic empire. From then on, thousands of Muslim
scribes began copying the Qur'an.[35]
The Qur'an and Muhammad talked about racial equality and justice as in the Farewell Sermon.[36][37][38]
[39][40][41][42]
Tribal and nationalistic differences were discouraged. But after Muhammad's passing the old
tribal differences between the Arabs started to resurface. Following the Roman–Persian Wars and
theByzantine–Sassanid Wars deep rooted differences between Iraq, formally under the
Persian Sassanid Empire and Syria formally under the Byzantine Empire also existed. Each wanted
the capital of the newly established Islamic State to be in their area.[43] Previously, the second caliph,
Umar, was very firm on the governors and his spies kept an eye on the governors. If he felt that a
governor or a commander was becoming attracted to wealth or did not meet the required
administrative standards, he had him removed from his position.[44]
Early Muslim armies stayed in encampments away from cities because Umar feared that they may
get attracted to wealth and luxury. In the process, they may get away from the worship of God and
become attracted to wealth and start accumulating wealth and establishing dynasties.[44][45][46]
[47]
"Wealth and children are [but] adornment of the worldly life. But the enduring good deeds are
better to your Lord for reward and better for [one's] hope." Qur'an 18:46[48] "O you who have believed,
let not your wealth and your children divert you from remembrance of Allah . And whoever does that
- then those are the losers." Qur'an 63:9[49] Staying in these encampments away from the cities also
ensured that there was no stress on the population and also that the populations remained
autonomous and kept their own judges and representatives. Some of these encampments later grew
into cities themselves, like Basra and Kufa in Iraq and Fustat in Egypt.[50] Some cities also had
agreements with the Muslims, such as during the Siege of Jerusalem in 637 CE.
As Uthman ibn Affan became very old, Marwan I a relative of Muawiyah I slipped into the vacuum
and became his secretary and slowly assumed more control and relaxed some of these restrictions.
Marwan I had previously been excluded from positions of responsibility. In 656, Muhammad ibn Abi
Bakr the son of Abu Bakr and the adopted son of Ali ibn Abi Talib and the great grandfather of Ja'far
al-Sadiq showed some Egyptians, the house of Uthman ibn Affan. Later the Egyptians ended up
killing Uthman ibn al-Affan.[51] Ali then assumed the position of caliph and moved the capital to Kufa
in Iraq. Muawiyah I the governor of Syria, a relative of Uthman ibn al-Affan and Marwan I wanted the
culprits arrested. Marwan I manipulated every one and created conflict. This later resulted in the first
civil war (the "First Fitna"), Ali was assassinated by Kharijites in 661. Six months later in 661, in the
interest of peace, Hasan ibn Ali, highly regarded for his wisdom and as a peacemaker, the Second
Imam for the Shias and the grandson of Muhammad, made a peace treaty with Muawiyah I. In
the Hasan–Muawiya treaty, Hasan ibn Ali handed over power to Muawiya on the condition that he be
just to the people and keep them safe and secure and after his death he does not establish a
dynasty.[52][53] This brought to an end the era of the Rightly Guided Caliphs for the Sunnis and Hasan
ibn Ali was also the last Imam for the Shias to be a Caliph. Following this, Muawiyah broke the
conditions of the agreement and began the Umayyad dynasty, with its capital in Damascus.[54] After
Mu'awiyah's death in 680, conflict over succession broke out again in a civil war known as the
"Second Fitna". After making every one else fight,[55] the Umayyad dynasty later fell into the hands of
Marwan I who was also an Umayyad. The Umayyads conquered the Maghrib, the Iberian
Peninsula, Narbonnese Gaul and Sindh.[56]
After the peace treaty with Ali's son, Hasan ibn Ali, and the suppression of the revolt of the Kharijites,
[57]
Muawiyah I proclaimed himself Caliph in 661 and began consolidating power.[58] In 663, a new
Kharijite revolt resulted in the death of their chief.[58] In 664, Muawiyah and Ziyad ibn Abi
Sufyan reached an agreement: the Caliph recognised Ziyad as a brother and appointed him
governor at Basra. Ziyad took the name ibn Abi Sufyan. Muawiyah arranged for his son Yazid I to be
appointed caliph on his death, which came in 680. Husayn ibn Ali, by then Muhammad's only living
grandson, refused to swear allegiance to Yazid. He was killed in the Battle of Karbala the same year,
an event still mourned by Shia on the Day of Ashura. Unrest continued in the Second Fitna, but
Muslim rule was extended under Muawiyah to Rhodes, Crete, Kabul, Bukhara, and Samarkand, and
expanded in North Africa. In 664, Arab armies conquered Kabul,[59] and in 665 pushed into the
Maghreb.
Succession and Umayyad accession
The Umayyad dynasty (or Ommiads), whose name derives from Umayya ibn Abd Shams, the great-
grandfather of the first Umayyad caliph, ruled from 661 to 750. Although the Umayyad family came
from the city of Mecca, Damascus was the capital. After the death of Abdu'l-Rahman ibn Abu Bakr in
666,[61][62] Muawiyah Iconsolidated his power. Muawiyah I moved his capital to Damascus
from Medina, which led to profound changes in the empire. In the same way, at a later date, the
transfer of the Caliphate from Damascus to Baghdad marked the accession of a new family to
power.
As the state grew, the state expenses increased. Additionally the Bayt al-mal and the Welfare State
expenses to assist the Muslim and the non-Muslim poor, needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the
disabled, increased, the Umayyads asked the new converts (mawali) to continue paying the poll tax.
The Umayyad rule, with its wealth and luxury also seemed at odds with the Islamic message
preached by Muhammad.[63][64][65] All this increased discontent.[66][67] The descendants of Muhammad's
uncle Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib rallied discontented mawali, poor Arabs, and some Shi'a against the
Umayyads and overthrew them with the help of the general Abu Muslim, inaugurating the Abbasid
dynasty in 750, which moved the capital to Baghdad.[68] A branch of the Ummayad family fled across
North Africa to Al-Andalus, where they established the Caliphate of Córdoba, which lasted until 1031
before falling due to the Fitna of al-Andalus. The Bayt al-mal, the Welfare State then continued
under the Abbasids.
At its largest extent, the Umayyad dynasty covered more than 5,000,000 square miles
(13,000,000 km2) making it one of the largest empires the world had yet seen,[69] and the fifth largest
contiguous empire ever. After the Umayyads were overthrown by the Abbasid Caliphate, they fled
across North Africa to Al-Andalus, where they established the Caliphate of Córdoba, which lasted
until 1031 with the Fitna of al-Andalus.
Muawiyah beautified Damascus, and developed a court to rival that of Constantinople. He expanded
the frontiers of the empire, reaching the edge of Constantinople at one point, though
the Byzantines drove him back and he was unable to hold any territory in Anatolia. Sunni
Muslims credit him with saving the fledgling Muslim nation from post-civil war anarchy.
However, Shia Muslims accuse him of instigating the war, weakening the Muslim nation by dividing
the Ummah, fabricating self-aggrandizing heresies[70] slandering the Prophet's family[71] and even
selling his Muslim critics into slavery in the Byzantine empire.[72] One of Muawiyah's most
controversial and enduring legacies was his decision to designate his son Yazid as his successor.
According to Shi'a doctrine, this was a clear violation of the treaty he made with Hasan ibn Ali.
In 682 AD Yazid restored Uqba ibn Nafi as the governor of North Africa. Uqba won battles against
the Berbers and Byzantines.[73] From there Uqba marched thousands of miles westward
towards Tangier, where he reached the Atlantic coast, and then marched eastwards through
the Atlas Mountains.[74] With about 300 cavalrymen, he proceeded towards Biskra where he was
ambushed by a Berber force under Kaisala. Uqba and all his men died fighting. The Berbers
attacked and drove Muslims from north Africa for a period.[75] Weakened by the civil wars the
Umayyad lost supremacy at sea, and had to abandon the islands of Rhodes and Crete. Under the
rule of Yazid I, some Muslims in Kufa began to think that ifHusayn ibn Ali the descendent of
Muhammad was their ruler, he would have been more just. He was invited to Kufa but was later
betrayed and killed. Later this concept was taken one step further and they started thinking, what if
history took a different course and Ali was the first caliph and these ideas were later adopted by
some Shia and institutionalised by the Safavids.
The period under Muawiya II was marked by civil wars (Second Fitna). This would ease in the reign
of Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, a well-educated and capable ruler. Despite the many political problems
that impeded his rule, all important records were translated into Arabic. In his reign, a currency for
the Muslim world was minted. This led to war with the Byzantine Empire under Justinian II (Battle of
Sebastopolis) in 692 in Asia Minor. The Byzantines were decisively defeated by the Caliph after the
defection of a large contingent of Slavs. The Islamic currency was then made the exclusive currency
in the Muslim world. He reformed agriculture and commerce. Abd al-Malik consolidated Muslim rule
and extended it, made Arabic the state language, and organized a regular postal service.
Al-Walid I began the next stage of Islamic conquests. Under him the early Islamic empire reached its
farthest extent. He reconquered parts of Egypt from the Byzantine Empire and moved on
into Carthage and across to the west of North Africa. Muslim armies under Tariq ibn Ziyad crossed
the Strait of Gibraltar and began to conquer Spain using North African Berberarmies.
The Visigoths of Spain were defeated when the Umayyad conquered Lisbon. Spain was the farthest
extent of Islamic control of Europe (they were stopped at the Battle of Tours). In the east, Islamic
armies under Muhammad bin Qasim made it as far as the Indus Valley. Under Al-Walid, the
caliphate empire stretched from Spain to India. Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf played a crucial role in the
organization and selection of military commanders. Al-Walid paid great attention to the expansion of
an organized military, building the strongest navy in the Umayyad era., This tactic was crucial for the
expansion to Spain. His reign is considered to be the apex of Islamic power.
Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik was hailed as caliph the day al-Walid died. He appointed Yazid ibn al-
Muhallab governor of Mesopotamia. Sulayman ordered the arrest and execution of the family of al-
Hajjaj, one of two prominent leaders (the other was Qutayba ibn Muslim) who had supported the
succession of al-Walid's son Yazid, rather than Sulayman. Al-Hajjaj had predeceased al-Walid, so
he posed no threat. Qutaibah renounced allegiance to Sulayman, though his troops rejected his
appeal to revolt. They killed him and sent his head to Sulayman. Sulayman did not move
to Damascus on becoming Caliph, remaining in Ramla. Sulayman sentMaslama ibn Abd al-Malik to
attack the Byzantine capital (siege of Constantinople). The intervention of Bulgaria on the Byzantine
side proved decisive. The Muslims sustained heavy losses. Sulayman died suddenly in 717.
Yazid II came to power on the death of Umar II. Yazid fought the Kharijites, with whom Umar had
been negotiating, and killed the Kharijite leader Shawdhab. In Yazid's reign, civil wars began in
different parts of the empire.[76] Yazid expanded the Caliphate's territory into the Caucasus, before
dying in 724. Inheriting the caliphate from his brother, Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik ruled an empire with
many problems. He was effective in addressing these problems, and in allowing the Umayyad
empire to continue as an entity. His long rule was an effective one, and renewed reforms introduced
by Umar II. Under Hisham's rule, regular raids against the Byzantines continued. In North Africa,
Kharijite teachings combined with local restlessness to produce the Berber Revolt. He was also
faced with a revolt by Zayd ibn Ali. Hisham suppressed both revolts. The Abbasids continued to gain
power in Khurasan and Iraq. However, they were not strong enough to make a move yet. Some
were caught and punished or executed by eastern governors. The Battle of Akroinon, a decisive
Byzantine victory, was during the final campaign of the Umayyad dynasty.[77] Hisham died in 743.
Al-Walid II saw political intrigue during his reign. Yazid III spoke out against his cousin Walid's
"immorality" which included discrimination on behalf of the Banu Qays Arabs against
Yemenis and non-Arab Muslims, and Yazid received further support from the Qadariya and Murji'iya
(believers in human free will).[78] Walid was shortly thereafter deposed in a coup.[79] Yazid disbursed
funds from the treasury and acceded to the Caliph. He explained that he had rebelled on behalf of
the Book of Allah and the Sunna. Yazid reigned for only six months, while various groups refused
allegiance and dissident movements arose, after which he died.Ibrahim ibn al-Walid, named heir
apparent by his brother Yazid III, ruled for a short time in 744, before he abdicated. Marwan II ruled
from 744 until he was killed in 750. He was the last Umayyad ruler to rule from Damascus. Marwan
named his two sons Ubaydallah and Abdallah heirs. He appointed governors and asserted his
authority by force. Anti-Umayyad feeling was very prevalent, especially in Iran and Iraq. The
Abbasids had gained much support. Marwan's reign as caliph was almost entirely devoted to trying
to keep the Umayyad empire together. His death signalled the end of Umayyad rule in the East, and
was followed by the massacre of Umayyads by the Abbasids. Almost the entire Umayyad dynasty
was killed, except for the talented prince Abd al-Rahman who escaped to Spain and founded a
dynasty there.
Universal period and decentralization[edit]

Islamic Golden Age[edit]
Main articles: Abbasid and Islamic Golden Age
The Abbasid dynasty rose to power in 750, consolidating the gains of the earlier Caliphates. Initially,
they conquered Mediterranean islands including the Balearicsand, after, in 827 the Sicily.
[80]
The ruling party had come to power on the wave of dissatisfaction with the Umayyads, cultivated
by the Abbasid revolutionary Abu Muslim.[81][82] Under the Abbasids Islamic civilization flourished.
Most notable was the development of Arabic prose and poetry, termed by The Cambridge History of
Islam as its "golden age".[83] Commerce and industry (considered a Muslim Agricultural Revolution)
and the arts and sciences (considered a Muslim Scientific Revolution) also prospered under Abbasid
caliphs al-Mansur (ruled 754 — 775), Harun al-Rashid (ruled 786 — 809), al-Ma'mun (ruled 809 —
813) and their immediate successors.
The capital was moved from Damascus to Baghdad, due to the importance placed by the Abbasids
upon eastern affairs in Persia and Transoxania.[84] At this time the caliphate showed signs of fracture
amid the rise of regional dynasties. Although the Umayyad family had been killed by the revolting
Abbasids, one family member, Abd ar-Rahman I, escaped to Spain and established an independent
caliphate there in 756. In the Maghreb, Harun al-Rashid appointed the Arab Aghlabids as virtually
autonomous rulers, although they continued to recognise central authority. Aghlabid rule was short-
lived, and they were deposed by the Shiite Fatimid dynasty in 909. By around 960, the Fatimids had
conquered Abbasid Egypt, building a capital there in 973 called "al-Qahirah" (meaning "the planet of
victory", known today asCairo). In Persia the Turkic Ghaznavids snatched power from the Abbasids.
[85][86]
Abbasid influence had been consumed by the Great Seljuq Empire (a Muslim Turkish clan which
had migrated into mainland Persia) by 1055.[84]
Expansion continued, sometimes by force, sometimes by peaceful proselytising.[80] The first stage in

theconquest of India began just before the year 1000. By some 200 (from 1193 — 1209) years later,
the area up to the Ganges river had fallen. In sub-Saharan West Africa, Islam was established just
after the year 1000. Muslim rulers were in Kanem starting from sometime between 1081 to 1097,
with reports of a Muslim prince at the head of Gao as early as 1009. The Islamic kingdoms
associated with Mali reached prominence in the 13th century.[87]
The Abbasids developed initiatives aimed at greater Islamic unity. Different sects of the Islamic faith
and mosques, separated by doctrine, history, and practice, were pushed to cooperate. The Abbasids
also distinguished themselves from the Umayyads by attacking the Umayyads' moral character and
administration. According to Ira Lapidus, "The Abbasid revolt was supported largely by Arabs, mainly
the aggrieved settlers of Marw with the addition of the Yemeni faction and their Mawali".[88] The
Abbasids also appealed to non-Arab Muslims, known as mawali, who remained outside the kinship-
based society of the Arabs and were perceived as a lower class within the Umayyad empire.
Islamic ecumenism, promoted by the Abbasids, refers to the idea of unity of the Ummah in the literal
meaning: that there was a single faith. Islamic philosophy developed as the Shariah was codified,
and the four Madhabs were established. This era also saw the rise of classical Sufism. Religious
achievements included completion of the canonical collections of Hadith of Sahih Bukhari and
others.[89] Islam recognized to a certain extent the validity of the Abrahamic religions, the Qur'an
identifying Jews, Christians, Zoroastrians, and "Sabi'un" or "baptists" (usually taken as a reference to
the Mandeans and related Mesopotamian groups) as "people of the book". Toward the beginning of
the high Middle Ages, the doctrines of the Sunni and Shia, two major denominations of Islam,
solidified and the divisions of the world theologically would form. These trends would continue into
the Fatimid and Ayyubid periods.
Politically, the Abbasid Caliphate evolved into an Islamic monarchy (unitary system of government.)

The regional Sultanate and Emirate governors' existence, validity, or legality were acknowledged for
unity of the state.[90] In the early Islamic philosophy of the Iberian Umayyads, Averroes presented an
argument in The Decisive Treatise, providing a justification for the emancipation of science and
philosophy from official Ash'ari theology; thus, Averroism has been considered a precursor to
modern secularism.[91][92]
Golden Baghdad Abbasids[edit]
Early Middle Ages

Consult particular article for details
According to Arab sources in the year 750, Al-Saffah, the founder of the Abbasid Caliphate,
launched a massive rebellion against the Umayyad Caliphate from the province of Khurasan
near Talas. After eliminating the entire Umayyad family and achieving victory at the Battle of the
Zab, Al-Saffah and his forces marched into Damascus and founded a new dynasty. His forces
confronted many regional powers and consolidated the realm of the Abbasid Caliphate.[93]
In Al-Mansur's time, Persian scholarship emerged. Many non-Arabs converted to Islam. The
Umayyads actively discouraged conversion in order to continue the collection of the jizya, or the
tax on non-Muslims. Islam nearly doubled within its territory from 8% of residents in 750 to 15%
by the end of Al-Mansur's reign. Al-Mahdi, whose name means "Rightly-guided" or "Redeemer",
was proclaimed caliph when his father was on his deathbed. Baghdad blossomed during Al-
Mahdi's reign, becoming the world's largest city. It attracted immigrants from Arabia, Iraq, Syria,
Persia and as far away as India and Spain. Baghdad was home to Christians, Jews, Hindus, and
Zoroastrians, in addition to the growing Muslim population. Like his father, Al-Hadi[94] was open to
his people and allowed citizens to address him in the palace at Baghdad. He was considered an
"enlightened ruler", and continued the policies of his Abbasid predecessors. His short rule was
plagued by military conflicts and internal intrigue.
The military conflicts subsided as Harun al-Rashid ruled.[95] His reign was marked by scientific,
cultural and religious prosperity. He established the library Bayt al-Hikma ("House of Wisdom"), and
the arts and music flourished during his reign. The Barmakid family played a decisive advisorial role
in establishing the Caliphate, but declined during Rashid's rule.[96]
According to signed pledges during a pilgrimage to Mecca, Al-Amin received the Caliphate from his
father Harun Al-Rashid. Al-Amin faced internal rebellions. General Tahir ibn Husayn rebelled
and besieged Baghdad. Tahir led reinforcements to regain positions lost by another officer. When
Tahir pushed into the city, Al-Amin sought to negotiate safe passage. Tahir agreed on the condition
Al-Amin turn over his sceptre, seal and other signs that he was caliph. Al-Amin tried to leave on a
boat and rejected warnings that he wait. Tahir's forces attacked the boat and Al-Amin was thrown
into the water. He swam to shore where he was captured and executed. His head was placed on the
Al Anbar Gate.[97]
Regional powers[edit]
The Abbasids soon became caught in a three-way rivalry among Coptic Arabs, Indo-Persians, and
immigrant Turks.[98] In addition, the cost of running a large empire became too great.[99] The Turks,
Egyptians, and Arabs adhered to the Sunnite sect; the Persians, a great portion of the Turkic groups,
and several of the princes in India were Shia. The political unity of Islam began to disintegrate.
Under the influence of the Abbasid caliphs, independent dynasties appeared in the Muslim world
and the caliphs recognized such dynasties as legitimately Muslim. The first was the Tahirid
dynasty in Khorasan, which was founded during the caliphAl-Ma'mun's reign. Similar dynasties
included the Saffarids, Samanids, Ghaznavids and Seljuqs. During this time, advancements were
made in the areas of astronomy, poetry, philosophy, science, and mathematics.[100]
High Baghdad Abbasids[edit]
Early Middle Ages
Upon Al-Amin's death, Al-Ma'mun became Caliph. Al-Ma'mun extended the Abbasid empire's

territory during his reign and dealt with rebellions.[101] Al-Ma'mun had been named governor of
Khurasan by Harun, and after his ascension to power, the caliph named Tahir as governor of his
military services in order to assure his loyalty. Tahir and his family became entrenched in Iranian
politics and became powerful, frustrating Al-Ma'mun's desire to centralize and strengthen
Caliphal power. The rising power of the Tahirid dynasty became a threat as Al-Ma'mun's own
policies alienated them and other opponents.
Al-Ma'mun worked to centralize power and ensure a smooth succession. Al-Mahdi proclaimed
that the caliph was the protector of Islam against heresy, and also claimed the ability to declare
orthodoxy. Religious scholars averred that Al-Ma'mun was overstepping his bounds in
the Mihna, the Abbasid inquisition which he introduced in 833 four months before he died.
[102]
The Ulama emerged as a force in Islamic politics during Al-Ma'mun's reign for opposing the
inquisitions. TheUlema and the major Islamic law schools took shape in the period of Al-Ma'mun.
In parallel, Sunnism became defined as a religion of laws. Doctrinal differences between Sunni
and Shi'a Islam became more pronounced.
During the Al-Ma'mun regime, border wars increased. Al-Ma'mun made preparations for a major
campaign, but died while leading an expedition in Sardis. Al-Ma'mun gathered scholars of many
religions at Baghdad, whom he treated well and with tolerance. He sent an emissary to the
Byzantine Empire to collect the most famous manuscripts there, and had them translated into
Arabic.[103] His scientists originated alchemy. Shortly before his death, during a visit to Egypt in
832, the caliph ordered the breaching of the Great Pyramid of Giza to search for knowledge and
treasure. Workers tunneled in near where tradition located the original entrance. Al-Ma'mun later
died near Tarsus under questionable circumstances and was succeeded by his half-brother, Al-
Mu'tasim, rather than his son, Al-Abbas ibn Al-Ma'mun.
As Caliph, Al-Mu'tasim promptly ordered the dismantling of al-Ma'mun's military base at Tyana.
He faced Khurramite revolts. One of the most difficult problems facing this Caliph was the
ongoing uprising of Babak Khorramdin. Al-Mu'tasim overcame the rebels and secured a
significant victory. Byzantine emperor Theophiluslaunched an attack against Abbasid fortresses.
Al-Mu'tasim sent Al-Afshin, who met and defeated Theophilus' forces at the Battle of Anzen. On
his return he became aware of a serious military conspiracy which forced him and his
successors to rely upon Turkish commanders and ghilman slave-soldiers (foreshadowing
the Mamluk system). The Khurramiyyah were never fully suppressed, although they slowly
declined during the reigns of succeeding Caliphs. Near the end of al-Mu'tasim's life there was an
uprising in Palestine, but he defeated the rebels.
During Al-Mu'tasim's reign, the Tahirid dynasty continued to grow in power. The Tahirids were
exempted from many tribute and oversight functions. Their independence contributed to Abbasid
decline in the east. Ideologically, al-Mu'tasim followed his half-brother al-Ma'mun. He continued
his predecessor's support for the Islamic Mu'tazila sect, applying brutal torture against the
opposition. Arab mathematician Al-Kindi was employed by Al-Mu'tasim and tutored the Caliph's
son. Al-Kindi had served at the House of Wisdom and continued his studies in Greek geometry
and algebra under the caliph's patronage.[104]
Al-Wathiq succeeded his father. Al-Wathiq dealt with opposition in Arabia, Syria, Palestine and
in Baghdad. Using a famous sword he personally joined the execution of the Baghdad rebels.
The revolts were the result of an increasingly large gap between Arab populations and the
Turkish armies. The revolts were put down, but antagonism between the two groups grew, as
Turkish forces gained power. He also secured a captive exchange with the Byzantines. Al-
Wathiq was a patron of scholars, as well as artists. He personally had musical talent and is
reputed to have composed over one hundred songs.
When Al-Wathiq died of high fever, Al-Mutawakkil succeeded him. Al-Mutawakkil's reign is

remembered for many reforms and is viewed as a golden age. He was the last great Abbasid caliph;
after his death the dynasty fell into decline. Al-Mutawakkil ended the Mihna. Al-Mutawakkil built
the Great Mosque of Samarra[106] as part of an extension of Samarra eastwards. During his reign, Al-
Mutawakkil met famous Byzantine theologian Constantine the Philosopher, who was sent to
strengthen diplomatic relations between the Empire and the Caliphate by Emperor Michael III. Al-
Mutawakkil involved himself in religious debates, as reflected in his actions against minorities. The
Shīʻi faced repression embodied in the destruction of the shrine of Hussayn ibn ʻAlī, an action that
was ostensibly carried out to stop pilgrimages. Al-Mutawakkil continued to rely on Turkish statesmen
and slave soldiers to put down rebellions and lead battles against foreign empires, notably capturing
Sicily from the Byzantines. Al-Mutawakkil was assassinated by a Turkish soldier.
Al-Muntasir succeeded to the Caliphate on the same day with the support of the Turkish faction,
though he was implicated in the murder. The Turkish party had al-Muntasir remove his brothers from
the line of succession, fearing revenge for the murder of their father. Both brothers wrote statements
of abdication. During his reign, Al-Muntasir removed the ban on pilgrimage to the tombs of Hassan
and Hussayn and sent Wasif to raid the Byzantines. Al-Muntasir died of unknown causes. The
Turkish chiefs held a council to select his successor, electing Al-Musta'in. The Arabs and western
troops from Baghdad were displeased at the choice and attacked. However, the Caliphate no longer
depended on Arabian choice, but depended on Turkish support. After the failed Muslim campaign
against the Christians, people blamed the Turks for bringing disaster on the faith and murdering their
Caliphs. After the Turks besieged Baghdad, Al-Musta'in planned to abdicate to Al-Mu'tazzbut was
put to death by his order. Al-Mu'tazz was enthroned by the Turks, becoming the youngest Abbasaid
Caliph to assume power.
Al-Mu'tazz proved too apt a pupil of his Turkish masters, but was surrounded by parties jealous of
each other. AtSamarra, the Turks were having problems with the "Westerns" (Berbers and Moors),
while the Arabs and Persians at Baghdad, who had supported al-Musta'in, regarded both with equal
hatred. Al-Mu'tazz put his brothers Al-Mu'eiyyad and Abu Ahmed to death. The ruler spent
recklessly, causing a revolt of Turks, Africans, and Persians for their pay. Al-Mu'tazz was brutally
deposed shortly thereafter. Al-Muhtadi became the next Caliph. He was firm and virtuous compared
to the earlier Caliphs, though the Turks held the power. The Turks killed him soon after his
ascension. Al-Mu'tamid followed, holding on for 23 years, though he was largely a ruler in name
only. After the Zanj Rebellion, Al-Mu'tamid summoned al-Muwaffak to help him. Thereafter, Al-
Muwaffaq ruled in all but name. The Hamdanid dynastywas founded by Hamdan ibn Hamdun when
he was appointed governor of Mardin in Anatolia by the Caliphs in 890. Al-Mu'tamid later transferred
authority to his son, al-Mu'tadid, and never regained power. The Tulunids became the first
independent state in Islamic Egypt, when they broke away during this time.
Al-Mu'tadid ably administered the Caliphate. Egypt returned to allegiance and Mesopotamia was
restored to order. He was tolerant towards Shi'i, but toward the Umayyad community he was not so
just. Al-Mu'tadid was cruel in his punishments, some of which are not surpassed by those of his
predecessors. For example, the Kharijite leader at Mosul was paraded about Baghdad clothed in a
robe of silk, of which Kharijites denounced as sinful, and then crucified. Upon Al-Mu'tadid's death,
his son by a Turkish slave-girl, Al-Muktafi, succeeded to the throne.
Al-Muktafi became a favorite of the people for his generosity, and for abolishing his father's secret
prisons, the terror of Baghdad. During his reign, the Caliphate overcame threats such as
the Carmathians. Upon Al-Muktafi's death, the vazir next chose Al-Muqtadir. Al-Muqtadir's reign was
a constant succession of thirteen Vazirs, one rising on the fall or assassination of another. His long
reign brought the Empire to its lowest ebb. Africa was lost, and Egypt nearly. Mosul threw off its
dependence, and the Greeks raided across the undefended border. The East continued to formally
recognise the Caliphate, including those who virtually claimed independence.
At the end of the Early Baghdad Abbasids period, Empress Zoe Karbonopsina pressed for an
armistice with Al-Muqtadir and arranged for the ransom of the Muslim prisoner[107] while the Byzantine
frontier was threatened by Bulgarians. This only added to Baghdad's disorder. Though despised by
the people, Al-Muqtadir was again placed in power after upheavals. Al-Muqtadir was eventually slain
outside the city gates, whereupon courtiers chose his brother al-Qahir. He was even worse.
Refusing to abdicate, he was blinded and cast into prison.
His son Ar-Radi took over only to experience a cascade of misfortune. Praised for his piety, he
became the tool of the de facto ruling Minister, Ibn Raik (amir al-umara; 'Amir of the Amirs'). Ibn Raik
held the reins of government and his name was joined with the Caliph's in public prayers. Around
this period, the Hanbalis, supported by popular sentiment, set up in fact a kind of 'Sunni inquisition'.
Ar-Radi is commonly regarded as the last of the real Caliphs: the last to deliver orations at the Friday
service, to hold assemblies, to commune with philosophers, to discuss the questions of the day, to
take counsel on the affairs of State; to distribute alms, or to temper the severity of cruel officers.
Thus ended the Early Baghdad Abbasids.
In the late mid-930s, the Ikhshidids of Egypt carried the Arabic title "Wali" reflecting their position as
governors on behalf of the Abbasids, The first governor (Muhammad bin Tughj Al-Ikhshid) was
installed by the Abbasid Caliph. They gave him and his descendants the Wilayah for 30 years. The
last name Ikhshid is Soghdian for "prince".
Also in the 930s, ‘Alī ibn Būyah and his two younger brothers, al-Hassan and Aḥmad founded

the Būyid confederation. Originally a soldier in the service of theZiyārīds of Ṭabaristān, ‘Alī was able
to recruit an army to defeat a Turkish general from Baghdad named Yāqūt in 934. Over the next nine
years the three brothers gained control of the remainder of the caliphate, while accepting the titular
authority of the caliph in Baghdad. The Būyids made large territorial gains. Fars and Jibalwere
conquered. Central Iraq submitted in 945, before the Būyids took Kermān (967), Oman (967),
the Jazīra (979), Ṭabaristān (980), and Gorgan (981). After this the Būyids went into slow decline,
with pieces of the confederation gradually breaking off and local dynasties under their rule
becoming de facto independent.[108]
Middle Baghdad Abbasids[edit]
Early High Middle Ages

At the beginning of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids, the Caliphate had become of little importance.
The amir al-umara Bajkam contented himself with dispatching his secretary to Baghdad to assemble
local dignitaries to elect a successor. The choice fell on Al-Muttaqi. Bajkam was killed on a hunting
party by marauding Kurds. In the ensuing anarchy in Baghdad, Ibn Raik persuaded the Caliph to flee
to Mosul where he was welcomed by the Hamdanids. They assassinated Ibn Raik. Hamdanid Nasir
al-Dawla advanced on Baghdad, where mercenaries and well-organised Turks repelled them.
Turkish general Tuzun became amir al-umara. The Turks were staunch Sunnis. A fresh conspiracy
placed the Caliph in danger. Hamdanid troops helped ad-Daula escape to Mosul and then to
Nasibin. Tuzun and the Hamdanid were stalemated. Al-Muttaqi was at Ar Raqqah, moving to Tuzun
where he was deposed. Tuzun installed the blinded Caliph's cousin as successor, with the title of Al-
Mustakfi. With the new Caliph, Tuzun attacked the Buwayhid dynasty and the Hamdanids. Soon
after, Tuzun died, and was succeeded by one of his generals, Abu Ja'far. The Buwayhids then
attacked Baghdad, and Abu Ja'far fled into hiding with the Caliph. Buwayhid Sultan Muiz ud-Daula
assumed command forcing the Caliph into abject submission to the Amir. Eventually, Al-Mustakfi
was blinded and deposed. The city fell into chaos, and the Caliph's palace was looted. Once the
Buwayhids controlled Baghdad, Al-Muti became caliph. The office was shorn of real power and Shi'a
observances were established. The Buwayhids held on Baghdad for over a century. Throughout the
Buwayhid reign the Caliphate was at its lowest ebb, but was recognized religiously, except inIberia.
Buwayhid Sultan Mu'izz al-Dawla was prevented from raising a Shi'a Caliph to the throne by fear for
his own safety, and fear of rebellion, in the capital and beyond.[110]
The next Caliph, Al-Ta'i, reigned over factional strife in Syria among the Fatimids, Turks, and
Carmathians. The Hideaway dynasyty also fractured. The Abbasid borders were the defended only
by small border states. Baha' al-Dawla, the Buyid amir of Iraq, deposed al-Ta'i in 991 and
proclaimed al-Qadir the new caliph.[111]
During al-Qadir's Caliphate, Mahmud of Ghazni looked after the empire. The great Mahmud of
Ghazni, of Eastern fame, was friendly towards the Caliphs, and his victories in the Indian Empire
were accordingly announced from the pulpits of Baghdad in grateful and glowing terms. Al-Qadir
fostered the Sunni struggle against Shiʿism and outlawed heresies such as the Baghdad
Manifesto and the doctrine that the Qu'ran was created. He outlawed the Muʿtazila, bringing an end
to the development of rationalist Muslim philosophy. During this and the next period, Islamic
literature, especially Persian literature, flourished under the patronage of the Buwayhids.[112] By 1000
the global Muslim population had climbed to about 4 per cent of the world total compared to the
Christian population of 10 per cent.
During Al-Qa'im's reign, the Buwayhid ruler often fled the capital and the Seljuq dynasty gained
power. Toghrül overran Syria and Armenia. He then made his way into the Capital, where he was
well-received both by chiefs and people. In Bahrain, the Qarmatian state collapsed in Al-Hasa.
Arabia recovered from the Fatimids and again acknowledged the spiritual jurisdiction of the
Abbasids. Al-Muqtadi was honored by the Seljuq Sultan Malik-Shah I, during whose reign the
Caliphate was recognized throughout the extending range of Seljuq conquest. The Sultan was
critical of the Caliph's interference in affairs of state, but died before deposing the last of the Middle
Baghdad Abbasids.[113]
Late Baghdad Abbasids[edit]
Late High Middle Ages
The Late Baghdad Abbasids reigned from the beginning of the Crusades to the Seventh Crusade.
The first Caliph was Al-Mustazhir. He was politically irrelevant, despite civil strife at home and
the First Crusade in Syria.Raymond IV of Toulouse attempted to attack Baghdad, losing at the Battle
of Manzikert. The global Muslim population climbed to about 5 per cent as against the Christian
population of 11 per cent by 1100. Jerusalemwas captured by crusaders who massacred its
inhabitants. Preachers travelled throughout the caliphate proclaiming the tragedy and rousing men to
recover the Al-Aqsa Mosque from the Franks (European Crusaders). Crowds of exiles rallied for war
against the infidel. Neither the Sultan nor the Caliph sent an army west.[114]
Al-Mustarshid achieved more independence while the sultan Mahmud II of Great Seljuq was

engaged in war in the East. The Banu Mazyad (Mazyadid State) general, Dubays ibn
Sadaqa[115] (emir of Al-Hilla), plunderedBosra and attacked Baghdad together with a young brother of
the sultan, Ghiyath ad-Din Mas'ud. Dubays was crushed by a Seljuq army under Zengi, founder of
the Zengid dynasty. Mahmud's death was followed by a civil war between his son Dawud, his
nephew Mas'ud and the atabeg Toghrul II. Zengi was recalled to the East, stimulated by the Caliph
and Dubays, where he was beaten. The Caliph then laid siege to Mosul for three months without
success, resisted by Mas'ud and Zengi. It was nonetheless a milestone in the caliphate's military
revival.[116]
After the siege of Damascus (1134),[117] Zengi undertook operations in Syria. Al-Mustarshid attacked

sultan Mas'ud of western Seljuq and was taken prisoner. He was later found murdered.[118] His
son, Al-Rashid failed to gain independence from Seljuq Turks. Zengi, because of the murder of
Dubays, set up a rival Sultanate. Mas'ud attacked; the Caliph and Zengi, hopeless of success,
escaped to Mosul. The Sultan regained power, a council was held, the Caliph was deposed, and his
uncle, son of Al-Muqtafi, appointed as the new Caliph. Ar-Rashid fled to Isfahan and was killed by
Hashshashins.[119]
Continued disunion and contests between Seljuq Turks allowed al-Muqtafi to maintain control in
Baghdad and to extend it throughout Iraq. In 1139, al-Muqtafi granted protection to
the Nestorian patriarch Abdisho III. While the Crusade raged, the Caliph successfully defended
Baghdad against Muhammad II of Seljuq in theSiege of Baghdad (1157). The Sultan and the Caliph
dispatched men in response to Zengi's appeal, but neither the Seljuqs, nor the Caliph, nor their
Amirs, dared resist the Crusaders.
The next caliph, Al-Mustanjid, saw Saladin extinguish the Fatimid dynasty after 260 years, and thus
the Abbasids again prevailed. Al-Mustadi reigned when Saladin become the sultan of Egypt and
declared allegiance to the Abbasids.
An-Nasir, "The Victor for the Religion of God", attempted to restore the Caliphate to its ancient
dominant role. He consistently held Iraq from Tikrit to the Gulf without interruption. His forty-seven
year reign was chiefly marked by ambitious and corrupt dealings with the Tartar chiefs, and by his
hazardous invocation of the Mongols, which ended his dynasty. His son, Az-Zahir, was Caliph for a
short period before his death and An-Nasir's grandson, Al-Mustansir, was made caliph.
Al-Mustansir founded the Mustansiriya Madrasah. In 1236 Ögedei Khan commanded to raise

up Khorassan and populated Herat. The Mongol military governors mostly made their camp
in Mughan plain, Azerbaijan. The rulers of Mosul and Cilician Armenia surrendered. Chormaqan
divided the Transcaucasia region into three districts based on military hierarchy.[120] In Georgia, the
population were temporarily divided into eight tumens.[121] By 1237 the Mongol Empire had
subjugated most of Persia, excluding Abbasid Iraq and Ismaili strongholds, and all
of Afghanistan and Kashmir.[122]
Al-Musta'sim was the last Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad and is noted for his opposition to the rise of
Shajar al-Durr to the Egyptian throne during the Seventh Crusade. To the east, Mongol forces
under Hulagu Khan swept through the Transoxiana and Khorasan. Baghdad was sacked and the
caliph deposed soon afterwards. The Mamluk sultans and Syria later appointed a powerless Abbasid
Caliph in Cairo.
Cairo Abbasid Caliphs[edit]
Abbasid "shadow" caliph of Cairo

Late Middle Ages
The Abbasid "shadow" caliph of Cairo reigned under the tutelage of the Mamluk sultans and
nominal rulers used to legitimize the actual rule of the Mamluk sultans. All the Cairene Abbasid
caliphs who preceded or succeeded Al-Musta'in were spiritual heads lacking any temporal
power. Al-Musta'in was the only Cairo-based Abbasid caliph to even briefly hold political
power. Al-Mutawakkil III was the last "shadow" caliph. In 1517, Ottoman sultan Selim I defeated
the Mamluk Sultanate, and made Egypt part of the Ottoman Empire.[123][124]
Fatimid Empire
The Fatimids originated in Ifriqiya (modern-day Tunisia and eastern Algeria). The dynasty was
founded in 909 by ʻAbdullāh al-Mahdī Billah, who legitimised his claim through descent from
Muhammad by way of his daughter Fātima as-Zahra and her husband ʻAlī ibn-Abī-Tālib, the
first Shīʻa Imām, hence the name al-Fātimiyyūn "Fatimid".[125] The Fatamids and the Zaydisat the
time, used the Hanafi jurisprudence, as did most Sunnis.[126][127][128]
Abdullāh al-Mahdi's control soon extended over all of central Maghreb, an area consisting of the
modern countries of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya, which he ruled from Mahdia, his capital in
Tunisia.[129]
The Fatimids entered Egypt in the late 10th century, conquering the Ikhshidid dynasty and founding
a capital at al-Qāhira(Cairo) in 969.[130] The name was a reference to the planet Mars, "The Subduer",
which was prominent in the sky at the moment that city construction started. Cairo was intended as a
royal enclosure for the Fatimid caliph and his army, though the actual administrative and economic
capital of Egypt was in cities such as Fustat until 1169. After Egypt, the Fatimids continued to
conquer surrounding areas until they ruled from Tunisia to Syria and even crossed the
Mediterranean into Sicily and southern Italy.
Under the Fatimids, Egypt became the center of an empire that included at its peak North Africa,
Sicily, Palestine, Lebanon, Syria, the Red Sea coast of Africa, Yemen and the Hejaz.[131] Egypt
flourished, and the Fatimids developed an extensive trade network in both the Mediterranean and
the Indian Ocean. Their trade and diplomatic ties extended all the way to China and its Song
Dynasty, which determined the economic course of Egypt during the High Middle Ages.
Unlike other governments in the area, Fatimid advancement in state offices was based more on
merit than heredity. Members of other branches of Islam, including Sunnis, were just as likely to be
appointed to government posts as Shiites. Tolerance covered non-Muslims such as Christians and
Jews; they took high levels in government based on ability.[132] There were, however, exceptions to
this general attitude of tolerance, notably Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah.
The Fatimid palace was in two parts. It was in the Khan el-Khalili area at Bin El-Quasryn street.[133]
Fatimid caliphs[edit]
Early and High Middle Ages

Also see: Cairo Abbasid Caliphs (above)
During the beginning of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids, the Fatimid Caliphs claimed spiritual
supremacy not only in Egypt, but also contested the religious leadership of Syria. At the
beginning of the Abbasid realm in Baghdad, the Alids faced severe persecution by the ruling
party as they were a direct threat to the Caliphate. Owing to the Abbasid inquisitions, the
forefathers opted for concealment of the Dawa's existence. Subsequently, they traveled towards
the Iranian Plateau and distanced themselves from the epicenter of the political world. Al
Mahdi's father, Al Husain al Mastoor returned to control the Dawa's affairs. He sent two Dai's to
Yemen and Western Africa. Al Husain died soon after the birth of his son, Al Mahdi. A system of
government helped update Al Mahdi on the development which took place in North Africa.[134]
Al Mahdi established the first Imam of the Fatimid dynasty. He claimed genealogic origins dating
as far back as Fatimah through Husayn and Ismail. Al Mahdi established his headquarters at
Salamiyah and moved towards north-western Africa, under Aghlabid rule. His success of laying
claim to being the precursor to the Mahdi was instrumental among the Berber tribes of North
Africa, specifically the Kutamah tribe. Al Mahdi established himself at the former Aghlabid
residence at Raqqadah, a suburb of Al-Qayrawan in Tunisia. At the time of his death he had
extended his reign to Morocco of the Idrisids, as well as Egypt itself. In 920, Al Mahdi took up
residence at the newly established capital of the empire, Al-Mahdiyyah. After his death, Al Mahdi
was succeeded by his son, Abu Al-Qasim Muhammad Al-Qaim, who continued his expansionist
policy.
Berbers and Iberian Umayyads

The Arabs, under the command of the Berber General Tarik ibn Ziyad, first began their conquest of
southern Spain or al-Andalus in 711. A raiding party led by Tarik was sent to intervene in a civil war
in the Visigothic kingdom in Hispania. Crossing the Strait of Gibraltar (named after the General), it
won a decisive victory in the summer of 711 when the Visigothic king Roderic was defeated and
killed on July 19 at the Battle of Guadalete. Tariq's commander, Musa bin Nusair crossed with
substantial reinforcements, and by 718 the Muslims dominated most of the peninsula. Some later
Arabic and Christian sources present an earlier raid by a certain Ṭārif in 710 and also, the Ad
Sebastianum recension of the Chronicle of Alfonso III, refers to an Arab attack incited
by Erwig during the reign of Wamba (672–80). The two large armies may have been in the south for
a year before the decisive battle was fought.[136]
The rulers of Al-Andalus were granted the rank of Emir by the Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid
I in Damascus. After the Abbasidscame to power, some Umayyads fled to Muslim Spain to establish
themselves there. By the end of the 10th century, the ruler Abd al-Rahman III took over the title
of Emir of Córdoba(912-961).[137] Soon after, the Umayyads went on developing a strengthened state
with its capital as Córdoba. Al-Hakam II succeeded to the Caliphate after the death of his father Abd
ar-Rahman III in 961. He secured peace with the Christian kingdoms of northern Iberia,[138] and made
use of the stability to develop agriculture through the construction of irrigation works.[139] Economic
development was also encouraged through the widening of streets and the building of markets. The
rule of the Caliphate is known as the heyday of Muslim presence in the peninsula.[140]
The Umayyad Caliphate collapsed in 1031 due to political divisions and civil unrest during the rule
of Hicham II who was ousted because of his indolence.[141] Al-Andalus then broke up into a number of
states called taifa kingdoms (Arabic, Muluk al-ṭawā'if; English, Petty kingdoms). The decomposition
of the Caliphate into those petty kingdoms weakened the Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula vis-à-
vis the Christian kingdoms of the north. Some of thetaifas, such as that of Seville, were forced to
enter into alliances with Christian princes and pay tributes in money to Castille.[142]
See also: Reconquista and Timeline of the Muslim presence in the Iberian peninsula
Emirs of Córdoba[edit]
Main article: Emirs of Córdoba
Abd al-Rahman I and Bedr (a former Greek slave) escaped with their lives after the popular
revolt known as the Abbasid Revolution. Rahman I continued south through Palestine, the Sinai,
and then into Egypt. Rahman I was one of several surviving Umayyad family members to make
a perilous trek to Ifriqiya at this time. Rahman I and Bedr reached modern day Morocco
near Ceuta. Next step would be to cross to sea to al-Andalus, where Rahman I could not have
been sure whether he would be welcome. Following the Berber Revolt (740s), the province was
in a state of confusion, with the Ummah torn by tribal dissensions among the Arabs and racial
tensions between the Arabs and Berbers. Bedr lined up three Syrian commanders – Obeid Allah
ibn Uthman and Abd Allah ibn Khalid, both originally of Damascus, and Yusuf ibn Bukht of
Qinnasrin and contacted al-Sumayl (then in Zaragoza) to get his consent, but al-Sumayl refused,
fearing Rahman I would try to make himself emir. After discussion with Yemenite commanders,
Rahman I was told to go to al-Andalus. Shortly thereafter, he set off with Bedr and a small group
of followers for Europe. Abd al-Rahman landed at Almuñécar in al-Andalus, to the east
of Málaga.
During his brief time in Málaga, he quickly amassed local support. News of the prince's arrival
spread throughout the peninsula. In order to help speed his ascension to power, he took
advantage of the feuds and dissensions. However, before anything could be done, trouble broke
out in northern al-Andalus. Abd al-Rahman and his followers were able to control Zaragoza.
Rahman I fought to rule al-Andalus in a battle at the Guadalquivir river, just outside of Córdoba
on the plains of Musarah (Battle of Musarah). Rahman I was victorious, chasing his enemies
from the field with parts of their army. Rahman I marched into the capital, Córdoba, fighting off
a counterattack, but negotiations ended the confrontation. After Rahman I consolidated power,
he proclaimed himself the al-Andalus emir. Rahman I did not claim the Muslim caliph, though.
[143]
The last step was to have al-Fihri's general, al-Sumayl, garroted in Córdoba's jail. Al-Andalus
was a safe haven for the house of Umayya that managed to evade the Abbasids.[144]
In Baghdad, the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur had planned to depose the emir. Rahman I and his
army confronted the Abbasids, killing most of the Abbasid army. The main Abbasid leaders were
decapitated, their heads preserved in salt, with identifying tags pinned to their ears. The heads
were bundled in a gruesome package and sent to the Abbasid caliph who was on pilgrimage at
Mecca. Rahman I quelled repeated rebellions in al-Andalus. He began the building of the great
mosque [cordova], and formed ship-yards along the coast; he is moreover said to have been the
first to transplant the palm and the pomegranate into the congenial climate of Spain: and he
encouraged science and literature in his states. This good king died on the 29th of September,
788, after a reign of thirty-four years and one month.
Rahman I's successor was his son Hisham I. Born in Córdoba, he built many mosques and
completed the Mezquita. He called for a jihad that resulted in a campaign against the Kingdom of
Asturias and the County of Toulouse; in this second campaign he was defeated at Orange
by William of Gellone, first cousin to Charlemagne. His successor Al-Hakam I came to power and
was challenged by his uncles, other sons of Rahman I. One, Abdallah, went to the court of
Charlemagne in Aix-la-Chapelle to negotiate for aid. In the mean time Córdoba was attacked, but
was defended. Hakam I spent much of his reign suppressing rebellions in Toledo, Saragossa and
Mérida.[146]
Abd ar-Rahman II succeeded his father and engaged in nearly continuous warfare against Alfonso II
of Asturias, whose southward advance he halted. Rahman II repulsed an assault by Vikings who had
disembarked in Cadiz, conquered Seville(with the exception of its citadel) and attacked Córdoba.
Thereafter he constructed a fleet and naval arsenal at Seville to repel future raids. He responded
to William of Septimania's requests of assistance in his struggle against Charles the Bald's
nominations.[147]
Muhammad I's reign was marked by the movements of the Muladi (ethnic Iberian Muslims)
and Mozarabs (Muslim-Iberia Christians). Muhammad I was succeeded by his son Mundhir I. During
the reign of his father, Mundhir I commanded military operations against the neighbouring Christian
kingdoms and the Muladi rebellions. At his father's death, he inherited the throne. During his two-
year reign, Mundhir I fought against Umar ibn Hafsun. He died in 888 at Bobastro, succeeded by his
brother Abdullah ibn Muhammad al-Umawi.
Umawi showed no reluctance to dispose of those he viewed as a threat. His government was
marked by continuous wars between Arabs, Berbers and Muladi. His power as emir was confined to
the area of Córdoba, while the rest had been seized by rebel families. The son he had designated as
successor was killed by one of Umawi's brothers. The latter was in turn executed by Umawi's father,
who named as successor Abd ar-Rahman III, son of the killed son of Umawi.[148][149][150]
Caliphs at Córdoba[edit]
Main article: Caliphate of Córdoba
Rahman III to help in his fight against the invasion by the Fatimids claimed the Caliphate in
opposition to the generally recognized Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad.[151]
Almoravid Ifriqiyah and Iberia[edit]

Main article: Almoravid dynasty

Ifriqiyah, Iberian
Almohad caliphs[edit]
Main article: Almohad dynasty

The Crusades
Beginning in the 8th century, the Iberian Christian kingdoms had begun the Reconquista aimed at
retaking Al-Andalus from the Moors. In 1095, Pope Urban II, inspired by the conquests in Spain by
Christian forces and implored by the eastern Roman emperor to help defend Christianity in the East,
called for the First Crusade from Western Europe which captured Odessa, Antioch, County of
Tripoli and Jerusalem.[152]
In the early period of the Crusades, the Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem emerged and for a time
controlled Jerusalem. The Kingdom of Jerusalem and other smaller Crusader kingdoms over the
next 90 years formed part of the complicated politics of the Levant, but did not threaten the Islamic
Caliphate nor other powers in the region. After Shirkuh ended Fatimid rule in 1169, uniting it with
Syria, the Crusader kingdoms were faced with a threat, and his nephew Saladin reconquered most
of the area in 1187, leaving the Crusaders holding a few ports.[153]
In the Third Crusade armies from Europe failed to recapture Jerusalem, though Crusader states
lingered for several decades, and other crusades followed. The Christian Reconquista continued in
Al-Andalus, and was eventually completed with the fall of Granada in 1492. During the low period of
the Crusades, the Fourth Crusade was diverted from the Levant and instead took Constantinople,
leaving the Eastern Roman Empire (now the Byzantine Empire) further weakened in their long
struggle against the Turkish peoples to the east. However, the crusaders did manage to damage
Islamic caliphates; according to William of Malmesbury, preventing them from further expansion
into Christendom[154] and being targets of the Mamluks and the Mongols.
Saladin and Guy of Lusignan after the Battle of Hattin
List of Crusades
Early period
· First Crusade 1095–1099
· Second Crusade 1147–1149
· Third Crusade 1187–1192
Low Period
· Fourth Crusade 1202–1204
· Fifth Crusade 1217–1221
· Sixth Crusade 1228–1229
Late period
· Seventh Crusade 1248–1254
· Eighth Crusade 1270
· Ninth Crusade 1271–1272
Ayyubid dynasty[edit]
Main article: Ayyubid dynasty
The Ayyubid dynasty was founded by Saladin and centered in Egypt. In 1174, Saladin proclaimed

himself Sultan and conquered the Near East region. The Ayyubids ruled much of the Middle East
during the 12th and 13th centuries, controlling Egypt, Syria, northern Mesopotamia, Hejaz, Yemen,
and the North African coast up to the borders of modern-day Tunisia. After Saladin, his sons
contested control over the sultanate, but Saladin's brother al-Adil eventually established himself in
1200. In the 1230s, Syria's Ayyubid rulers attempted to win independence from Egypt and remained
divided until Egyptian Sultan as-Salih Ayyub restored Ayyubid unity by taking over most of Syria,
excluding Aleppo, by 1247. In 1250, the dynasty in the Egyptian region was overthrown by slave
regiments. A number of attempts to recover it failed, led by an-Nasir Yusuf of Aleppo. In 1260, the
Mongols sacked Aleppo and wrested control of what remained of the Ayyubid territories soon after.
[155]
Sultans of Egypt[edit]

Sultans and Amirs of Damascus[edit]

Emirs of Aleppo[edit]

Mongol invasions
After the Crusades the Mongols invaded in the 13th century, marking the end of the Islamic Golden
Age. Some historians assert that the eastern Islamic world never fully recovered. Under the
leadership of Genghis Khan, The Mongols put an end to the Abbasid era. The Mongol invasion of
Central Asia began in 1219 at a huge cost in civilian life and economic devastation. The Mongols
spread throughout Central Asia and Persia: the Persian city of Isfahan had fallen to them by 1237.[156]
With the election of Khan Mongke in 1251, Mongol targeted the Abbasid capital, Baghdad. Mongke's
brother, Hulegu, was made leader of the Mongol Army assigned to the task of subduing Baghdad.
The fall of Bagdhad in 1258 destroyed what had been the largest city in Islam. The last Abbasid
caliph, al-Musta'sim, was captured and killed; and Baghdad was ransacked and destroyed. The
cities of Damascus and Aleppo fell in 1260. Plans for the conquest of Egypt were delayed due to the
death of Mongke at around the same time. The Abbasid army lost to the superior Mongol army, but
the invaders were finally stopped by Egyptian Mamluks north of Jerusalem in 1260 at the
pivotal Battle of Ain Jalut.[157]
Ultimately, the Ilkhanate, Golden Horde, and the Chagatai Khanate - three of the four principal
Mongol khanates - embraced Islam.[158][159][160] In power in Syria, Mesopotamia, Persia and further east,
over the rest of the 13th century gradually all converted to Islam. Most Ilkhanid rulers were replaced
by the new Mongol power founded by Timur (himself a Muslim), who conquered Persia in the 1360s,
and moved against the Delhi Sultanate in India and the Ottoman Turks in Anatolia. His invasions
were equally destructive, sacking Bagdhad, Damascus, Delhi and many other cities, with enormous
loss of life. Timur had attacked areas still recovering from the Black Death, which may have killed
one third of the population of the Middle East. The plague began in China, and
reached Alexandria in Egypt in 1347, spreading over the following years to most Islamic areas. The
combination of the plague and the wars left the Middle Eastern Islamic world in a seriously
weakened position. The Timurid dynasty would found many branches of Islam, including
the Mughals of India.[161][162]
The Mamluks[edit]
In 1250, the Ayyubid Egyptian dynasty was overthrown by slave regiments, and the Mamluk
Sultanate was born. In the 1260s, the Mongols sacked and controlled the Islamic Near East
territories. The Mamluks, who were Turkic, forced out the Mongols (see Battle of Ain Jalut) after the
final destruction of the Ayyubid dynasty. Thus they united Syria and Egypt for the longest interval
between the Abbasid and Ottoman empires (1250–1517).[163] The Mamluks experienced a continual
state of political conflict, military tension, proxy wars, and economic competition between the
"Muslim territory" (Dar al-Islam) and "non-Muslim territory" (Dar al-Harb).[164]
As part of their chosen role as defenders of Islamic orthodoxy, the Mamluks sponsored many
religious buildings, including mosques, madrasas and khanqahs. Though some construction took
place in the provinces, the vast bulk of these projects expanded the capital. Many Mamluk buildings
in Cairo have survived to this day, particularly in Old Cairo.[165]
Bahri Sultans[edit]
Main article: Bahri dynasty
A former Mamluk slave who was born a prince, Aybak (known as Lion of Ain Jaloot) replaced
the Mamluks in 1250. Aybak, by then a general, married Shajar al-Durr, the widow of Ayyubid
caliph al-Salih Ayyub. Military prestige was at the center of Mamluk society, and it played a key
role in the confrontations with the Mongol forces. After Aybak's assassination and the accession
of Qutuz in 1259, the Mamluks challenged and routed the Mongols at the Battle of Ain Jalut in
late 1260. The Mongols were again defeated by the Mamluks at the Battle of Hims a few months
later, and then driven out of Syria altogether.[86] With this, the Mamluks were able to concentrate
their forces and to conquer the last of the crusader territories in the Levant.
Burji Sultans

See also: Islamic Egypt governors, Mamluks Era
The global Muslim population had reached about 8 per cent of the world total as against the
Christian population of 14 per cent by 1400.
Africa[edit]
Main articles: Muslim conquest of North Africa, Muslim conquest of the Maghreb, Islamization of
the Sudan region,Shirazi era, Migration to Abyssinia and Swahili Coast
The Umayyad conquest of North Africa continued the century of rapid Muslim military expansion
following the death of Muhammad in 632. By 640 the Arabs controlled Mesopotamia, had
invaded Armenia, and were concluding their conquest of Byzantine Syria. Damascus was the
seat of the Umayyad caliphate. By the end of 641 all of Egypt was in Arab hands.
Horn of Africa[edit]
Main articles: Islam in Ethiopia and Islam in Somalia
The history of Islam in the Horn of Africa is almost as old as the faith itself. Through extensive
trade and social interactions with their converted Muslim trading partners on the other side of
the Red Sea, in the Arabian peninsula, merchants and sailors in the Horn region gradually came
under the influence of the new religion.[166]
Early Islamic disciples fled to the port city of Zeila in modern-day northern Somalia to seek
protection from the Quraysh at the court of the Aksumite Emperor in present-day Somalia. Some
of the Muslims that were granted protection are said to have then settled in several parts of the
Horn region to promote the religion. The victory of the Muslims over the Quraysh in the 7th
century had a significant impact on local merchants and sailors, as their trading partners in
Arabia had by then all adopted Islam, and the major trading routes in the Mediterranean and the
Red Sea came under the sway of the Muslim Caliphs. Instability in the Arabian peninsula saw
further migrations of early Muslim families to the Somali seaboard. These clans came to serve
as catalysts, forwarding the faith to large parts of the Horn region.[166]
Maghreb
Kairouan in Tunisia was the first city founded by Muslims in the Maghreb. Arab general Uqba ibn
Nafi erected the city (in 670) and, in the same time, the Great Mosque of Kairouan[167] considered as
the oldest and most prestigious sanctuary in the western Islamic world.[168]
This part of Islamic territory has had independent governments during most of Islamic history.
The Idrisid were the first Arab rulers in the western Maghreb (Morocco), ruling from 788 to 985. The
dynasty is named after its first sultan Idris I.[169]
The Almoravid dynasty was a Berber dynasty from the Sahara flourished over a wide area of North-
Western Africa and theIberian Peninsula during the 11th century. Under this dynasty
the Moorish empire was extended over present-day Morocco, Western Sahara, Mauritania,
Gibraltar, Tlemcen (in Algeria) and a part of what is now Senegal and Mali in the south, and Spain
and Portugal in the north.[170]
The Almohad Dynasty or "the Unitarians", were a Berber Muslim religious power which founded the
fifth Moorish dynasty in the 12th century, and conquered all Northern Africa as far as Egypt, together
with Al-Andalus.[171]
Great Lakes[edit]
Islam came to the Great Lakes region of South Eastern Africa along existing trade routes.[172] They
learned from them the manners of the Muslims and this led to their conversion by the Muslim Arabs.
Local Islamic governments centered in Tanzania (then Zanzibar). The people of Zayd were Muslims

that immigrated to the Great Lakes region. In the pre-colonial period, the structure of Islamic
authority here was held up through the Ulema (wanawyuonis, in Swahili language). These leaders
had some degree of authority over most of the Muslims in South East Africa before territorial
boundaries were established. The chief Qadi there was recognized for having the final religious
authority.[173]
West Africa[edit]
Much later, Usman dan Fodio after the Fulani War, found himself in command of the largest state in
Africa, the Fulani Empire. Dan Fodio worked to establish an efficient government grounded in
Islamic laws. Already aged at the beginning of the war, he retired in 1815 passing the title of Sultan
of Sokoto to his sonMuhammed Bello.
Asia and the Far East

South Asia
On the Indian subcontinent, Islam first appeared in the southwestern tip of the peninsula, in
today's Kerala state. Arabs traded with Malabar even before the birth of Muhammad. Native legends
say that a group of Sahaba, under Malik Ibn Deenar, arrived on the Malabar Coast and preached
Islam. According to that legend, the first mosque of India was built bySecond Chera King Cheraman
Perumal, who accepted Islam and received the name Tajudheen. He traveled to Arabia to meet
Muhammad and died on the trip back, somewhere in today's Oman. Historical records suggest that
the Cheraman Perumal Mosque was built in around 629.[174]
Islamic rule came to India in the 8th century, when Muhammad bin Qasim conquered Sindh. Muslim
conquests expanded under Mahmud and the Ghaznavids until the late 12th century, when
the Ghurids overran the Ghaznavids and extended the conquests in Northern India. Qutb-ud-din
Aybak conquered Delhi in 1206 and began the reign of the Delhi Sultanates.[175]
In the 14th century, Alauddin Khilji extended Muslim rule south to Gujarat, Rajasthan and Deccan.

Various other Muslim dynasties also formed and ruled across India from the 13th to the 18th century
such as the Qutb Shahi and the Bahmani, but none rivalled the power and extensive reach of
the Mughal Empire at its peak.[176]
See also: Islam in India
China[edit]
Further information: History of Islam in China
In China, four Sahabas (Sa'ad ibn abi Waqqas, Wahb Abu Kabcha, Jafar ibn Abu Talib and Jahsh)
preached in 616/17 and onwards after following theChittagong–Kamrup–Manipur route after sailing
from Abyssinia in 615/16. After conquering Persia in 636, Sa'ad ibn abi Waqqas went with Sa'id ibn
Zaid, Qais ibn Sa'd and Hassan ibn Thabit to China in 637 taking the complete Quran. Sa'ad ibn abi
Waqqas headed for China for the third time in 650-51 after Caliph Uthman asked him to lead an
embassy to China, which the Chinese emperor received.[177]
Southeast Asia[edit]
See also: The spread of Islam in Indonesia (1200 to 1600)
Islam first reached Maritime Southeast Asia through traders from Mecca in the 7th century CE,
[86]
particularly via the western part of what is now Indonesia. Arab traders from Yeman already had a
presence in Asia through trading and sea travelling by sea, serving as intermediary traders to and
from Europe and Africa. They traded not only Arabian goods but also from Africa, India, and so on
including ivory, fragrances, spices, and gold.[178]
According to T.W. Arnold in The Preaching of Islam, by the 2nd century of the Islamic Calendar,
Arab traders had been trading with the inhabitants of Ceylon. The same argument has been told by
Dr. B.H. Burger and Dr. Mr. Prajudi in Sedjarah Ekonomis Sosiologis Indonesia (History of Socio
Economic of Indonesia)[179]According to the atlas by geographer Al Biruni (973 - 1048), the Indian or
Indonesia Ocean used to be called the Persian Ocean. After the Western Imperialist ruled, it is
replaced Persian Ocean to be Indian Ocean.[180]
Soon, many Sufi missionaries translated classical Sufi literature from Arabic and Persian into Malay;

a tangible product of this is the Jawi script. Coupled with the composing of original Islamic
literature in Malay, this led the way to the transformation of Malay into an Islamic language.[181] By
1292, when Marco Polo visited Sumatra, most of the inhabitants had converted to Islam.
The Sultanate of Malacca was founded on the Malay Peninsula by Parameswara,
a Srivijayan Prince.
Through trade and commerce, Islam then spread to Borneo and Java. By the late 15th
century, Islam had been introduced to the Philippines via the southern island of Mindanao.[182] The
foremost socio-cultural Muslim entities that resulted form this are the present-day Sultanate of
Sulu and Sultanate of Maguindanao; Islamised kingdoms in the northern Luzon island, such as
the Kingdom of Maynila and the Kingdom of Tondo, were later conquered and Christianised with the
majority of the archipelago by Spanish colonisers beginning in the 16th century.
As Islam spread, societal changes developed from the individual conversions, and five centuries
later it emerged as a dominant cultural and political power in the region. Three main Muslim political
powers emerged. The Aceh Sultanate was the most important, controlling much of the area between
Southeast Asia and India from its centre in northern Sumatra. The Sultanate also attracted Sufi
poets. The second Muslim power was the Sultanate of Malacca on the Malay Peninsula.
TheSultanate of Demak on Java was the third power, where the emerging Muslim forces defeated
the local Majapahit kingdom in the early 16th century.[183] Although the sultanate managed to expand
its territory somewhat, its rule remained brief.[86]
Portuguese forces captured Malacca in 1511 under naval general Afonso de Albuquerque. With

Malacca subdued, the Aceh Sultanate and Bruneian Empireestablished themselves as centres of
Islam in Southeast Asia. The Sultanate's territory, although vastly diminished, remains intact to this
day as the modern state ofBrunei Darussalam.[86]
Fragmentation period[edit]
Three Early Modern empires[edit]
Main article: Early modern history
In the 15th and 16th centuries three major Muslim empires formed: the Ottoman Empire in the
Middle East, the Balkans and Northern Africa; the Safavid Empire inGreater Iran; and the Mughal
Empire in South Asia. These imperial powers were made possible by the discovery and exploitation
of gunpowder and more efficient administration.[184] By the end of the 19th century, all three had
declined, and by the early 20th century, with the Ottomans' defeat in World War I, the last Muslim
empire collapsed.
Dar al-'Ahd (House of truce) began to develop in the Ottoman Empire's relationship with its tributary
states. In the contemporary National period, the term referred to non-Muslim governments that
had armistice or peace agreements with Muslim governments. Today, the actual status of the non-
Muslim country in question may vary from acknowledged equality to tributary states.
Mughal Empire
The Mughal Empire was a product of various Central Asian invasions into theIndian subcontinent. It
was founded by the Timurid prince Babur in 1526 with the destruction of the Delhi sultanate, placing
its capital in Agra. Babur's death some years later and the indecisive rule of his son, Humayun,
brought instability to Mughal rule. The resistance of the Afghani Sher Shah, who administered a
string of defeats to Humayun, weakened the empire. A year before his death, however, Humayun
managed to recover much of the lost territories, leaving a substantial legacy for his son, the 13 year
old Akbar (later known as Akbar the Great), in 1556. Under Akbar, consolidation of the Mughal
Empire occurred through both expansion and administrative reforms. After Akbar, Jahangir and
Shah Jahan came to power. Subsequently, Aurangazeb ruled vast areas including Afghanisthan,
Pakistan, India and Bangladesh.[86][186]
The empire ruled most of present-day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Afghanistan for several

centuries. Its decline in the early 18th century allowed India to be divided into smaller kingdoms and
states. The Mughal dynasty was dissolved by the British Empire after the Indian rebellion of 1857.[86]
[186]
It left a lasting legacy on Indian culture and architecture. Famous buildings built by the Mughals,
include: the Taj Mahal, the Red Fort, the Badshahi Mosque, the Lahore Fort, the Shalimar
Gardens and the Agra Fort. During the empire's reign, Muslim communities flourished all over India,
in Gujarat, Bengal and Hyderabad. Various Sufi orders from Afghanistan and Persia were active
throughout the region. More than a quarter of the population converted to Islam.[186]
Safavid Empire[edit]
Main article: Safavids
The Safavid dynasty rose to power in Tabriz in 1501 and later conquered the rest of Iran. The
Safavids were originally Sufi and Iran was Sunni.[187] After their defeat at the hands of the Sunni
Ottomans at the Battle of Chaldiran, to unite the Persians behind him Ismail I made conversion
mandatory for the largely Sunni population to Twelver Shia so that he could get them to fight the
Sunni Ottomans.[188]
This resulted in the Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam. Zaydis, the largest group amongst the
Shia before the Safavid Dynasty were also forced to convert to the Twelver Shia. The Zaydis at that
time used the Hanafi Fiqh, as did most Sunnis and there were good relations between them. Abu
Hanifah and Zayd ibn Aliwere also very good friends.
The Safavids dynasty from Azarbaijan ruled from 1501 to 1736, and which

established Twelver Shi'a Islam as the region'sofficial religion and united its provinces under a single
sovereignty, thereby reigniting the Persian identity.
Although claiming to be the descendants of Ali ibn Abu Talib, the Safavids were Sunni (the name
"Safavid" comes from a Sufi order called Safavi). Their origins go back to Firuz Shah Zarrinkolah, a
local dignitary from the north. During their rule, the Safavids recognized Twelver Shi'a Islam as the
State religion, thus giving the region a separate identity from its Sunni neighbours.
In 1524, Tahmasp I acceded to the throne, initiating a revival of the arts. Carpetmaking became a

major industry. The tradition of Persian miniature painting in manuscripts reached its peak, until
Tahmasp turned to strict religious observance in middle age, prohibiting the consumption of alcohol
and hashish and removing casinos, taverns and brothels. Tahmasp's nephew Ibrahim
Mirza continued to patronize a last flowering of the arts until he was murdered, after which many
artists were recruited by the Mughal dynasty.
Tahmasp's grandson, Shah Abbas I, restored the shrine of the eighth Twelver Shi'a Imam, Ali al-
Ridha at Mashhad, and restored the dynastic shrine at Ardabil. Both shrines received jewelry, fine
manuscripts and Chinese porcelains. Abbas moved the capital to Isfahan, revived old ports, and
established thriving trade with Europeans. Amongst Abbas's most visible cultural achievements was
the construction of Naqsh-e Jahan Square ("Design of the World"). The plaza, located near a Friday
mosque, covered 20 acres (81,000 m2).[189]
The Safavid Dynasty was toppled in 1722 by the Hotaki dynasty, which ended their forceful
conversion of Sunni areas to Shiaism.
Salafi[edit]
In the 18th century a reform and revival movement was initiated led by Ibn Abd al-Wahhab in today's
Saudi Arabia. Referred to as Wahhabi, their self designation is Muwahiddun (unitarians). Building
upon earlier efforts such as those by the logician Ibn Taymiyyah and Ibn al-Qayyim, the movement
seeks to uphold monotheism and purify Islam of later innovations. Their zeal
against idolatrous shrines led to the destruction of sacred tombs in Mecca and Medina, including
those of Muhammad's Companions.[190]
Ottoman Empire
The Seljuq Turks declined in the second half of the 13th century, after the Mongol invasion.[191] This
resulted in the establishment of multiple Turkish principalities, known as beyliks. Osman I, the
founder of the Ottoman dynasty, assumed leadership of one of these principalities (Söğüt) in 1281,
succeeding his father Ertuğrul. Declaring an independent Ottoman emirate in 1299, Osman I
afterwards led it in a series of battles with the Byzantine Empire.[192] By 1331, the Ottomans had
captured Nicaea, the former Byzantine capital, under the leadership of Osman's son and
successor, Orhan I.[193] Victory at the Battle of Kosovo against the Serbs in 1389 then facilitated their
expansion into Europe. The Ottomans were established in the Balkans and Anatolia by the
time Bayezid I ascended to power in the same year, now at the helm of a growing empire.[194]
Growth halted when Mongol warlord Timur (also known as "Tamerlane") captured Bayezid I in

the Battle of Ankara in 1402, beginning the Ottoman Interregnum. This episode was characterized
by the division of the Ottoman territory amongst Bayezid I's sons, who submitted
to Timurid authority. When a number of Ottoman territories regained independent status, ruin for the
Empire loomed. However, the empire recovered, as the youngest son of Bayezid I, Mehmed I,
waged offensive campaigns against his ruling brothers, thereby reuniting Asia Minor and declaring
himself sultan in 1413.[86]
Around this time the Ottoman naval fleet developed, such that they were able to challenge Venice,
a naval power. They also attempted to reconquer the Balkans. By the time of Mehmed I's
grandson, Mehmed II (ruled 1444 — 1446; 1451 — 1481), the Ottomans could lay siege
to Constantinople, the capital of Byzantium. A factor in this siege was the use of muskets and
large cannons introduced by the Ottomans. The Byzantine fortress succumbed in 1453, after 54
days of siege. Without its capital the Byzantine Empire disintegrated.[86] The future successes of the
Ottomans and later empires would depend upon the exploitation of gunpowder.[184]
The Suleiman Mosque(Süleymaniye Camii) in Istanbul was built on the order of sultan Suleiman the

Magnificent by the Ottoman architectMimar Sinan in 1557
In the early 16th century, the Shi'ite Safavid dynasty assumed control in Persia under the leadership
of Shah Ismail I, defeating the ruling Turcoman federation Aq Qoyunlu (also called the "White Sheep
Turkomans") in 1501. The Ottoman sultan Selim I sought to repel Safavid expansion, challenging
and defeating them at the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514. Selim I also deposed the ruling Mamluks in
Egypt, absorbing their territories in 1517. Suleiman I (also known as Suleiman the Magnificent),
Selim I's successor, took advantage of the diversion of Safavid focus to the Uzbeks on the eastern
frontier and recaptured Baghdad, which had fallen under Safavid control. Despite this, Safavid power
remained substantial, rivalling the Ottomans. Suleiman I advanced deep into Hungary following
the Battle of Mohács in 1526 — reaching as far as the gates of Vienna thereafter, and signed a
Franco-Ottoman alliance with Francis I of France against Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire 10
years later. Suleiman I's rule (1520 — 1566) was the apex of the Ottoman Empire. The rapid
European industrialization thereafter sent it into a relative decline.[86][195] It was recognized as a
superpower, even at the time of its decline and eventual demise after World War I.
Modern history[edit]
Main article: Modern history
The modern age brought technological and organizational changes to Europe while the Islamic
region continued the patterns of earlier centuries. The Great Powersglobalized economically
and colonized much of the region.
Ottoman Empire partition
By the end of the 19th century, the Ottoman empire had declined. The decision to
back Germany in World War I meant they shared the Central Powers' defeat in that war. The defeat
led to the overthrow of the Ottomans by Turkish nationalists led by the victorious general of
the Battle of Gallipoli: Mustafa Kemal, who became known to his people as Atatürk, "Father of the
Turks." Atatürk was credited with renegotiating the treaty of Sèvres (1920) which ended Turkey's
involvement in the war and establishing the modern Republic of Turkey, which was recognized by
the Allies in the Treaty of Lausanne (1923). Atatürk went on to implement an ambitious program of
modernization that emphasized economic development and secularization. He transformed Turkish
culture to reflect European laws, adopted Hindu-Arabic numerals, the Latin script, separated the
religious establishment from the state, and emancipated woman—even giving them the right to vote
in parallel with women's suffrage in the west.[196]
Following World War I, the vast majority of former Ottoman territory outside of Asia Minor was
handed over to the victorious European powers as protectorates. During the war the Allies had
promised the subject peoples independence in exchange for their assistance fighting the Turkish
powers. To their dismay, they found that this system of "protectorates" was a smoke-screen for their
continued subjugation by the British and the French. The struggles for independence from their
Turkish overlords and the cooperation of partisan forces with the British were romanticized in the
stories of British secret intelligence agent T. E. Lawrence—later known as "Lawrence of
Arabia."[197] Ottoman successor states include today's Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria,
Egypt, Greece, Iraq, Lebanon, Romania, Saudi Arabia, Serbia, Syria, Jordan, Turkey, Balkan states,
North Africa and the north shore of the Black Sea.[198]
Many Muslim countries sought to adopt European political organization and nationalism began to

emerge in the Muslim world. Countries like Egypt, Syria and Turkey organized their governments
sought to develop national pride amongst their citizens. Other places, like Iraq, were not as
successful due to a lack of unity and an inability to resolve age-old prejudices between Muslim sects
and against non-Muslims.
Some Muslim countries, such as Turkey and Egypt, sought to separate Islam from the secular
government. In other cases, such as Saudi Arabia, the government brought out religious expression
in the re-emergence of the puritanical form of Sunni Islam known to its detractors as Wahabism,
which found its way into the Saudi royal family.
See also: Ottoman Caliphate and Turkish War of Independence
Independence of South Asia[edit]

Main articles: Pakistan Movement and Partition of India
The independence of South Asia refers to the creation in August 1947 of the now sovereign states of
India and Pakistan. The two nations were formed out of the former British Raj, including treaty
states, when Britain granted independence to the area (see Undivided India). In particular, the term
refers to the partition ofBengal and Punjab, the two main provinces of what would be Pakistan.[199]
In 1947, after the independence of India, Pakistan became the largest Islamic country in the world
(by population) and the tenth largest post-World War II state in the modern world. In 1971, after a
bloody war of independence, the Bengal part of Pakistan became an independent state
called Bangladesh. Pakistan in the contemporary era is the second largest Islamic country in the
world, following Indonesia. Pakistan is a declared nuclear power, being the only Muslim nation to
have that status.
Post-1945 era[edit]
Between 1953 and 1964, King Saud reorganized the government of the monarchy his father, Ibn

Saud, had created. Saudi Arabia's ministries included Communication (1953), Agriculture and Water
(1953), Petroleum (1960), Pilgrimage and Islamic Endowments (1960), Labour and Social Affairs
(1962) and Information (1963). He also put Talal, one of his many younger brothers (29 years his
junior) in charge of the Ministry of Transport.
In 1958-59, Talal proposed the formation of a National Council. As he proposed it, it would have
been a consultative body, not a legislature. Still, he thought of it as a first step toward broader
popular participation in the government. Talal presented this proposal to the king when the Crown
Prince was out of the country. Saud forwarded the proposal to the ulama asking them whether a
National Council was a legitimate institution in Islam. The idea then disappeared until it was revived
more than three decades later. A Consultative Council came into existence in 1992.
The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries came into existence in 1960. For the first decade
or more of its existence, it was unable to increase revenue for the member nations. Tension
between Faisal and Saud continued to mount until a showdown in 1964. Saud threatened to
mobilize the Royal Guard against Faisal and Faisal threatened to mobilize the National Guard
against Saud. Saud then abdicated and left for Cairo, then Greece, where he would die in 1969.
Faisal then became King.
The Six-Day War of June 5–10, 1967, was fought between Israel and the neighbouring states of
Egypt, Jordan, and Syria. It closed the Suez canal, and may have contributed to the revolution in
Libya that put Muammar Gaddafi in power. It led in May 1970 to the closure of the "tapline" from
Saudi Arabia through Syria to Lebanon. These developments had the effect of increasing the
importance of petroleum in Libya, which is a short (and canal-free) shipping distance from Europe. In
1970, Occidental Petroleum broke with other oil companies and accepted Qaddafi's demands for
price increases.
In October 1973, another war between Israel and its Muslim neighbors, known as the Yom Kippur
War, broke out just as oil company began meeting with OPECleaders. OPEC had been emboldened
by the success of Libya's demands and the war strengthened their unity. The Arab defeats in 1967
and 1973 triggered the1973 oil crisis. In response to the emergency resupply effort by the West that
enabled Israel to defeat Egyptian and Syrian forces, the Arab world imposed the 1973 oil embargo
against the United States and Western Europe. Faisal agreed that Saudi Arabia would use some of
its oil wealth to finance the "front-line states", those that bordered Israel, in their struggle. The
centrality of petroleum, the Arab-Israeli Conflict and political and economic instability and uncertainty
remain constant features of the politics of the region.
Persian revolutions
The Iranian Constitutional Revolution took place between 1905 and 1911. The revolution marked the
beginning of the end of Iran's feudalistic society and led to the establishment of a parliament
in Persia and the restriction of the power of the Shah(king). Iran approved its first constitution at this
time. The modernist and conservative blocks then began to fight with each other. World War I
intervened and all of the combatants invaded Iran. This weakened the government and threatened
the country's independence. The constitutional monarchy created by the decree of Mozzafar al-Din
Shah that was established inPersia as a result of the Revolution, was damaged in 1925 with the
dissolution of the Qajar dynasty and the ascension ofReza Shah Pahlavi to the throne.[200]
In 1979 the Iranian Revolution transformed Iran from a constitutional monarchy to
a populist theocratic Islamic republicunder the rule of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, a Shi`i Muslim
cleric and marja. Following the Revolution, and a new constitution was approved and a referendum
established the government, electing Ruhollah Khomeini as Supreme Leader. During the following
two years, liberals, leftists, and Islamic groups fought each other, and the Islamics captured power.
Gulf states such as Saudi Arabia and Kuwait (despite being hostile to Iraq) encouraged Saddam
Hussein to invade Iran,[201] which resulted in the Iran-Iraq war, as they feared that an Islamic
revolution would take place within their own borders. Certain Iranian exiles also helped convince
Saddam that if he invaded, the fledgling Islamic republic would quickly collapse.
National period
Arab–Israeli conflict[edit]
Main article: Arab–Israeli conflict
The Arab–Israeli conflict spans about a century of political tensions and open hostilities. It involves
the establishment of the modern State of Israel as a Jewish nation state, the
consequent displacement of thePalestinian people and Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim
countries, as well as the adverse relationship between the Arab states and the State of Israel (see
related Israeli–Palestinian conflict). Despite at first involving only the Arab states bordering Israel,
animosity has also developed between Israel and other predominantly Muslim states. Many
countries, individuals and non-governmental organizations elsewhere in the world feel involved in
this conflict for reasons such as cultural and religious ties with Islam, Arab
culture, Christianity, Judaism, Jewish culture, or for ideological, human rights, or strategic reasons.
Although some consider the Arab–Israeli conflict a part of (or a precursor to) a widerclash of
civilizations between the Western World and the Muslim world,[202][203] others oppose this view.
[204]
Animosity emanating from this conflict has caused numerous attacks on supporters (or perceived
supporters) of each side by supporters of the other side in many countries around the world.
Salafi and the Safavid[edit]
Some have argued that the development of the two opposite fringes, the Safavid conversion of Iran
to Shia Islam the Twelver Shia version and its reinforcement by the Iranian Revolution and
the Salafi in Saudi Arabia, coupled with the Iran–Saudi Arabia relations resulted in these
governments using sectarian conflict to enhance their political interests.[205][206] Many have argued that
these governments, them selves do not conforms to Islamic economic jurisprudence, and continue
to deal inusury and in Government bonds.[207][208][209][210] While their rulers like Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani
and some ayatollah's in Iran on the List of Iranian people by net worth and the House of Saud,
accumulated huge personal wealth that some have argued is at odds with the Islamic message
preached by Muhammad and the Quran. Wealth that some think should belong in Bayt al-mal or the
welfare state. The Bayt al-mal or the welfare state was for the Muslim and Non-Muslim poor, needy,
elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. The Bayt al-mal ran for hundreds of years under
the Rashidun Caliphate in the 7th century and continued through the Umayyad period and well into
the Abbasid era.
Anatolian region[edit]
Main articles: Islam in Turkey and Secularism in Turkey
Since the establishment of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, there has been a strong tradition
of secularism in Turkey established and institutionalized by Atatürk's Reforms. Although the First
Grand National Assembly of Turkey had rallied support from the population for the Independence
War against the occupying forces on behalf of Islamic principles, Islam was omitted from the public
sphere after the Independence War. The principle of secularism was thus inserted in the Turkish
Constitution as late as 1937. This legal action was assisted by stringent state policies against
domestic Islamist groups and establishments to neutralize the strong appeal of Islam in Turkish
society. Even though an overwhelming majority of the population, at least nominally, adheres
to Islam in Turkey, the state, which was established with the Kemalist ideology has no official
religion nor promotes any and it monitors the area between the religions using the Presidency of
Religious Affairs. The Republic Protests were a series of mass rallies by Turkish secular citizens that
took place in Turkey in 2007. The target of the first protest was the possible presidential candidacy
of the Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, afraid that if elected President of Turkey Erdoğan
would alter the Turkish secularist state.

History of Islam-1

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History of Islam-1

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History of Islam

The history of Islam concerns the religion of Islam and its adherents, Muslims. "Muslim" is

A century after the death of last Islamic prophet Muhammad, the Islamic empire extended from Al-

See also: Early scholars of Islam

Succession and Umayyad accession

Universal period and decentralization[edit]

Expansion continued, sometimes by force, sometimes by peaceful proselytising.[80] The first stage in

Politically, the Abbasid Caliphate evolved into an Islamic monarchy (unitary system of government.)

Golden Baghdad Abbasids[edit]

Early Middle Ages

High Baghdad Abbasids[edit]

Early Middle Ages

Consult particular article for details

Upon Al-Amin's death, Al-Ma'mun became Caliph. Al-Ma'mun extended the Abbasid empire's

When Al-Wathiq died of high fever, Al-Mutawakkil succeeded him. Al-Mutawakkil's reign is

Also in the 930s, ‘Alī ibn Būyah and his two younger brothers, al-Hassan and Aḥmad founded

Middle Baghdad Abbasids[edit]

Early High Middle Ages

Consult particular article for details

Late Baghdad Abbasids[edit]

Late High Middle Ages

Al-Mustarshid achieved more independence while the sultan Mahmud II of Great Seljuq was

After the siege of Damascus (1134),[117] Zengi undertook operations in Syria. Al-Mustarshid attacked

Al-Mustansir founded the Mustansiriya Madrasah. In 1236 Ögedei Khan commanded to raise

Cairo Abbasid Caliphs[edit]

Abbasid "shadow" caliph of Cairo

Consult particular article for details

Early and High Middle Ages

Berbers and Iberian Umayyads

See also: Reconquista and Timeline of the Muslim presence in the Iberian peninsula

Consult particular article for details

Consult particular article for details

Almoravid Ifriqiyah and Iberia[edit]

Consult particular article for details

Consult particular article for details

Saladin and Guy of Lusignan after the Battle of Hattin

The Ayyubid dynasty was founded by Saladin and centered in Egypt. In 1174, Saladin proclaimed

Consult particular article for details

Consult particular article for details

Consult particular article for details

Consult particular article for details

Local Islamic governments centered in Tanzania (then Zanzibar). The people of Zayd were Muslims

Asia and the Far East

In the 14th century, Alauddin Khilji extended Muslim rule south to Gujarat, Rajasthan and Deccan.

See also: Islam in India

Soon, many Sufi missionaries translated classical Sufi literature from Arabic and Persian into Malay;

Portuguese forces captured Malacca in 1511 under naval general Afonso de Albuquerque. With

The empire ruled most of present-day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Afghanistan for several

The Safavids dynasty from Azarbaijan ruled from 1501 to 1736, and which

In 1524, Tahmasp I acceded to the throne, initiating a revival of the arts. Carpetmaking became a

Growth halted when Mongol warlord Timur (also known as "Tamerlane") captured Bayezid I in

The Suleiman Mosque(Süleymaniye Camii) in Istanbul was built on the order of sultan Suleiman the

Ottoman Empire partition

Many Muslim countries sought to adopt European political organization and nationalism began to

See also: Ottoman Caliphate and Turkish War of Independence

Independence of South Asia[edit]

Between 1953 and 1964, King Saud reorganized the government of the monarchy his father, Ibn

Salafi and the Safavid[edit]

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