Child and Adolescent Mental Health Volume 11, No. 1, 2006, pp. 32–39 doi: 10.1111/j.1475-3588.2005.00365.

Child and Adolescent Social-Emotional

Development Within the Context of School
Ann M. Aviles1, Tanya R. Anderson1 & Erica R. Davila2
1
Institute for Juvenile Research, Department of Psychiatry, University of Illinois at Chicago (MC 747), 1747 W. Roosevelt
Road, Rm. 155, Chicago, Illinois 60608, USA. E-mail: aaviles@psych.uic.edu
2
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Educational Policy Studies, 1310 S. 6th Street, Champaign, IL 61821, USA.

Children and adolescents exposed to violence may develop mental health problems, impacting their ability to
develop appropriate social-emotional skills. Limited development of social-emotional skills has been associ-
ated with poor performance in school. A review of the literature was conducted to better understand social-
emotional development in children and its role in a child’s ability to function in the school setting. The
developmental psychopathology framework is used to illuminate the dynamic relationship between children
and their contexts. Specifically, the context of school is explored to identify its role in providing services that
address the needs of children and adolescents with social-emotional limitations.

Keywords: Adolescent mental health; social-emotional development; schools; child maltreatment; exposure
to violence

recognising the school environment’s role in addressing

Introduction
Children and adolescents with mental health problems
are at risk of developing negative outcomes later in life.
Difficulty in school is one of those outcomes that are
often overlooked. The development of academic diffi-
culties is multifactorial. A direct correlation between
childhood maltreatment (abuse, neglect) and/or expo-
sure to violence in the home and/or community has
been identified as one of the risk factors that can lead to
school failure (Henry, 2000; Wallach, 1994). However,
there are many children who endure such adverse cir-
cumstances and are still able to fare well in school. The
aim of this paper is to explore social-emotional develop-
ment in children and how it impacts on their academic
outcomes, while also exploring the role schools play in
working with children and youth who have social-
emotional (mental health) issues in an effort to improve
their academic outcomes. We propose a theoretical
model in which social-emotional development in chil-
dren/youth is influenced by multiple environments
(home, community and school). Schools can play a
consistent role in children’s lives and meet their social-
emotional needs, through professional co-operation
between educators and mental health specialists.
Schools that recognise the ways in which social-emo-
tional development impacts on academic outcomes can
identify students with social-emotional difficulties and
provide services that will address these issues, poten-
tially mediating and/or improving academic outcomes.
This paper will examine developmental issues
encountered by youth, why the school environment is
appropriate for identifying youth with social-emotional
needs, and the school’s potential to provide students
with needed services that will facilitate academic suc-
cess. Additionally, we will focus on services available to
children in schools as a means of understanding and

2005 Association for Child and Adolescent Mental Health.
Published by Blackwell Publishing, 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148, USA
the social-emotional needs of its students. Within the
school context children with social-emotional needs are
often identified as having a ‘serious emotional distur-
bance’ (SED). The educational outcomes of students
labelled with SED will also be explored. Lastly, we will
discuss the school’s limitations in providing services
that address the social-emotional needs of its students.
Literature review
Theoretical framework
The developmental psychopathology framework under-
stands youth as being in dynamic relationships between
the developing individual and their internal/external
contexts. We found this framework to be helpful when
attempting to understand factors that support or inhibit
social-emotional development in children and the ways in
which social-emotional development influences school
performance. The school setting has the potential to pro-
vide services that may have a positive impact on overall
academic achievement as well as the emotional develop-
ment of students. However, it is critical to note that
teachers would have to play an expanded role in the lives of
the students they teach in order for social-emotional
needs to be addressed in schools.
Within the developmental psychopathology frame-
work, development is understood as being comprised of
multiple age and stage relevant tasks. Piaget’s stages of
development (ERIC, 2001) demonstrate that as children
develop they acquire skills that afford them the oppor-
tunity to progress through the different stages. How-
ever, if children are not able to attain the skills
necessary at each stage, they will fail to progress. For
example, a child who is unable to acquire ‘concrete
mental operations’ such as basic reading will be unable
to develop abstract thinking skills (formal operations),

and to engage in future academic activities such as
creative writing (Barr, 2001).
The academic outcomes of youth with social-emo-
tional difficulties will vary depending on the support
they receive from adults in their lives, such as parents,
caregivers and teachers. Developmental psychopatho-
logy provides a theoretical framework that promotes
understanding development as a dynamic relationship
between a child’s context and the child’s skills/abilities
(Thornberry, Ireland, & Smith, 2001). In other words,
we need to examine how context influences a child’s
ability to develop and in turn how the child responds to
that context. Additionally, developmental psycho-
pathology’s objective is not to emphasize or focus on a
child’s illness, but to understand the developmental
process within the myriad of biological and psycholo-
gical changes that occur during adolescence. Develop-
mental psychopathology is also interested in identifying
pathways that support individuals in becoming com-
petent despite their exposure to conditions of adversity
(Cicchetti & Rogosch, 2002; Thornberry et. al., 2001). It
is well documented that children who are exposed to
violence and/or maltreated often have difficulties
negotiating their environments (Mazza & Overstreet,
2000; Becker & Luthar, 2002; Rosenthal, 2000). School
is the primary environment in which all children must
negotiate and function. The developmental psycho-
pathology approach is helpful to understanding ways in
which the school context may support and enable
optimal youth development, specifically development
that leads to positive academic outcomes.
In order to provide services that are beneficial to chil-
dren, we must recognise each child’s strengths as well as
their limitations. In an effort to examine the dynamic
processes of individual development within contexts,
developmental psychopathology relies on the concepts of
multifinality and equifinality. Multifinality is the recog-
nition of diverse outcomes evolving from a single starting
point. That is, individuals may share a common starting
point, but they will not all exhibit the same develop-
mental outcomes (Cicchetti & Rogosch, 2002). For
example, you may have a group of children that come
from abusive households. This experience may con-
tribute to an adolescent who becomes abusive, while
another may become a protector. That is, not all children
who are abused will become abusive. Equifinality
demonstrates just the opposite premise. Children can
have different starting points, yet end up with common
outcomes (Cicchetti & Rogosch, 2002). As such, you may
have several adolescents who share a common illness
such as depression; however, the pathway that led to
depression will vary among them. Some may have a
genetic predisposition to the disorder, while others may
be struggling with the loss of a parent. Due to the fact that
there are different causes for similar outcomes, we
cannot take a ‘one size fits all’ approach when working
with children and adolescents who present with social-
emotional problems. However, we must be aware of such
issues in order to create contexts, specifically within the
school setting, that will be of benefit to all children.
Social-emotional development: the early years
Social-emotional competence is defined as cooperative
and pro-social behaviour, initiation and maintenance of
peer friendships and adult relationships, management
Social-Emotional Development within School 33
of aggression and conflict, development of a sense of
mastery and self-worth and emotional regulation and
reactivity (Squires, 2002). Young children (aged 0–3)
depend on their relationships with adults (parents,
caregivers) to teach them about themselves and the
world they live in. According to Vygotsky, ‘learning is a
shared-joint process in a responsive social context’
(Gindis, 1999). Child-adult relationships have a more
significant impact on a child’s learning than educa-
tional toys or pre-school curricula (Thompson & Hap-
pold, 2002). Parent/caregiver relationships often
provide children with an understanding of their behav-
iours based on the parents/caregivers response to
them. Children depend on these responses from par-
ents/caregivers to help them identify and interpret their
own feelings. Parents play a significant role in their
child’s environment, and can promote development of a
social-emotional competent child (NIMH, 2000). Set-
tings that support a child’s social-emotional develop-
ment consist of responsive, nurturing environments
that will, among other things, properly prepare children
for academic achievement. The emotional climate in the
home plays a role in a child’s emotional growth, and
when conflict, abuse and stress are present, emotional
growth is often impaired (Thompson & Happold, 2002).
Additionally, environments that are abusive, troubled
or coercive place young children at risk of poor social-
emotional development.
There are many reasons that a child may demon-
strate social-emotional difficulties. Barbarin (2002)
identifies four possible risk factors that impair a
child’s functioning. These factors are: 1. Childhood
history of early deprivation and trauma; 2. Family
instability/conflict; 3. Involvement in the child welfare
system; and 4. Neighbourhood danger/limited re-
sources. Applying the developmental psychopathology
model to these risk factors allows us to view children
in a new way. Although children are at risk for poor
social emotional development due to their similar
experiences (e.g. abuse/neglect), it is the contexts
they develop in that will often determine their out-
comes (multifinality). Children’s environments are
complex and consist of many contexts such as school,
home and community. All of these contexts have an
impact on development and must be taken into con-
sideration when identifying factors that inhibit and/or
support social-emotional development. Too often re-
search only focuses on the negative outcomes of
youth who are at a disadvantage in developing the
skills needed to negotiate their environments (Becker
& Luthar, 2002), the developmental psychopathology
approach allows for identification of factors that lead
to positive outcomes.
Exposure to community violence and violence in the
home interferes with a child’s normal developmental
pathway, placing him/her at greater risk for emotional
distress (Sieger et al., 2004; Huth-Bocks, Levendosky,
& Semel, 2001). Studies have also found that abused
and neglected children suffer from intellectual, cognit-
ive and academic impairments (Huth-Bocks et al.,
2001). Children living in turbulent environments where
violence is present may be unable to seek out help. As
children reach pre-school age, the school becomes an
environment in which children spend a majority of their
time, making it a good setting in which to identify and
34 Ann M. Aviles et al.
provide services to children with social-emotional diffi-
culties.
Social-emotional development in school
Children do not leave their home/community problems
at the school door. It is for this reason that we need to
understand how social-emotional development plays
itself out in the school setting. Young children require
healthy social-emotional development in order to be
prepared and ready to learn once they enter school
(Klein, 2002). Children who have limitations in their
social-emotional development often demonstrate poor
social, emotional and academic success. One in five
students in America’s public schools has significant
mental health needs (Doll et al., 1993). Students are not
only at risk for academic problems due to their mental
health issues, but often demonstrate difficulties with
social skills such as getting along with peers and fol-
lowing school rules, placing them at additional risk for
the development of academic difficulties (Wallach,
1994). For example, a child who is unable to effectively
manage anger may become easily agitated when trying
to learn new concepts/skills, which may result in the
child becoming verbally or physically aggressive to-
wards peers and/or teachers. This may in turn lead to
suspension or expulsion, resulting in missed school
days and the child will inevitably fall behind in
coursework (Birnbaum et al., 2003). This often results
in a cycle that is difficult to break. The student will
continue to become frustrated at his/her inability to
learn the material presented, leading to more anger and
subsequent aggressive behaviour, which causes the
child once again to be disciplined for his/her actions.
Unfortunately, one consequence of the discipline is
absence from school, which leads to further academic
gaps. School expulsion and suspension can be de-
creased if social, emotional and mental health support
for students at all times in all schools is advocated
by the health care community (Lippincott-Williams
& Wilkins, 2004). Therefore, one must be aware of
the underlying issue of poor anger management (poor
social-emotional development) and address the issue in
order to break the cycle in support of academic
achievement.
Children exposed to violence will not only exhibit
behavioural problems, they are also more likely to de-
monstrate deficits in standardised test scores and lower
grades (Delaney-Black et al., 2002). Children who have
experienced maltreatment exhibit significant difficulties
with the negotiation of all aspects of the school envir-
onment. According to Cicchetti and Toth (1995), child-
ren who have been physically abused demonstrate
aggressive, non-compliant and acting out behaviours,
and function poorly on cognitive tasks. Neglected chil-
dren demonstrate anxious and inattentive behaviours,
are often unable to understand their schoolwork, lack
initiative, and are dependent on their teachers for
assistance, approval and encouragement. Moreover,
children who perform poorly in school may be labelled
‘delayed,’ placing them in a lower academic track
(NIMH, 2000). It then becomes difficult for them to be
promoted, often leading to low levels of competence,
inhibition in their ability to engage in the learning pro-
cess, and higher rates of school drop-out (Farmer &
Farmer, 1999). Finzi et al. (2001) argue that in order to
break the cycle of abuse and neglect, special interven-
tion programmes are needed to help children handle
their emotional distress and social maladaptation while
simultaneously needing a change in their caregiving
environment.
Exposure to violence and/or maltreatment may also
result in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Adoles-
cents diagnosed with PTSD exhibit lower levels of schol-
astic performance across six areas of achievement and
report difficulty remembering things and paying atten-
tion in class (Saigh, Mroueh, & Bremmer, 1997). Chil-
dren exposed to high levels of community violence are
more likely to have poor school attendance and grades,
and are more likely to demonstrate deficits in standar-
dised test scores (Sieger et al., 2004). Although Sieger
and colleagues (2004) describe the performance on
standardised tests as a demonstrated deficit within the
neglected children, the framework of developmental
psychopathology would place the deficiency within the
context of a broken family or insufficient school envir-
onment. Additionally, children who are physically and/
or sexually abused or neglected are at significant risk for
poor academic performance, grade repetition and disci-
plinary problems (Eckenrode, Laird, & Doris, 1993).
These situations indicate that children are having diffi-
culty in school, yet their school performance may not be
reflective of their academic ability. In fact, it is often re-
flective of current or previous issues occurring in the
home and/or community that are negatively impacting
their ability to achieve in school. Therefore, it is im-
perative to recognise that such behaviours may be
symptoms of a deeper problem. Recognising school dif-
ficulties as symptomatic of underlying issues should
prompt school officials to investigate the cause(s) of such
issues and then provide the appropriate assistance or
services to best serve the needs of their students.
It is well documented that problems of social-emo-
tional functioning often occur in conjunction with aca-
demic problems (Barbarin, 2002). Social-emotional
development is not separate from academic achieve-
ment; instead they are dynamic, interrelated areas that
are necessary for children to develop and be successful
in many contexts, specifically school (Klein, 2002). So-
cial and emotional competence is directly related to
school readiness, and a child’s school readiness is
critical to their transition to kindergarten, early school
success and even later accomplishments in the work-
place (NIMH, 2000). Children who do not obtain the
skills needed to develop social emotional competence
are at greater risk of falling behind in school, and have
greater chances of behavioural, emotional, academic
and social developmental problems.
School context
In order to address social-emotional development
within the school context, we must recognise how
social-emotional development is viewed, defined and
approached. Behaviours and mental health diagnosis
in the school context often utilise the broad category of
serious emotional disturbance (SED). SED is defined as
a condition exhibiting one or more of the following
characteristics over a long period of time and to a
marked degree that adversely affects educational per-
formance:

• An inability to learn that cannot be explained by
intellectual, sensory or health factors;
• An inability to build or maintain satisfactory inter-
personal relationships with peers and teachers;
• Inappropriate types of behaviour or feelings under
normal circumstances;
• A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or
depression; or
• A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears
associated with personal or school problems (Na-
tional Information Center for Children and Youth
with Disabilities, NICHCY, 2004).
It is important to note that this is not a specific
diagnosis listed in the DSM-IV, but a broad spectrum of
symptoms and behaviours that can be seen in the
school setting. This definition was developed in
accordance with the Individuals with Disabilities Edu-
cation Act (IDEA) in an effort to identify children and
youth with psychiatric disabilities (including beha-
vioural and emotional problems) in the school setting in
order to provide them with the services needed to be
successful in school (NICHCY, 2004).
Identifying the school context as being able to provide
services that will assist with social-emotional develop-
ment has the potential to influence good academic
outcomes for children who may be exposed to violence.
As early as 1975, the federal government recognised the
need to provide services in schools to children with
disabilities in order to assist them in their ability to
achieve academically. Since that time, providing servi-
ces is no longer just an option, but a federal mandate as
recognised by IDEA. Although the causes of serious
emotional disturbance (SED) have not been sufficiently
identified, children with SED often have difficulty in
meeting academic standards, developing social skills,
self-esteem, self-control and self-awareness (NICHCY,
2004; Becker & Luthar, 2002; Mazza & Overstreet,
2000). Children with SED are often described as de-
monstrating aggressive behaviours, and lacking age
appropriate social skills. These behaviours frequently
(mis)place them in special education classes, further
alienating them from normal developmental peer in-
volvement. Weist and Albus (2004) explain the purpose
of expanded school mental health (ESMH) programmes
in providing comprehensive mental health services, in-
cluding assessment, case management, therapy, and
prevention to youth in general and regular education
through partnerships between schools and community
health/mental health agencies.
In a comparative study of schools with and without
ESMH programs, Bruns et al. (2004) found that fewer
students in the schools with ESMH programmes were
referred by teachers to the special education negli-
gibility process because of emotional and behavioural
issues, and fewer students required special education
due to emotional and behavioural disabilities. This
demonstrates the effectiveness of integrating mental
health awareness into the school setting. Children are
to be provided with an Individual Education Plan (IEP)
that specifically identifies and addresses the child’s
needs based on their actual limitations, not a specific
diagnosis. Therefore, as part of legislation, schools are
mandated to provide children with services that ad-
dress their specific needs. Children with similar beha-
Social-Emotional Development within School 35
vioural problems may have underlying factors
contributing to their symptoms that may be very dif-
ferent. For example, a child may be living in a home
plagued by domestic violence and therefore may be
acting aggressively towards her/his peers as a response
to what s/he is experiencing at home, while another
child may be depressed and therefore having difficulty
concentrating in class. In both these cases the child is
having difficulty in school, but it manifests itself dif-
ferently. Regardless of the cause, children who exhibit
behaviours and/or symptoms related to poor mental
health should be identified and provided with the
appropriate services by the school system to meet their
specific needs as mandated by law.
The Chesapeake Institute for the US Department of
Education (1994), Office of Special Education and
Rehabilitative Services Office of Special Education
Programs, issued a National Agenda for Achieving Bet-
ter Results for Children and Youth with Serious Emo-
tional Disturbance. This group found that:
• Students with SED receive lower grades than any
other group of students with disabilities;
• High school students with SED have an average GPA
of 1.7 (4-point scale);
• Only 42% of youth with SED earn a HS diploma (vs.
50% of all youth with disabilities and 76% of youth
in the general population);
• Forty-eight percent of students with SED drop out of
high school (v. 30% of students with disabilities and
24% of all HS students);
• Twenty-two percent of students with SED are
arrested at least once before they leave school;
• Fifty-eight percent of youth with SED are arrested
within five years of leaving school, as opposed to
30% of all students with disabilities.
The above information demonstrates negative out-
comes on an adolescent’s ability to achieve academic-
ally and beyond the school setting when battling SED.
More importantly, the group’s findings are critical to
better understand how the school’s ability to prepare
students academically overlaps with their role to serve
the social-emotional needs of their students. Moreover,
an evaluation for the Annie E. Casey’s New Futures
initiative, a partnership that reformed a citywide deliv-
ery of health and human services connected with
schools, found that school-linked mental health servi-
ces were more than merely linked but were integrated
into the core of school for students, creating greater
gains in academic achievement and other school out-
comes (Honing, Kahne, & McLaughlin, 2001). There is a
clear acknowledgement that mental health programmes
and services may be needed to enable students to
benefit from instruction (Adelman & Taylor, 2000).
The Chesapeake Institute findings also speak to the
need to identify children with social-emotional issues
early in their school career in order to provide services
that will support their academic success. Applying the
developmental psychopathology approach to these
students helps us recognise that not all students
labelled SED need to be placed in special education
classes, because not all such students experience sig-
nificant school difficulties that warrant special educa-
tion placement. Similar to IDEA, we need to provide
36 Ann M. Aviles et al.
services that are based on the student’s individual
needs, not on a specified diagnosis.
Current school services
More recently, there have been increased efforts amongst
schools to collaborate with mental health professionals
and agencies (Weist & Albus, 2004). Despite these ef-
forts, literature demonstrates youth are often in-
appropriately served and/or lack appropriate available
services within the school setting (Talbott & Fleming,
2003; Slade, 2003). The health care system and educa-
tional system have a history of addressing similar [social-
emotional] issues in isolation of each other (Papa, Rector,
& Stone, 1998). The lack of communication among these
systems makes it difficult to provide students with the
appropriate services. A study conducted by Slade (2003)
found that most schools in the US are ill prepared to
counsel adolescents about mental health problems or to
appropriately refer them for treatment. He also found
that schools are not well organised to address the mental
health needs of adolescents. Findings by Talbott and
Fleming (2003) render a discussion regarding the capa-
bilities of the school to provide an environment that
promotes healthy social-emotional development. Most
schools may not currently have the resources and pro-
grams in place to meet the social-emotional needs of their
students. However, as discussed above, it is federally
mandated for public schools to serve these needs. Adel-
man and Taylor (2000) found that schools employ or
contract with relatively few mental health practitioners.
A sample of 482 school districts of varying sizes in 45
states indicate that 55% report having counsellors;
40.5% have psychologists; 21% have social workers; and
2.1% have psychiatrists. Therefore schools must con-
tinue to reach out and collaborate with organisations in
the community that do have the resources and pro-
grammes that can serve the youth, until schools can
provide these services. In addition, teachers and para-
professionals who work directly with children should be
given professional development opportunities to gain
knowledge of social-emotional needs of children, and
how best to recognise these needs.
Lehman et al. (2002) found that educational systems
functioning in the absence of a coordinated community
system are relatively ineffective in providing support
structures for youth that empower them to be full par-
ticipants in mainstream society. Not only are services
lacking within the school system itself, but little if any-
thing is being done to refer youth to services in the
community so that their mental health needs can be
met. A recent study found that in order for youth to re-
ceive effective mental health services, schools must be-
gin to provide consistent programme implementation,
multiple interventions (individual and group therapy),
the integration of mental health lessons into the general
classroom curriculum and developmentally appropriate
programme components (Ringeisen, Henderson, &
Hoagwood, 2003). Additionally, the development of
these programmes must include teachers, parents and
students themselves (Ringeisen et al., 2003).
Another issue for the school to consider regarding the
social-emotional needs of children is that many of the
mental health services provided through schools are
accessible to younger children and are less likely to be
available to adolescents and young adults. A recent
report by Ford (2003) found that emotional and beha-
vioural problems have more than doubled in the past
25 years; however, only 1 in 4 children actually receives
treatment. This report speaks to the benefits of provi-
ding mental health services to children and adoles-
cents, and recognises that there is a huge gap between
the services needed and the services delivered, specif-
ically at the high school level. In addition, Cicchetti and
Rogosch (2002) note, ‘Because resilience is an ongoing
dynamic process rather than a static characteristic of
children and adolescents, prevention programmes
promoting resilience, especially amongst youth im-
mersed in adversity, likely need to be long term and
geared toward assisting high-risk youth across suc-
cessive periods of development’ (p.16). Services that will
promote healthy development within the school setting
need to be ongoing. Many children are identified as
having academic difficulties early in their school career,
but services are scarce at the middle and high school
levels. Adolescence is an ideal opportunity to provide
mental health services because this is a point at which
students are undergoing multiple physical and psy-
chological changes. Slade (2003) addressed the
importance of early adolescence as a developmental
period in which it is possible to prevent mental health
problems, to improve their severity, to prevent new
problems from occurring, or prevent the development of
comorbidity. Adolescence is an important stage for all
children, it is an opportunity to provide mental health
services to youth who may have had a need but never
received help, while also providing an opportunity for
youth who have developed a new need for mental health
services later in their academic careers.
Services at the high school level are extremely
important in supporting adolescents in their develop-
mental trajectory towards adulthood. The presence of a
mental illness has been shown to have a large impact on
school completion (Vander-Stoep et al., 2003). Nineteen
percent of 20–24-year-olds in the US have not comple-
ted their high school education. The proportion of stu-
dents who do not complete school due to mental illness
(social-emotional problems) has not been adequately
addressed (Vander-Stoep et al., 2003). Approximately
42,000 adolescents in the US per year who have been
identified as having a mental illness enter adulthood
without completing high school, being unprepared for
the transition to adulthood and employment (Vander-
Stoep et al., 2003). As the numbers above demonstrate,
lack of appropriate services is not only detrimental to an
adolescent’s academic success, but also to their adult
livelihood.
Role of schools
Children and adolescents spend a significant part of
their day in school. This makes the school environment
a common point of entry in which to provide services to
children across many age groups (Farmer et al., 2003).
Often the number of children who are in need of mental
health services exceeds the number of children who
actually receive these services (Weist, 1999). The school
setting is a good avenue to identify children in need of
services and provide them with the services they have a
right to receive. This is especially important for children
who may not have regular access to a doctor or other
health care provider.

Schools are important partners in providing formal
services such as counselling and informal services such
as positive social interaction in order to improve a
child’s social-emotional well being, while simulta-
neously improving their academic performance. Chil-
dren require a secure/trusting relationship with their
primary caregivers to allow them to create positive
relationships with their peers and a successful adjust-
ment to the formal demands required by school (Espi-
nosa, 2002). Teachers may be viewed as alternate
attachment figures making them a valuable component
in altering maltreated children’s understanding of
appropriate relationships. Espinosa (2002) recognises
that teacher-child relationships have a significant
influence on a child’s adjustment to kindergarten in
addition to their academic performance. This makes the
school environment a key context in which to provide
protective factors (such as positive relationships) in an
effort to counter the effects of abuse, neglect and/or
violence.
It is important to recognise the significance of con-
texts in optimising adolescents’ striving for autonomy.
This support should occur in accordance with the
developmental needs of adolescents as they mature. An
environment, such as schools, that supports youth as
they develop needs to consider their social-emotional
needs. Youth who have social-emotional difficulties of-
ten require assistance while still in high school, in
addition to help during their transition period from high
school to higher education and/or to adult independ-
ence (Lehman et al., 2002). Providing adolescents with
environments that promote their skills and abilities will
foster success in their ability to negotiate their devel-
opmental tasks while simultaneously resulting in
academic achievement.
An adolescent’s environment, specifically the school
context, may serve as a source of resilience (Valenzuela,
1999). Skills that adolescents acquire in school can
serve as a foundation for success for the future in
higher education and employment opportunities (Cic-
chetti & Toth, 1995). Therefore children who are not
able to attend school regularly, and/or do not attend a
specific school consistently, may not have the oppor-
tunity to forge such relationships. In addition to re-
lationships formed with adults, the school context
provides opportunities for children and adolescents to
develop appropriate social skills with their peers. Peer
interaction provides children and adolescents with an
opportunity to evaluate themselves, develop an under-
standing of themselves and others, while also providing
a space in which to explore behaviours, beliefs and
values (Farmer & Farmer, 1999). Children who have
difficulty or are unable to appropriately socialise with
peers often experience peer rejection, which places
them at further risk for problems in the future (Farmer
& Farmer, 1999).
Instruction in school also plays a role in a student’s
academic achievement and development. The stimula-
tion offered by the school curriculum influences a stu-
dent’s achievement and motivation to learn. In addition
to the school curriculum, classroom instruction also
depends on class size and teacher approach. Studies
show that the academic needs of children with emo-
tional and behavioural problems can most realistically
be addressed in a small, highly structured classroom
Social-Emotional Development within School 37
environment, with unwavering teacher support (Farmer
& Farmer, 1999). Because so many children with social-
emotional difficulties demonstrate behavioural pro-
blems, the approach a teacher takes in working with
them plays a significant role in their social-emotional
development and their academic achievement. There-
fore, we must also take into consideration a teacher’s
behaviour management strategies, instructional strat-
egies, engagement and content when trying to better
understand how the school environment impacts on a
child’s ability to learn (Weist & Albus, 2004).
Lastly, we must look at a classroom teacher’s support
in the school setting from other teachers and adminis-
trators to ensure that they have the support needed to
implement a teaching approach that is conducive to the
social-emotional development of the children they
serve. Teachers need to be provided with support in
their efforts to work with youth experiencing a social-
emotional crisis due to past and/or present violence in
their homes and/or neighborhoods. The support
teachers receive from other teachers can serve as a
mechanism that enables teacher support of youth (e.g.
praise, encouragement), increasing the likelihood of a
pathway that leads to academic success. Academic
success can serve as a protective factor for youth that
are at risk for school failure, dropping out, delinquency
and incarceration (Noam & Hermann, 2002). As dis-
cussed previously, not all youth who have had adverse
experiences will be at risk for school failure or de-
linquency; however, making services available to all
youth allows those in need to access them. Therefore,
teacher support and guidance such as in-service
training and workshops are instrumental to making
appropriate services available and accessible to stu-
dents. Ongoing professional development enhances
school staff’s ability and commitment to address the
educational, emotional and behavioural needs of stu-
dents (Cheney, Osher, & Caesar, 2002).
Future directions
Many of the effective mental health interventions have
not been developed or tested within the school context
(Ringeisen et al., 2003). This limits our knowledge of
approaches that can be effective within the school
environment. Unfortunately, there is a shortage of
school personnel who can focus their efforts specifically
on student mental health, creating a shortage of servi-
ces that are offered within the school setting. For chil-
dren and adolescents who do receive these limited
services, they often are not identified as in need of
mental health services until a crisis situation occurs
(Ringeisen et al., 2003). This situation leads to service
delivery that may not be appropriate or adequate, once
again having a negative impact on a student’s ability to
be successful in school. Professional development is
needed to better prepare teachers and school personnel
to work with children with social-emotional difficulties.
In order to provide teachers with this support, more
funding is needed to conduct teacher education, pro-
vide in-services, workshops, etc. The lack of federal and
state funding provided to initiatives such as No Child
Left Behind (NCLB), is an indicator that securing funds
for mental health will be a difficult task. Additionally,
social-emotional development in teacher education
38 Ann M. Aviles et al.
programmes should be emphasized. If we are to see
improvements in the academic outcomes of children
and youth with social-emotional difficulties, funds
must be allocated for these programmes and services.
School personnel should not be solely responsible for
providing mental health services. Mental health pro-
fessionals (psychologist, psychiatrists) should also be
aware of the academic difficulties caused by poor
mental health. Therefore, it is important for mental
health professionals to move beyond developing and
testing clinically focused treatments and make progress
into the study of interventions that are relevant to the
contextual needs of a dynamic educational system
(Ringeisen et al., 2003). This will mean working with
school staff (teachers and administrators) in order to
devise effective services. Collaboration among school
personnel and mental health professionals creates
many tensions due to differences in philosophies, poor
communication, scheduling conflicts, limited re-
sources, and poor knowledge by mental health staff of
school regulations and procedures (Waxman, Weist, &
Benson, 1999). However, collaboration is necessary in
order to develop and implement effective programmes
and services that are specific to the individual needs of
students with social-emotional difficulties. It is im-
portant to acknowledge these issues as they impede a
child’s ability to receive effective services. Therefore,
schools need to be aware of these issues and generate
strategies that will facilitate collaboration amongst
teachers and mental health professionals.
Lastly, teachers and school personnel need to be
aware of the sensitivity of information they may receive
from children and adolescents regarding home envir-
onments that may be abusive or neglectful. When
dealing with children/adolescents with mental health
issues in a public domain such as school, issues such
as confidentiality, anonymity, and disclosure of infor-
mation arise. Schools will need to provide the appro-
priate resources to prepare teachers and to provide
them with the support needed to cope with sensitive
information such as the disclosure of physical or sexual
abuse and provide the appropriate avenues and sup-
port to deal with such sensitive information.
Summary
Many children and adolescents exposed to abuse, neg-
lect, and community violence are at risk of travelling
pathways that lead to social emotional difficulties.
These limitations have the potential to negatively im-
pact an adolescent’s ability to negotiate their roles as
students, resulting in academic difficulties. Although
not all children who are exposed to adverse conditions
will experience academic limitations, mental health
services provided within the school context are key in
serving as a protective factor (amongst many) to prevent
negative school outcomes for children at risk for aca-
demic difficulties due to social-emotional issues.
The primary role of children and adolescents is that
of student, and this role must be supported in order
for them to be successful in school and later in life.
Mental health plays a major role in their ability to
function in their student role as well as negotiate the
school environment. Failing to provide students with
access to effective mental health services has resulted
in young adults who do not fair well in school (poor
grades, high dropout rates, etc) or in their ability to
have a successful transition into adulthood. Schools
have the potential to meet the mental health needs of
students experiencing social-emotional difficulties. In
order for this to occur, greater emphasis must be
placed on policies and programmes that serve the
mental health needs of children and adolescents.
Funding for such efforts must be increased in order to
provide training to teachers, mental health profes-
sionals in the school setting, evaluation of the effect-
iveness of current policies and programmes and to
develop new programmes and policies that best serve
the social-emotional needs of students, which in turn,
we are arguing, would serve the academic needs of a
multitude of children in the schools.
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