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Computation report

Introduction
The bulkheads are civil engineering works that find application in a lot of problems related to the
stabilization of slopes or supporting ground embankments. They are also used for the mooring of large
vessels, or to shore up the walls of trenches and other excavations or to realize sealed caissons for
underwater works. So a great importance must be given to the design of such a work, particularly as
regards the structural and geotechnical design. As regards the calculation is worth pointing out that
there aren’t, to date, the exact computation methods, and this is also due to the complex interaction
between the depth of excavation, the stiffness of the material constituting the bulkhead and the
resistance due to passive pressure. In any case, the methods currently used can be classified into two
categories:
1. Methods that are based on a discretization of the bulkhead model (finite difference or finite
element).
2. Methods that rely on simplistic conjecture in order to face the problem with the simple study of
equilibrium of a rigid body.
Between the two classes of methods exposed to the previous list, the finite element method is the most
rational, since it is based on considerations that involve both the static problem (equilibrium) and
kinematics (consistency).
Types of bulkheads
The types of bulkheads most used at present can be classified as follows:
1. Bulkheads in reinforced concrete
2. Timber sheetpiling
3. Steel sheetpiling

Bulkhead analysis
Some preliminary considerations
The elements that contribute to the calculation of a bulkhead are various. In fact are involved concepts
related to the flexibility of the piles, the calculation of the embankment thrust, the stiffness of the soil
etc. Observe the following figure:

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Figure 1: Scheme of pressures acting on the bulkhead

It can be seen that the lateral pressures which are called to participate in the equilibrium are the active
pressure developed on the reverse side of the bulkhead and the passive pressure which develops in the
front of the bulkhead (downstream of the bulkhead). The calculation, in the context of simplified
methods or numerical methods, of the thrust on the reverse and downstream of the bulkhead is usually
conducted either by the method of Rankine or with the method of Coulomb. It notes, however, that the
method of Coulomb provides more accurate results because the bulkhead being a work usually flexible
and thus showing more movements is generated friction at the interface bulkhead-ground that can be
taken into account only through Coulomb’s thrust coefficients.
In using the finite element method it also must be calculated a ground reaction coefficient, ks, as well
as the active and passive ground thrust. If it comes to analysis in undrained conditions it is also
necessary to know the value of undrained cohesion. It also important to consider that if you want to be
duly taken into account the friction between the soil and the work you must know of the angle of
friction between the ground and work (in fact). In conclusion the parameters (in terms of ground
properties) which must be available to perform the analysis are the following:
1. Ground angle of internal friction
2. Ground cohesion
3. Ground unit weight
4. Friction angle between ground and material that constitutes the work

Thrust computation
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As mentioned in one of the preceding paragraphs, the calculation of the active and passive thrust must
in any case be performed. In this section is presented the thrust calculation using Coulomb’s method.

Computation of active thrust

The active thrust can be calculated using Coulomb’s method or alternatively using the Theory of
Caquot.
Coulomb’s method
Coulomb’s method is able to take into account the most significant variables, especially with regard to
the frictional phenomenon that is generated at the bulkhead-ground interface. For homogeneous and
dry ground, the pressure diagram shows linear distribution (measured at the depth z):
σ h ( z )=k a⋅γ t⋅z
The total thrust, which is the integral of the previous relationship on all the height, is applied to 1/3 of
H and is calculated using the following expression:
1
S t ( z )= k a⋅γ t⋅H 2
2
Having indicated with ka the value of the active pressure coefficient, determined with the following
relationship:

sin2 ( φ+β )

{
¿
k a=

[√
sin2 β×sin ( β−δ ) × 1 + ]
sin ( φ+δ )×sin ( φ−ε ) ¿
sin ( β−δ )×sin ( β+ε )
2
¿¿¿
¿

gt = ground unit weight

b = inclination of the inner wall of the horizontal plane passing through the foot
f = soil angle of shearing resistance
d = soil-bulkhead friction angle, positive if counterclockwise
e = inclination of the ground level of the horizontal plane, positive if counterclockwise

Caquot’s method
Coulomb’s method appears to be a sufficiently accurate method for the evaluation of pressure
coefficients at limit state. However is affected by the hypothesis concerning the planarity of the sliding
surface. This hypothesis is removed by applying the theory of Caquot which is based on the use of a
sliding surface in the shape of a logarithmic spiral. According to this theory the active pressure
coefficient is determined using the following formula:
K a =ρ⋅K Coulomb
a

Where the symbols have the following meaning:

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 KaCoulomb is the coefficient of active pressure calculated with the theory of Coulomb
 r is a multiplicative coefficient calculated with the following formula:
−n
ρ=( [ 1−0 . 9⋅λ 2−0. 1⋅λ ]⋅[ 1−0 . 3⋅λ 3 ] )

The symbols are calculated with the following formulas:

Δ+β−Γ
λ=
4⋅ϕ−2⋅π⋅( Δ+ β−Γ )
2 2
|cot (δ )|− √cot (δ )−cot (ϕ )
Δ=2⋅tan −1
( 1+cosec(ϕ ) )
sin( β )
Γ=sin−1 ( sin(ϕ ) )
The symbols have the following meaning (see also figure below):
 b is the inclination of the upstream profile measured compared to the horizontal
 f is the angle of internal friction of the pushing ground
 d is the friction angle at the work-ground interface

Figure: Convention used for the calculation of the pressure coefficient according to the theory of Caquot

Uniform load on the embankment

A load Q, evenly distributed on the ground surface induces constant pressures equal to:
sin( β )
σ q ( z )=k a⋅Q⋅
sin( β + ε )

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By integrating the stress indicated in the above formula we obtain the total thrust due to overload:
sin( β )
S q =k a⋅Q⋅ ⋅H
sin( β +ε )
With application point to H/2 (stress distribution constant). In the above formulas the symbols have the
following meaning:
b = Inclination of the inner wall with respect to the horizontal plane passing through the foot
e = Inclination of the ground level with respect to the horizontal plane, positive if
counterclockwise
Ka = Active pressure coefficient calculated in the previous paragraph

Strip load on inclined ground level

The acting load is decomposed into a tangential load and a perpendicular load to the embankment, the
pressure induced on the wall will be calculated as shown in the two paragraphs that follow.

Strip load perpendicular to the plane of action

A load partially distributed by initial abscissa x1 and final abscissa x2 generates a pressures diagram on
the wall whose values were determined according to the formula of Terzaghi, which expresses the
pressure to the generic depth z as follows:
Q
σ q ( z)=
2 π ×(2 Δθ+ A )
Q
τ xz =−
2 πB
With:
Dq=q1-q2;

A=sin(2q1)-sin(2q2)

B=cos(2q1)-cos(2q2)

q1=arctg(z/x1)

q2=arctg(z/x2)
By integration we will get the result and the relative arm.

Strip load tangential to ground level

t
σ x=
2 π ×( D−2 E )

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T =Load intensity [F/L²]

D =4´log[sinq1/sinq2]
E =sin²q1-sin²q2
Load lines on the embankment
The load lines generate an increase of pressure on the wall that, according to Boussinesq, at the depth z,
may be expressed as follows:
2V
σ x ( x , z )=
π⋅x 2⋅z⋅( x 2 + z 2 )2
2V
τ xz ( x , z )=
π⋅x⋅z 2⋅( x 2 + z 2 )2
Where the symbols have the following meaning:
V =Load intensity expressed in [F/L]
X =Distance, in horizontal projection, of the load application from the wall
If the action plan is inclined by e the reference system xz is rotated in XZ, through the following
transformation:

{ X =x⋅cos(ε)−z⋅sin(ε)¿¿¿¿
Thrust in the presence of ground water
The groundwater with surface distant Hw from the base of the structure, induces hydrostatic pressures
normal to the wall that, at the depth z, are expressed as follows:
u( z )=γ w⋅z
The total buoyancy is obtained by integration over the whole height of the previous relationship:
1
S w = γ w⋅H 2
2
Having indicated with H the total height of thrust and with gw the unit weight of water. The thrust of
the ground is obtained by replacing gt with g't (g't = gsaturated - gw), specific weight of the material
immersed in water. In seismic conditions the thrust exerted by water is evaluated as follows:
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ΔS w = γ ⋅H ⋅C
12 w w 2
applied to 2/3 of the height of the water table Hw [Matsuo O'Hara (1960) Geotecnica , R. Lancellotta]

Effect due to the presence of cohesion

The cohesion induces constant negative pressures equal to:
2⋅c
Pc =−
√k a

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It is impossible to determine in advance what is the decrease induced by the thrust due to cohesion. It
was calculated the critical depth Zc as follows:
Q×sin β

Zc=
2c
− { [ sin ( β+ ε ) ] }
γ t ×√ Ka γt
Where the symbols have the following meaning:
Q = Load acting on the embankment eventually present
gt = Soil unit weight
b = Inclination of the inner wall of the horizontal plane passing through the foot
e = Inclination of the ground level of the horizontal plane, positive if counterclockwise
C = Material cohesion
Ka = Coefficient of active pressure, as calculated in the previous steps
If Zc, calculated with the above formula, is less than zero, it is possible to directly superimpose the
effects of the diagrams, by imposing a decrease in the original thrust diagram calculated as follows:
S c =Pc⋅H
Where it is indicated by the symbol H the height of the total thrust.

Earthquake
Active thrust in seismic conditions
In the presence of earthquake the calculation strength exerted by the embankment on the wall is given
by:
1
Ed = γ ( 1±k v ) KH 2 + E ws + E wd
2
Where the symbols have the following meaning:
H =excavation height
Kv = vertical seismic coefficient
g = soil unit weight
K =total active thrust coefficients (static + dynamic) (see Mononobe & Okabe)
Ews =buoyancy of water
Ewd =hydrodynamic thrust
For impermeable soils hydrodynamic thrust Ewd = 0, but a correction is made on the computation of
the angle b in Mononobe & Okabe formula as follows:
γ sat kh
tg ϑ=
γ sat −γ w 1∓k v
In soils of high-permeability under dynamic conditions continues to apply the above correction, but the
hydrodynamic thrust assumes the following expression:
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Ewd = k γ H '2
12 h w

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With H' height of the water table (shown in the section concerning the calculation of buoyancy).

Passive resistance
For the calculation of the passive resistance may be used the two methods used in the calculation of the
pressure at active limit state (Coulomb’s method and method of Caquot).
Coulomb’s method
For homogeneous soil the pressures diagram under passive limit state conditions is linear with law of
type:
σ p ( z)=k p γ t z
By integrating the previous relationship on the height of thrust (which for the bulkheads must be
carefully calculated) we get the total passive thrust:
1
S t = k p⋅γ t⋅H 2
2
Having usual indicated with H the thrust height, gt soil unit weight and with kp the passive pressure
coefficient (under conditions of passive limit state). The value of this coefficient is determined with the
following formula:
sin2 ( β−φ )

{ k p=
sin2 β×sin ( β +δ )× 1−

With values equal to: d< b-f-e (Muller-Breslau).

[√
2

]
sin ( φ+δ )×sin ( φ+ε ) ¿
sin ( β+δ )×sin ( β+ε )
¿¿¿

Method of Caquot
The method of Caquot differs from Coulomb’s method by the calculation of the pressure coefficient at
passive limit state. The coefficient of passive pressure is calculated, with this method, by interpolating
the values in the following table:
Coefficient of passive earth pressure Kp for δ = -φ

α [°] φ [°] Kp when β°

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
10 1,17 1,41 1,53
15 1,30 1,70 1,92 2,08
20 1,71 2,08 2,42 2,71 2,92
25 2,14 2,81 2,98 3,88 4,22 4,43
-30 30 2,78 3,42 4,18 5,01 5,98 8,94 7,40
35 3,75 4,73 5,87 7,21 8,78 10,80 12,50 13,80
40 5,31 8,87 8,77 11,00 13,70 17,20 24,80 25,40 28,40
45 8,05 10,70 14,20 18,40 23,80 90,60 38.90 49,10 60,70 69,10
10 1,36 1,58 1,70
15 1,68 1,97 2,20 2,38
20 2,13 2,52 2,92 3,22 3,51
25 2,78 3,34 3,99 4,80 5,29 5,57
-20 30 3,78 4,81 8,58 8,81 7,84 9,12 9,77

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35 5,38 8,89 8,28 10,10 12,20 14,80 17,40 19,00

40 8,07 10,40 12,00 18,50 20,00 25,50 38,50 37,80 42,20
45 13,2 17,50 22,90 29,80 38,30 48,90 82,30 78,80 97,30 111,04
10 1,52 1,72 1,83 .
15 1,95 2,23 2,57 2,88
20 2,57 2,98 3,42 3,75 4,09
25 3,50 4,14 4,90 5,82 8,45 8,81
-10 30 4,98 8,01 7,19 8,51 10,10 11,70 12,80
35 7,47 9,24 11,30 13,80 18,70 20,10 23,70 2ó,00
40 12,0 15,40 19,40 24,10 29,80 37,10 53,20 55,10 61,80
45 21,2 27,90 38,50 47,20 80,80 77,30 908,20 124,00 153,00 178,00
10 1,84 1,81 1,93
15 2,19 2,46 2,73 2,91
20 3,01 3,44 3,91 4,42 4,66
25 4,28 5,02 5,81 8,72 7,71 8,16
0 30 8,42 7,69 9,19 10,80 12,70 14,80 15,90
35 10,2 12,60 15,30 18,80 22,30 28,90 31,70 34,90
40 17,5 22,30 28,00 34,80 42,90 53,30 78,40 79,10 88,70
45 33,5 44,10 57,40 74,10 94,70 120,0 153,00 174,00 240,00 275,00
0
10 1,73 1,87 1,98
15 2,40 2,65 2,93 3,12
20 3,45 3,90 4,40 4,96 5,23
10 25 5,17 5,99 6,90 7,95 9,11 9,67
30 8,17 9,69 11,40 13,50 15,90 18,50 19,90
35 13,8 16,90 20,50 24,80 29,80 35,80 42,30 46,60
40 25,5 32,20 40,40 49,90 61,70 76,40 110,00 113,00 127,00
45 52,9 69,40 90,90 116,00 148,00 i88,00 239,00 303,00 375,00 431,00
10 1,78 1,89 I 2,01
15 2,58 2,821 3,11 3,30
20 3,90 4,38 4,92 5,53 5,83
20 25 6,18 7,12 8,17 9,39 10,70 11,40
30 10,4 12,30 14,40 16,90 20,00 23,20 25,00
35 18,7 22,80 27,60 33,30 40,00 48,00 56,80 62,50
40 37,2 46,90 58,60 72,50 89,30 111,0 158,00 164,00 185,00
0
45 84,0 110,00 143,00 184,00 234,00 297,0 378,00 478,00 592,00 680,00
0
Table: Evaluation of the coefficient of passive pressure with the theory of Caquot

Uniform load on backfill

The resistance induced by a uniformly distributed load Sq is:
sin β
S q =k p⋅Q⋅H⋅
sin ( β+ ε )
With application point equal to H/2 (being the diagram of the horizontal stresses constant for the entire
height). In the above formula kp is the coefficient of passive thrust calculated in the previous
paragraph.

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Cohesion
The cohesion determines an increase of resistance equal to:
Pc=2c×√ k p
This increase is to be added directly to the main diagram of thrust.

Limit Equilibrium Method ( LEM )

The limit equilibrium method searches for solutions to the problem of verification or design which are
compatible with only the static aspect of the problem. Basically we think in terms of equilibrium of a
rigid body, without worrying about the kinematic congruence of displacements. The main calculation
schemes which will be referred to are the following:
1. Cantilever bulkhead
2. Anchored bulkhead with a free end
3. Anchored bulkhead with a fixed end

Cantilever bulkhead: computation of limit embedment depth

For non-anchored bulkheads, the stability is ensured by the passive resistance of the soil which is
located downstream of the bulkhead; the equilibrium of the moments with respect to the rotation center
is obtained:
S m⋅Bm−R v⋅Bv =0
Where the symbols have the following meaning:
Sm =horizontal component of the active thrust
Bm =arm Sm with respect to O center of rotation
Rv =horizontal component of the passive resistance
Bv =arm Rv with respect to O center of rotation
Each term is a function of t, where t is the depth of the rotation center relative to the downstream
reference plane (ground level downstream). The length needed to ensure the equilibrium to horizontal
translation is achieved by increasing t as follows:
t '=a⋅t d=t⋅(1+a ) where a=0 . 2 ( Method of Blum)

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Figure 2: Diagram of reference for the calculation of bulkhead equilibrium

Safety coefficients on passive resistance

The embedment length d as above is determined relative to the limit condition of incipient collapse,
through a coefficient F. It is possible to introduce a safety margin on the passive resistances; the
reduction shall be carried out as follows:
R
S m⋅Bm− v⋅B v=0
F

Anchored bulkhead with free end: computation of the limit embedment depth
The stability of the work is also ensured by tie rods anchored on the bulkhead. To use the calculation
scheme to free end, the bulkhead must be sufficiently short and rigid. The embedment length will be
determined by imposing the equilibrium to the rotation about the origin of the tie rod indicated B1
S m⋅( H +t−Bm −t m )−Rv⋅( H +t −Bv −t m )=0
Where the symbols have the following meaning:
Sm = horizontal component of active thrust
H = height of ground to support
t = calculated embedment depth
Bm =arm Sm with respect to the base of the bulkhead
Pm =ordinate of the anchor point of application upstream
Rv = horizontal component of the passive resistance

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Bv = arm of Rv
Knowing t, are determined Sm and Rv and the relative stress of the anchor.

Safety factor F on passive resistances

The embedment length will be further increased in order to obtain safety margin in operating
conditions using the safety coefficient F:
R
S m⋅( H +t −Bm −t m )− v⋅( H +t −B v−t m )=0
F
Anchored bulkhead with fixed end: computation of limit embedment depth
If the deeper section of the bulkhead does not move and does not rotate can be assimilated to a joint, in
which case the bulkhead is defined with fixed end. A process developed by BLUM allows to obtain the
embedment depth (t + t '), imposing the kinematic conditions of null displacements at the base of the
work and at the origin of the anchor (B1), and the static conditions of moment and null shear at the
base of the bulkhead. This leads to an equation of the 5th degree (t + t ') which can be easily solved.

Safety coefficient F on resistances

To increase the safety factor were introduced, in the numerical developments, values of reduced
passive resistances.

Finite Element Method (FEM)

The finite element method is the method that most of all it is based on solid theoretical and rational
foundations. In fact all the method assumes that the problem is addressed taking into account both the
static (and therefore the equilibrium of the problem) and the kinematics aspects (and therefore the
consistency of the movements or better of deformations). In this approach the bulkhead is modeled as a
set of beams, with continuity bond between them (beam elements) bound to the ground by elastic
springs, whose stiffness is evaluated according to the elastic properties of the soil. The following figure
shows schematically the model used for the finite element analysis:

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Figure 3: Schematic representation of a bulkhead with finite elements

Various aspects are pivotal in this calculation method. The following section shows the essential
aspects.

Calculation of the Ks modulus

As mentioned previously, the ground is schematically shown with the springs of Ks stiffness applied on
the nodes of the slices between the dredge line node and the end of embedment. The computation of the
stiffness Ks was carried out on the basis of the foundations bearing capacity according to the following
formula:
ks= A s + Bs⋅z n
Where the symbols have the following meaning:
As =constant, calculated as As=C´(c´Nc+0.5´G´B´Ng)
Bs =coefficient function of depth Bs=C´G´Nq
Z =depth in question
C =40 in the international system of units SI
n =p´tanj
Nq =exp[n´(tan²(45° + j/2)]
Nc =(Nq-1)´cotj
Ng =1.5´(Nq-1)´tanj

Anchors
The anchors are summarized as elastic elements, with cross section of area equal to A, modulus of

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elasticity E and the length L. For a segment of bulkhead of unitary width, the action of the anchors
inclined at an angle b is:
A⋅E
F= ⋅cos( β )
S⋅L

Siphoning
The siphoning is a phenomenon that in an initial phase is localized to the foot of the bulkhead, and then
rapidly extends in the neighborhood of the resistant volume. Occurs when, for a high hydrodynamic
pressure or infiltration, are annulled the effective passive pressures, with the consequent loss of the soil
resistance. Usually the safety factor Fsiph = 3.5-4 indicating with:
ic = critical hydraulic gradient
ie = hydraulic gradient in operating conditions
The safety margin is defined as the ratio between ic and ie, if ie<ic the bulkhead is stable.

Uplift check for dredge line

In the case of a diaphragm driven into the ground, the presence of the water in positions such as to
trigger a filtration motion involves the establishment of a filtration force which, if directed upwards,
may cancel the weight of the soil which, in the absence of cohesion, it can be dragged by the water
flow and affect the stability of the work. The phenomenon of dredge stability, similar to that of
siphoning, has been faced for the first time by Terzaghi (1943). Unlike the siphoning, which is a
localized phenomenon in the outlet point of the first flow line, the dredge uplift extends to a depth
equal to bulkhead embedment depth for a width equal to half of that embedment.

To simplify the problem of determining the actual results from porewater pressure at point A, it is
assumed that the value of the overpressure to the foot of the diaphragm is constant over the length D/2
and equal to D/2 and equal to gwxHc. Hc is used to determine the expression of the efflux gradient iE:

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From which is obtained:

The filtration force Sw which tends to lift the block of soil involved is equal to:

The limit conditions of stability are reached when Sw equals the effective weight of the block, therefore,
the dredge uplift safety factor is defined as the ratio between the effective weight of the block and the
filtration force:

Sections check and reinforcement computation

The calculation of reinforcement and buckling and shear checks of the bulkhead subject to stresses N,
M and T, are carried out on the most stressed section. The calculation stresses are obtained as the
product between the stresses obtained from a linear meter calculation and the distance between the
piles (or width of the baffles if the bulkhead is formed by septum):
N d =N '⋅i; M d =M '⋅i; T d =T '⋅i
Where M', M', T' represent the moment, the shear and the normal stress relative to a unitary strip of
calculation while i is the distance between the piles to the bulkhead consisting of piles or micropiles (or
width septa for the bulkhead formed by septa).

GEOMETRY section
Section Rectangular
Concrete C25/30
Steel B450C
Name RECT 0,6x0,6
Rect. section B=0.9 H=0.6 m

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Indice

1.Sections archive… 16
Indice 18

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