SIGNAL GROUNDS

A ground normally defined as an equipotential point or plane that serves as a

reference potential for a circuit or system. This definition, however, is not
representative of practical ground systems because they are not equipotentials;
also it does not emphasize the importance of the actual path taken by the current
in returning to the source. It is important for the designer or the susceptibility of a
circuit. To understand the limitations and problems of “real world” ground systems,
it would be better to use a definition more representative of the actual situation.
Therefore, a better definition for a signal ground is a low-impedance path for
current to return to the source (Ott, 1979). This “current concept” of a ground
emphasizes the importance of current flow. It implies that since current is flowing
through some finite impedance, there will be a difference in potential between two
physically separated points. The equipotential concept defines what a ground
ideally should be, whereas the current concept defines what a ground actually is.
The actual path taken by the ground current is important in determining the
magnetic coupling between circuits. The magnetic or inductive coupling is
proportional to loop area. But what is the loop area of a system containing multiple
ground paths? The area is the area enclosed by the actual current flow. An
important consideration in determining this area is the ground path taken by the
current in returning to the source. Often this is not the path intended by the
designer.
In designing a ground it is important to ask: How does the current flow?
The path taken by the ground current must be determined. Then, since any
conductor-carrying current will have a voltage drop, the effect of this voltage drop
on the performance of the other circuits connected to the ground must be
considered.
The proper signal ground system is determined by the type of circuitry the
frequency of operation, the size of the system (self-contained or distributed), and
other constrains, such s safety. No one ground system is appropriate for all
applications.
Signal ground usually fall into one of three categories:
1) Sigle-point grounds
2) Multipoint grounds
3) Hybrid grounds
A hybrid ground is show in Fig. 3-6. There are two subclasses of single-point
grounds: those whit series connections and those with parallel connections.
The series connection is also called a common ground or daisy chain, and the
parallel connection is called a separate ground system.
In general, it is desirable to the distribute power in a manner that parallels the
ground structure. Usually the ground system us designed first, and then the power
is distributed in a similar manner.
In the following discussion of grounding techniques, two key points should be kept
in mind:
1. All conductors have a finite impedance, generally consisting of both
resistance and inductance. At 11 kHz, a straight length of 22-gauge wire
one inch above a ground plane has more inductive reactance than
resistance.
2. Two physically separated ground points are seldom at the same potential.
The ac power is of little practical value as a signal ground. The voltage measured
between two points on the power ground is typically hundreds of millivolts, and in
some cases many volts. This is excessive for low-level signal circuits. A single
point connection to the power ground is usually required for safety, however.