GOOD MORNING!

SUBJECT: BIOTECHNOLOGY
GRADE LEVEL: 8
TEACHER: ROXANNE G. TORIO
TOPIC: HUMAN SYSTEM (NERVOUS SYSTEM)

NERVOUS SYSTEM
The human nervous system is typical of the vertebrates. It includes a large, well-
developed brain. A thick spinal cord connects the brain with a system of nerves that
reaches all parts of the body. Specialized sense receptors in the eyes, ears, nose and
skin pick up sensory input from the environment and send it to the brain. The brain
processes this input and send messages back through the system of nerves to control
all body parts.

The human nervous system has two main parts:

The central nervous SYSTEM and the PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.
THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM includes the brain and spinal cord. The brain and
spinal cord are protected by bony structures, membranes and fluid.
The brain is held in the cranial cavity of the skull and it consists of the cerebrum,
cerebellum and the brain stem. The nerves involved are cranial nerves and spinal
nerves. The nervous system has a three main functions: sensory input, integration of
data and motor output. SENSORY INPUT is when the body gathers information or data,
by way of neurons, glia and synapses. The nervous system is composed of excitable
nerve cells and synapses connecting the cells to one another, to centers throughout the
body or to other neurons. NEURONS are the functional cells of the nervous system.
They transmit signals through the body. These neurons operate on excitation or
inhibition and although nerve cells can vary in size and location their communication
with one another determines their function. These nerves conduct impulses from
sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord. The data is then processed by way of
integration of data, which occurs only in the brain. After the brain has processed the
information, impulses are then conducted from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and
glands, which are called MOTOR OUTPUT. GLIA CELLS are found within tissues that
protect, support and assist the neurons. There are several kinds of glial cells in the
nervous system, including the SCHWANN CELLS and other astrocytes.
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF NEURONS
Neurons have three different parts to them. They all have an axon, a cell body and
dendrites. The AXON is the part of the neuron that conducts nerve impulses. Axons can
get to be quite long. When an axon is present in nerves, it is called a NERVE FIBER. A
cell has a nucleus and it also has other organelles. The dendrites are the short pieces
that come off of the cell body that receive the signals from sensory receptors and other
neurons.
The SOMA (CELL BODY) is the central part of the neuron. It contains the nucleus of the
cell, and therefore is where most protein synthesis occurs. The nucleus ranges from 3
to 18 micrometers in diameter. The dendrites of a neuron are cellular extensions with
many ranches referred to as a dendritic tree. This is where the majority of input to the
neuron occurs. However, information outflow can also occur (except in chemical
synapse in which backflow of impulse is inhibited by the fact that axons don not possess
chemoreceptors and dendrites cannot secrete neurotransmitter chemical). This explains
the one way conduction of nerve impulse.

THE AXON is a finer, cable like projection which can extend tens, hundreds or even
tens of thousands of times the diameter of the soma in length. The axons caries nerve
signals away from the soma (and also carry some types of information back to it). Many
neurons have only one axon, but this axon may and usually will undergo extensive
branching, enabling communication with may target cells. The part of the axon where it
emerges from the soma is called AXON HILLOCK. Besides being an anatomical
structure the axon hillock is also the part of the neuron that has the greatest density of
voltage-dependent sodium channels. This makes it the most easily-excited part of the
neuron and the spike initiation zone for the axon; in neurological terms it has the
greatest hyperpolarized action potential threshold. While the axon and axon hillock are
generally involved in information outflow, this region can also receive input from other
neurons as well. The axon terminal is a specialized structure at the end of the axon that
is used to release neurotransmitter chemicals and communicate with target neurons.
Although the canonical view of the neuron attributes dedicated functions to its various
anatomical components, dendrites and axons often act in ways contrary to their so-
called main function.

Neurons convey information from tissues and organs into the central nervous system.
They transmit signals from the central nervous system to the effector cells and are
sometimes called MOTOR NEURONS. Interneurons connect neurons within specific
regions of the central nervous system

Parts of a Neuron
• Dendrite – receive stimulus and carries it impulses toward the cell body
• Cell Bodywith nucleus – nucleus & most of cytoplasm
• Axon – fiber which carries impulses away from cell body
• Schwann Cells- cells which produce myelin or fat layer in the Peripheral Nervous
System
• Myelin sheath– dense lipid layer which insulates the axon – makes the axon look gray
• Node of Ranvier – gaps or nodes in the myelin sheath
• Impulses travel from dendrite to cell body to axon

TYPES OF NEURONS

There are three types of neurons in the body. We have sensory neurons, interneurons
and motor neurons. NEURONS are a major class of cells in the nervous system.
Neurons are sometimes called nerve cells, though this term is technically imprecise as
many neurons do not form nerves. In vertebrates, neurons are found in the brain, spinal
cord and in the nerves and ganglia of the peripheral nervous system. Their main role is
to process and transmit information. Neurons have excitable membranes, which allow
them to generate and propagate electrical impulses. Sensory neuron takes nerves
impulses or messages right form the sensory receptor and delivers it to the central
nervous system. A sensory receptor is a structure that can find any kind of change in its
surroundings or environment.

Three types of Neurons

o Sensory neurons – bring messages to CNS
o Motor neurons - carry messages from CNS
o Interneurons – between sensory & motor neurons in the CNS

The Brain
The brain is the site of consciousness. It produces thoughts, feelings, memory, and
creativity. It monitors and controls our unconscious and well as conscious actions.
The brain is an exceedingly complex organ, made up of billions of interconnected and
interacting nerve cells. An intricate network of blood vessels bring a constant supply of
oxygen and glucose, from which these nerve cells get the energy they need to function.
The brain is found in the cranial cavity. Within it are found the higher nerve centers
responsible for coordinating the sensory and motor systems of the body (forebrain). The
brain stem houses the lower nerve centers (consisting of midbrain, pons and medulla).
The medulla is the control center for respiratory, cardiovascular and digestive functions.
The pons houses the control centers for respiration an inhibitory functions. Here it will
interact with the cerebellum.

Regions of the Brain

Cerebellum – coordination of movement and aspects of motor learning
Cerebrum – conscious activity including perception, emotion, thought, and planning
Thalamus – Brain’s switchboard – filters and then relays information to various brain
regions
Medulla – vital reflexes as heart beat and respiration
Brainstem – medulla, pons, and midbrain (involuntary responses) and relays
information from spine to upper brain
Hypothalamus– involved in regulating activities internal organs, monitoring information
from the autonomic nervous system, controlling the pituitary gland and its hormones,
and regulating sleep and appetite

CEREBRUM
The cerebrum or top portion of the brain is divided by a deep crevice called the
LONGITUDINAL SULCUS. The LONGITUDINAL SULCUS separates the cerebrum in
to the right ad left hemispheres. In the hemispheres you will find the cerebral cortex,
basal ganglia and limbic system. The two hemispheres are connected by a bundle of
nerve fibers called CORPUS CALLOSUM. The right hemisphere is responsible for the
left side of the body while the opposite is true of the left hemisphere. Each of the two
hemispheres are divided into four separated lobes: the frontal in control of specialized
motor control, learning, planning and speech; parietal in control of somatic sensory
functions; occipital in control of vision; and temporal lobes which consists of hearing
centers and some speech. Located deep to the temporal lobe of the cerebrum is the
insula.
Lobes of the Cerebrum
• Frontal – motor area involved in movement and in planning & coordinating behavior
• Parietal – sensory processing, attention, and language
• Temporal – auditory perception, speech, and complex visual perceptions
• Occipital – visual center – plays a role inprocessing visual information

CEREBELLUM
The cerebellum is the part of the brain that is located posterior to the medulla oblongata
and pons. It coordinates skeletal muscles to produce smooth, graceful motions. The
cerebellum receives information from our eyes, ears, muscles and joints about what
position our body is currently in. it also receives output from the cerebral cortex about
where these parts should be. After processing this information the cerebellum sends
motor impulses from the brainstem to the skeletal muscles. The main function of the
cerebellum is coordination. The cerebellum is also responsible for balance and posture.
It also assists us when we are learning a new motor skill, such as playing a sport or
musical instrument.

THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

The other main par of the nervous system is the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The
PNS is made of a network of nerves that extend throughout the body. The PNS gathers
information and delivers it to and from the CNS. The CNS and PNS work together as a
team to monitor, coordinate and control the activities of the entire body. The PNS
includes 12 cranial nerves and can be subdivided into the somatic and autonomic
systems. It is a way of communication from the central nervous system to the rest of the
body b nerve impulses that regulate the functions of the human body.

THE 12 CRANIAL NERVES:

· OLFACTORY NERVE- for smell
· OPTIC NERVE-for vision
· OCULOMOTOR- for looking around
· TROCHLEAR- for moving eye
· TRIGEMINAL- for feeling touch of face
· ABDUCENS- to move eye muscles
· FACIAL- to smile, wink and help us taste
· VESTIBULOCOCHLEAR- to help with balance, equilibrium and hearing
· GLOSSOPHARENGEAL- for swallowing and gagging
· VAGUS- for swallowing, talking and parasympathetic actions of digestion
· SPINAL ACCESSORY- for shrugging shoulders
· HYPOGLOSSAL- for tongue more divided into different regions as muscles

THE SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM is that part of the peripheral nervous system
associated with the voluntary control of body movements through the action of skeletal
muscles, and also reception of external stimuli. The somatic nervous system consist of
afferent fibers that receive information from external sources, and efferent fibers that are
responsible for muscle contraction. The somatic system includes the pathways from the
skin and skeletal muscles to the CENRTAL NERVOUS SYSTEM. It is also described as
involved with activities that involve consciousness.

THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM deal with the visceral organs, like the heart,
stomach, gland and the intestines. It regulates systems that are unconsciously carried
out to keep our body alive and well, such as breathing, digestion (peristalsis) and
regulation of the heartbeat. The autonomic system consists of the sympathetic and
parasympathetic divisions. The sympathetic nervous system activates what is often
termed the fight or flight response. As it most active under sudden stressful
circumstances (such as being attacked). The PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS
SYSTEM is sometimes called “the rest and digest system” or feed and breed. It
conserves energy as it slows the heart rate, increases intestinal and gland activity, and
relaxes sphincter muscles in the gastrointestinal tract.

wala po muna activites this week. para tapusin niyo na po lahat ng activites niyo
saken at sa iba pang mga subjects niyo