Chap 9 Differential Analysis of Fluid Flow - Complete

EMH 222 FLUID DYNAMICS
Chapter 9
Differential analysis of fluid flow
1
9.1 Introduction
9.1.1 The Reynolds Transform Theorem
9.2 Conservation of Mass
9.2.1 Derivation using the Divergence Theorem
9.2.2 Derivation using an Infinitesimal Control Volume
9.2.2.1 Cartesian Coordinates
9.2.2.2 Cylindrical Coordinates
9.2.3 Special cases
9.3 The Stream Function
9.3.1 Cartesian Coordinates
9.3.2 Cylindrical Coordinates
9.4 The Differential Linear Momentum Equation
2
9.4.3 Derivation Using Newton’s Second Law

9.5 Navier-Stokes Equation
9.5.1 Decomposition of stress tensor
9.5.2 Newtonian vs Non-Newtonian
9.6 Differential Analysis of Fluid Flow Problems
9.6.1 Solution approach
9.6.2 Boundary conditions
9.6.3 Fully developed condition
3
Reference
Chapter 9 Differential Analysis of Fluid Flow

“Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications”
by Y.A. Cengel and J.M. Cimbala
McGraw-Hill
4
9.1 Introduction
Control volume analysis Differential analysis

• The flow field inside the • All the details of the flows
control volume (CV) is are solved at each point in
unknown. the flow domain.
• The sum of forces acting • The forces acting on the
on the object can be object can be calculated.
determined.
5
9.1.1 The Reynolds Transport Theorem
Two methods of analyzing the spraying of
deodorant from a spray can:
(a) We follow the fluid as it moves and
deforms. This is the system approach — no
mass crosses the boundary, and the total
mass of the system remains fixed.
(b) We consider a fixed interior volume of
the can. This is the control volume
approach — mass crosses the boundary.
The relationship
between the time rates
of change of an
extensive property for a
system and for a control
The Reynolds transport theorem
volume is expressed by
(RTT) provides a link between
the Reynolds transport
the system approach and the
theorem (RTT). 6
control volume approach.
The time rate of change of the
property B of the system is equal to
the time rate of change of B of the
control volume plus the net flux of B
out of the control volume by mass
crossing the control surface.
This equation applies at any instant
in time, where it is assumed that
the system and the control volume
occupy the same space at that
particular instant in time.
A moving system (hatched region) and

a fixed control volume (shaded region)
in a diverging portion of a flow field at
times t and t+t. The upper and lower
bounds are streamlines of the flow. 7
8
9
The conservation of mass
equation is obtained by replacing
B in the Reynolds transport
theorem by mass m, and b by 1
(m per unit mass = m/m = 1).
The time rate of change of mass within the control volume plus the net
mass flow rate through the control surface is equal to zero.
10
Conservation of mass: Mass can neither be created nor destroyed.
For conservation of mass for a CV, it can be expressed as

𝜕𝜌
0=න 𝑑𝒱 + න 𝜌𝑉 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 (9.1)
𝐶𝑉 𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑆
The mass flux through the CS.
The change of mass This can also be written as
inside the CV
න 𝜌𝑉 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = ෍ 𝑚ሶ − ෍ 𝑚ሶ
Rewrite (9.1), 𝐶𝑆
𝜕𝜌 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛
න 𝑑𝒱 = ෍ 𝑚ሶ − ෍ 𝑚ሶ (9.2)
𝐶𝑉 𝜕𝑡
𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜕𝜌
For steady flow where ෍ 𝑚ሶ = ෍ 𝑚ሶ , thus න 𝑑𝒱 = 0 (9.3)
𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐶𝑉 𝜕𝑡
No change of mass in CV
11
Divergence Theorem: න 𝛻 ∙ 𝐺Ԧ 𝑑𝒱 = ර 𝐺Ԧ ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 (9.4)

𝒱 𝐴
This theorem infers that
Volume integral of Surface integral of the

In a CV, the divergence of is equal to vector G normal to the
vector G control surface
enclosing the CV
12
𝜕𝜌
From (9.1), 0=න 𝑑𝒱 + න 𝜌𝑉 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴
Using the divergence theorem (9.4), replace area integral with volume
integral
𝜕𝜌
0=න 𝑑𝒱 + න 𝛻 ∙ 𝜌𝑉 𝑑𝒱
𝐶𝑉 𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑉
𝜕𝜌
0=න + 𝛻 ∙ 𝜌𝑉 𝑑𝒱
𝐶𝑉 𝜕𝑡
The integrand is identically zero, therefore

𝜕𝜌
+ 𝛻 ∙ 𝜌𝑉 = 0 (9.5) Continuity equation
𝜕𝑡
13
9.2.2 Derivation Using an Infinitesimal Control Volume
Again, recall the conservation of mass for a CV from (9.1)
𝜕𝜌
0=න 𝑑𝒱 + න 𝜌𝑉 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴
Now, consider an infinitesimal box-shaped

CV in Cartesian coordinates with dimension
𝑑𝑥, 𝑑𝑦, and 𝑑𝑧.
For infinitesimal CV, the rate of

change of mass within CV can
be approximated as
𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌
න 𝑑𝒱 = dxdydz
𝐶𝑉 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
14
From (9.2) 𝜕𝜌
න 𝑑𝒱 = ෍ 𝑚ሶ − ෍ 𝑚ሶ
𝐶𝑉 𝜕𝑡
𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡
For box-shaped CV, the mass flow rate can be determined through all six
faces. At locations away from the center of the box, we use a Taylor series
expansion about the center of the box. For example, the product of density
and normal velocity at the center of the right face can be approximated as ;
2
𝜕 𝜌𝑢 𝑑𝑥 1 𝜕 2 𝜌𝑢 𝑑𝑥
𝜌𝑢 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 𝜌𝑢 + + +⋯
𝜕𝑥 2 2! 𝜕𝑥 2 2
Consider terms up to order 𝑑𝑥 and

ignore terms larger than order 𝑑𝑥.
15
For all six faces of the CV,
𝜕 𝜌𝑢 𝑑𝑥
𝜌𝑢 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 ≅ 𝜌𝑢 +
𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕 𝜌𝑢 𝑑𝑥
𝜌𝑢 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 ≅ 𝜌𝑢 −
𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕 𝜌𝑤 𝑑𝑧
𝜌𝑤 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 ≅ 𝜌𝑤 +
𝜕𝑧 2
𝜕 𝜌𝑤 𝑑𝑧
𝜌𝑢 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 ≅ 𝜌𝑤 −
𝜕𝑧 2
𝜕 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑦
𝜌𝑢 𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 ≅ 𝜌𝑣 +
𝜕𝑦 2
𝜕 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑦
𝜌𝑢 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 ≅ 𝜌𝑣 −
𝜕𝑦 2
16
The mass flow rate through
a surface is equal to VnA.
The inflow or outflow of mass

through each face of the differential
control volume; the red dots
indicate the center of each face.
17
Net mass flow rate into the CV
𝜕 𝜌𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝜕 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑦 𝜕 𝜌𝑤 𝑑𝑧
෍ 𝑚ሶ = 𝜌𝑢 − 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 + 𝜌𝑣 − 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 + 𝜌𝑤 − 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
𝑖𝑛
(9.6)
Net mass flow rate out of the CV
𝜕 𝜌𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝜕 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑦 𝜕 𝜌𝑤 𝑑𝑧
෍ 𝑚ሶ = 𝜌𝑢 + 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 + 𝜌𝑣 + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 + 𝜌𝑤 + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
𝑜𝑢𝑡
(9.7)
18
Substitute (9.6) and (9.7) into (9.2),
𝜕𝜌 𝜕 𝜌𝑢 𝜕 𝜌𝑣 𝜕 𝜌𝑤
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 = − 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 − 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 − 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 (9.8)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Divide (9.8) with 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧, (9.8) becomes
𝜕𝜌 𝜕 𝜌𝑢 𝜕 𝜌𝑣 𝜕 𝜌𝑤 Continuity equation in
+ + + =0 (9.9)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 Cartesian coordinates
19
The continuity equation can be written based

on cylindrical coordinates. The following
coordinate transformations are used
𝑟= 𝑥2 + 𝑦2
𝑦
𝜃 = tan −1
𝑥
𝑧=𝑧
x = r cos 𝜃 and y = r sin 𝜃
* Coordinate 𝑧 is the same in

cylindrical and Cartesian coordinates
20
From continuity equation (9.5)
𝜕𝜌
+ 𝛻 ∙ 𝜌𝑉 = 0
𝜕𝑡
1 𝜕(𝑟ሻ 1 𝜕 𝜕 𝑉 = 𝑈𝑟 𝑒Ƹ𝑟 + 𝑈𝜃 𝑒Ƹ𝜃 + 𝑈𝑧 𝑒Ƹ𝑧 (9.11)

𝛻= 𝑒Ƹ𝑟 + 𝑒Ƹ𝜃 + 𝑒Ƹ𝑧 (9.10)
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧
Substitute (9.10) and (9.11) into (9.5), thus becomes

Continuity
𝜕𝜌 1 𝜕 𝑟𝜌𝑢𝑟 1 𝜕 𝜌𝑢𝜃 𝜕 𝜌𝑢𝑧 equation in
+ + + =0 (9.12)
𝜕𝑡 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧 cylindrical
coordinates
21
9.2.3 Special cases
𝜕𝜌
Steady compressible flow =0
𝜕𝑡
𝜕 𝜌𝑢 𝜕 𝜌𝑣 𝜕 𝜌𝑤
+ + =0 (9.13) Cartesian
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
1 𝜕 𝑟𝜌𝑢𝑟 1 𝜕 𝜌𝑢𝜃 𝜕 𝜌𝑢𝑧
+ + = 0 (9.14) Cylindrical
Steady Incompressible flow 𝜕𝜌
= 0 and 𝜌 is constant
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
+ + =0 (9.15) Cartesian
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
1 𝜕 𝑟𝑢𝑟 1 𝜕 𝑢𝜃 𝜕 𝑢𝑧
+ + =0 (9.16) Cylindrical
22
Example 9.1
Air is compressed in a duct as shown in the

figure. The plate moves in the x-direction with a
0.5𝑥
speed of 0.5𝑥 . Assume that the velocity
components in the y- and z-direction are
negligible, estimate the density as a function of
time. Assume, at the initial condition, the time and Moving plate
pressure are denoted by 𝑡0 and 𝑝0 , respectively.
Solution
Assumptions
• The flow is compressible and density is a function of
time but not space dependent.
• Velocity components 𝑣 and 𝑤 are assumed to be zero
and 𝑢 = 0.5𝑥.
23
Example 9.1
Solution
𝜕𝜌 𝜕 𝜌𝑢 𝜕 𝜌𝑣 𝜕 𝜌𝑤
+ + + =0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜌 𝜕 𝜌𝑢
+ =0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝜌 𝜕 0.5𝑥
= −𝜌
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝜌
= −0.5𝜌
𝜕𝑡
𝜌 𝑡
2
න 𝑑𝜌 = − න 𝑑𝑡
𝜌0 𝜌 𝑡0
𝜌
2 ln = − 𝑡 − 𝑡0
𝜌0
𝜌 = 𝑒 0.5 𝑡0−𝑡 +ln𝜌0
24
From (9.15), the continuity equation for incompressible, two-dimensional
flow in cartesian coordinates can be written as
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
+ =0 (9.17)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Introducing a new variable called stream function 𝜓
𝜕𝜓
𝑢= (9.18)
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝜓
𝑣=− (9.19)
𝜕𝑥
Substitute (9.18) and (9.19) into (9.17),
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕 𝜕𝜓 𝜕 𝜕𝜓 𝜕2 𝜓 𝜕2 𝜓
+ = + − = − =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦
Automatically satisfies the continuity equation!!
25
Why stream function is used instead of physical variable like 𝑢 and 𝑣?
Instead of the need to solve for two unknown 𝑢 and 𝑣, only one
unknown 𝜓 needs to be solved. Once 𝜓 is known, 𝑢 and 𝑣 can be
determined.
Physical significance of stream function
• Curves with constant value of 𝜓 are streamlines

of the flow.
• No flow can cross the streamline where fluid in
between two streamlines is confined within both
streamlines
• The volume flow rate between two streamlines
are equal to the difference in 𝜓 for both
streamlines
26
Along a streamline,
𝑑𝑦 𝑣
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑢
−𝑣𝑑𝑥 + 𝑢𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 = 0 (Eq. A)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
For any smooth function 𝜓 of two variables x and y, by chain rule the total
change of 𝜓 from point (x, y) to another point (x + dx, y + dy), some
infinitesimal distance away is:
(Eq. B)
Comparing A and B, d𝜓 = 0 𝜓 is constant along the streamline
27
The difference in the value of  from one
streamline to another is equal to the volume
flow rate per unit width between the two
streamlines.
(a) Control volume

bounded by
streamlines 1 and
2 and slices A and
B in the xy-plane; (b)
magnified view of the
region around
infinitesimal length
ds. 28
The total volume flow rate through the
Velocity vector cross section B
𝑉 = 𝑢Ԧ𝑖 + 𝑣Ԧ𝑗
𝒱ሶ 𝐵 = න 𝑉. 𝑛 𝑑𝑠 (dA = ds x 1 = ds)
𝐵
Unit normal vector 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 =න 𝑢Ԧ𝑖 + 𝑣Ԧ𝑗 . 𝑖Ԧ − 𝑗Ԧ 𝑑𝑠
𝑛= 𝑖Ԧ − 𝑗Ԧ 𝐵 𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑠
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑠
= ‫ 𝑦𝑑𝑢 𝐵׬‬− 𝑣𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
= ‫𝐵׬‬ 𝑑𝑦 + 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑦
𝜓
= ‫ 𝜓׬‬2 𝑑𝜓
1
= 𝜓2 − 𝜓1
Thus, 𝒱𝐴ሶ = 𝒱ሶ 𝐵 = 𝜓2 − 𝜓1
The volume flow rate between two
streamlines are equal to the difference
in 𝜓 for both streamlines
29
The value of  increases to the left of
the direction of flow in the xy-plane.
Illustration of the “left-

side convention.” In the
xy-plane, the value of
the stream function
always increases to the
left of the flow
direction.
In the figure, the stream function increases to the left of the flow direction,
regardless of how much the flow twists and turns.
When the streamlines are far apart (lower right of figure), the magnitude of
velocity (the fluid speed) in that vicinity is small relative to the speed in locations
where the streamlines are close together (middle region).
This is because as the streamlines converge, the cross-sectional area between
them decreases, and the velocity must increase to maintain the flow rate
between the streamlines. 30
For two-dimensional flow 𝑢𝑟 , 𝑢𝜃 , the incompressible
planar stream function is defined as
1 𝜕𝜓
𝑢𝑟 = (9.20)
𝑟 𝜕𝜃
𝜕𝜓
𝑢𝜃 = − (9.21)
𝜕𝑟
For axisymmetric flow where velocity is dependent on
𝑟 and 𝑧 and there is no dependence on 𝜃. The stream
function for axisymmetric flow is defined as
1 𝜕𝜓
𝑢𝑟 = − (9.22)
𝑟 𝜕𝑧
1 𝜕𝜓
𝑢𝑧 = (9.23)
𝑟 𝜕𝑟
31
Example 9.2
Consider a steady velocity field given by 𝑉 = 𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤 = 𝑖Ԧ + 2Ԧ𝑗 + 0𝑘 . Sketch

the streamline pattern of the flow field.
Solution
𝑦
𝜓 = 0: 𝑥 =
𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓 2
=𝑢 − =𝑣 𝑦
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜓 = 1: 𝑥 = − 1
2
𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓 𝑦
=1 − =2 𝜓 = 2: 𝑥 = 2
− 2
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜓=2 𝜓=1 𝜓=0
𝜓 = 𝑦 + 𝑓1 (𝑥ሻ 𝜓 = −2𝑥 + 𝑓2 (𝑦ሻ
Thus,
𝜓 = 𝑦 − 2𝑥
32
9.4 Differential Linear Momentum Equation
(Background - Newtons second law)
Newton’s second law is usually Conservation of momentum principle: The

momentum of a system remains constant
referred to as the linear
only when the net force acting on it is zero.
momentum equation.
Newton’s second law is also

Linear momentum is the product of expressed as the rate of change of
mass and velocity, and its direction the momentum of a body is equal to
is the direction of velocity. the net force acting on it. 33
(Background – the forces acting on a control volume)
The forces acting on a control volume consist of
Body forces that act throughout the entire body of the control volume (such
as gravity, electric, and magnetic forces) and
Surface forces that act on the control surface (such as pressure and viscous
forces and reaction forces at points of contact).
Total force acting on control volume:
The total force acting on a control

volume is composed of body forces
and surface forces; body force is
shown on a differential volume
element, and surface force is shown
on a differential surface element.
34
The most common body force is that of gravity, which exerts a downward force
on every differential element of the control volume.
Surface forces are not as simple to

analyze since they consist of both normal
and tangential components.
Normal stresses are composed of
pressure (which always acts inwardly
normal) and viscous stresses.
Shear stresses are composed entirely of
viscous stresses.
The gravitational force acting on a differential

volume element of fluid is equal to its weight; the
axes have been rotated so that the gravity vector
35
acts downward in the negative z-direction.
Surface force acting on a
differential surface element:
Total surface force acting

on control surface:
Total force:
When coordinate axes are rotated

(a) to (b), the components of the
surface force change, even
though the force itself remains the
same; only two dimensions are
shown here.
36
Components of the stress tensor in
Cartesian coordinates on the right, top,
and front faces.
37
(Background – the linear momentum equation)
Newton’s second law can be stated as

The sum of all external forces acting on a system is equal to the time rate of
change of linear momentum of the system.
This statement is valid for a coordinate system that is at rest or moves with a
constant velocity, called an inertial coordinate system or inertial reference frame.38
39

The linear momentum equation applied to a control volume can be expressed as
𝜕
න 𝜌𝑔𝑑𝒱
Ԧ + න 𝜎𝑖𝑗 . 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = න 𝜌𝑉 𝑑𝒱 + න 𝜌𝑉 𝑉. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 (9.24)
𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆 𝐶𝑉 𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑆
Employ the
divergence theorem න 𝜎𝑖𝑗 . 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = න 𝛻. 𝜎𝑖𝑗 𝑑𝒱
(9.4) to transform 𝐶𝑆 𝐶𝑉
the area integral to
volume integral න 𝜌𝑉 𝑉. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = න 𝛻. 𝜌𝑉𝑉 𝑑𝒱
𝐶𝑆 𝐶𝑉
Thus, (9.24) can be written as

𝜕
න 𝜌𝑔𝑑𝒱
Ԧ + න 𝛻. 𝜎𝑖𝑗 𝑑𝒱 = න 𝜌𝑉 𝑑𝒱 + න 𝛻. 𝜌𝑉𝑉 𝑑𝒱 (9.25)
𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑉 𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑉
40

(9.25) can also be written as
𝜕
න 𝜌𝑉 + 𝛻. 𝜌𝑉𝑉 − 𝜌𝑔Ԧ − 𝛻. 𝜎𝑖𝑗 𝑑𝒱 = 0
𝐶𝑉 𝜕𝑡
Since this must hold for any control volume regardless of the size or
shape, the integral can be dropped.
𝜕
𝜕𝑡
𝜌𝑉 + 𝛻. 𝜌𝑉𝑉 − 𝜌𝑔Ԧ − 𝛻. 𝜎𝑖𝑗 = 0 (9.26) Cauchy’s Equation
41

From (9.26), the equation can be rewritten into alternative form with terms
that can be expressed as (by applying the product rule)
𝜕 𝜌𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝜌 (9.27)
=𝜌 +𝑉
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝛻. 𝜌𝑉𝑉 = 𝑉𝛻. 𝜌𝑉 + 𝜌 𝑉. 𝛻 𝑉 (9.28)
Substitute (9.27) and (9.28) into Cauchy Equation (9.26) and thus obtains
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝜌
𝜌 +𝑉 + 𝛻. 𝜌𝑉 + 𝜌 𝑉. 𝛻 𝑉 − 𝜌𝑔Ԧ − 𝛻. 𝜎𝑖𝑗 = 0 (9.29)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝜌
From continuity equation (9.5) where 𝜕𝑡 + 𝛻. 𝜌𝑉 = 0, (9.29) can be reduced
to
𝜕𝑉
𝜌 𝜕𝑡 + 𝜌 𝑉. 𝛻 𝑉 = 𝜌𝑔Ԧ + 𝛻. 𝜎𝑖𝑗 (9.30)
𝐷𝑉
𝜌 𝐷𝑡 = 𝜌𝑔Ԧ + 𝛻. 𝜎𝑖𝑗 (9.31)
42
Inflow and outflow of

the x-component of
linear momentum
through each face of
an infinitesimal
control volume; the
blue dots indicate the
center of each face.
43
The gravity vector is not

necessarily aligned with
any particular axis, in
general, and there are
three components of the
body force acting on an
infinitesimal fluid element. 44
Sketch illustrating the surface

forces acting in the x-direction
due to the appropriate stress
tensor component on each
face of the differential control
volume; the blue dots indicate
the center of each face.
45
46
In Cartesian coordinates, the three components of Cauchy’s equation (9.31)
are
𝐷𝑢 𝜕𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜎𝑦𝑥 𝜕𝜎𝑧𝑥

𝒙-component 𝜌 = 𝜌𝑔𝑥 + + + (9.32)
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝐷𝑣 𝜕𝜎𝑥𝑦 𝜕𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜎𝑧𝑦

𝒚-component 𝜌 = 𝜌𝑔𝑦 + + + (9.33)
𝐷𝑤 𝜕𝜎𝑥𝑧 𝜕𝜎𝑦𝑧 𝜕𝜎𝑧𝑧

𝒛-component 𝜌 = 𝜌𝑔𝑧 + + + (9.34)
47
9.4.3 Derivation Using Newton’s Second Law
If the differential fluid

element is a material
element, it moves with the
flow and Newton’s second
law applies directly.
48
9.4.4 Challenges
Challenges
• Fluid flow field cannot be solved using the Cauchy ‘s
equation and the continuity equation.
• There are 10 unknown variables: 6 independent

components of stress tensor 𝜎𝑖𝑗 , 3 components of
velocity 𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤 and density 𝜌 .
• In addition to 4 existing equations (continuity and

momentum), 6 more equations are required to solve
the fluid flow problem.
49
9.5.1 Decomposition of stress tensor
Instead of writing in terms of stress tensor 𝜎𝑖𝑗 , it can be expressed
in terms of primary unknowns like density, pressure and velocity.
Fluid at rest:
𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝑥𝑦 𝜎𝑥𝑧 −𝑃 0 0
𝜎𝑖𝑗 = 𝜎𝑦𝑥 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝑦𝑧 = 0 −𝑃 0 (9.35)
𝜎𝑧𝑥 𝜎𝑧𝑦 𝜎𝑧𝑧 0 0 −𝑃
Moving fluids:
𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝑥𝑦 𝜎𝑥𝑧 −𝑃 0 0 𝜏𝑥𝑥 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑧
𝜎𝑖𝑗 = 𝜎𝑦𝑥 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝑦𝑧 = 0 −𝑃 0 + 𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝜏𝑦𝑦 𝜏𝑦𝑧 (9.36)
𝜎𝑧𝑥 𝜎𝑧𝑦 𝜎𝑧𝑧 0 0 −𝑃 𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝜏𝑧𝑦 𝜏𝑧𝑧
Hydrostatic pressure Viscous stress tensor
50
Viscosity (𝜇) - a measurement of
resistance to deformation.
𝜕𝑢
𝜏=𝜇 (9.37)
𝜕𝑦
Newtonian fluid - viscosity is constant.

Non-Newtonian fluid – viscosity is not
constant, i.e., a function of shear rate
𝜇 = 𝑓(𝜕𝑢Τ𝜕𝑦 )
51
Examples for Newtonian and Non-Newtonian fluids

Newtonian fluids
Water, air, alcohol, honey, etc.
Non-Newtonian fluids
Shear thickening (Dilatant) – Viscosity ↑ when more shear stress
applied. Example: Corn starch in water.
Shear thinning (Pseudoplastic) – Viscosity ↓ when more shear

stress applied. Example: Paint, blood.
Bingham plastic – Flows only when yield stress is exceed. Once the
fluid flows, they behave like a Newtonian fluid. Example: Toothpaste.
52
Derivation of the Navier–Stokes Equation for
Incompressible, Isothermal Flow
The incompressible flow

approximation implies constant
density, and the isothermal
approximation implies constant
viscosity.
53
For incompressible Newtonian fluid with constant properties,
the viscous stress tensor can be expressed as
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤
2𝜇 𝜇 + 𝜇 +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥
𝜏𝑥𝑥 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑧
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
𝜏
𝜏𝑖𝑗 = 𝑦𝑥 𝜏 𝑦𝑦 𝜏 𝑦𝑧 = 𝜇 + 2𝜇 𝜇 +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 (9.38)
𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝜏𝑧𝑦 𝜏𝑧𝑧
𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
𝜇 + 𝜇 + 2𝜇
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
The stress tensor (9.36) can thus be written as
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤
2𝜇 𝜇 + 𝜇 +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥
−𝑃 0 0 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
𝜎𝑖𝑗 = 0 −𝑃 0 + 𝜇 + 2𝜇 𝜇 + (9.39)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦
0 0 −𝑃
𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
𝜇 + 𝜇 + 2𝜇
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
54
Let’s consider the x-component of Cauchy’s equation (9.30)
𝐷𝑢 𝜕𝑃 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑢
𝜌 =− + 𝜌𝑔𝑥 + 2𝜇 2 + 𝜇 + +𝜇 +
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
Expand the equation
𝐷𝑢 𝜕𝑃 𝜕 2 𝑢 𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕 𝜕𝑣 𝜕 2 𝑢 𝜕 𝜕𝑤 𝜕 2 𝑢
𝜌 =− + 𝜌𝑔𝑥 + 𝜇 + + + + +
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 2
Rearrange the equation
𝐷𝑢 𝜕𝑃 𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢
𝜌 =− + 𝜌𝑔𝑥 + 𝜇 + + + 2+ 2+ 2
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
From continuity equation (9.15), the 𝜕𝑥 + 𝜕𝑦 + is zero. Thus, giving
𝜕𝑧
rise to
x-component of the
𝐷𝑢 𝜕𝑃 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢
𝜌 =− + 𝜌𝑔𝑥 + 𝜇 + + (9.40) incompressible Navier-
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 Stokes Equation
55
Continuity equation
Navier-Stokes Equation (NSE)
𝒙-component
𝒚-component
𝒛-component
56
The continuity and Navier-Stokes Equation can be written in the tensor and vector
notations.
In tensor notation
Continuity equation
Repeating indices
NSE are summed over j
In vector notation
Continuity equation 𝛻∙𝑉 =0
𝐷𝑉
NSE 𝜌 = −𝛻𝑃 + ρ𝑔Ԧ + 𝜇𝛻 2 𝑉
𝐷𝑡
57
Continuity equation
Navier-Stokes Equation (NSE)
𝒓-component
𝜽-component
𝒛-component
58
9–6 DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS
OF FLUID FLOW PROBLEMS
There are two types of problems for which the differential equations (continuity
and Navier–Stokes) are useful:
• Calculating the pressure field for a known velocity field
• Calculating both the velocity and pressure fields for a flow of known geometry
and known boundary conditions
A general three-dimensional
but incompressible flow field
with constant properties
requires four equations to
solve for four unknowns.
59
9.6.1 Solution approach
With continuity and Navier-Stokes equations, there are 4 equations (for three-
dimensional flow) that govern the fluid flow problem. 4 unknown variables
(𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤, 𝑃ሻ need to be determined. To solve the fluid flow problem, boundary
conditions are required.
There are two types of problems for which the differential equations
(continuity and Navier-Stokes) are useful.
1. Calculating the pressure (𝑃ሻ field for a known velocity (𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤ሻ field.
2. Calculating both the velocity (𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤ሻ and pressure (𝑃ሻ fields for a flow
of known geometry and known boundary conditions and initial
conditions.
60
Calculation of the Pressure Field
for a Known Velocity Field
The first set of examples involves calculation of the pressure
field for a known velocity field.
Since pressure does not appear in the continuity equation, we
can theoretically generate a velocity field based solely on
conservation of mass.
However, since velocity appears in both the continuity
equation and the Navier–Stokes equation, these two
equations are coupled.
In addition, pressure appears in all three components of the
Navier–Stokes equation, and thus the velocity and pressure
fields are also coupled.
This intimate coupling between velocity and pressure enables
us to calculate the pressure field for a known velocity field.
61
Exact Solutions of the Continuity Boundary Conditions
and Navier–Stokes Equations
A piston moving at speed VP in a cylinder.

A thin film of oil is sheared between the
piston and the cylinder; a magnified view of
Procedure for solving the the oil film is shown. The no-slip boundary
incompressible continuity and condition requires that the velocity of fluid
Navier–Stokes equations. adjacent to a wall equal that of the wall.
62
i) No-slip boundary condition
• Along the wall, the fluid velocity of a real, viscous fluid is zero
relative to the wall. In other words, the no-slip boundary condition
imply that both the fluid in direct contact with the solid boundary
has the same velocity as that of the boundary, i.e., 𝑽𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 = 𝑽𝒘𝒂𝒍𝒍 .
Only in the case where the solid surface is stationary, the velocity
of the fluid close to the wall is zero.
For a fixed
stationary wall
63
ii) Interface boundary condition
• For two immiscible fluids (Fluid A and B), interface
boundary condition is applicable at the interface
between both fluids.
Along the interface
i. The velocity for both fluids
are the same.
ii. The shear stress parallel to
the interface is equal for
both fluids
𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐵 (9.41)
𝜏𝑠,𝐴 = 𝜏𝑠,𝐵 (9.42)
64
iii) Free-surface boundary condition
• Occurs at the interface where liquid is in contact with a
gas.
𝑢𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑢𝑎𝑖𝑟 (9.43)
𝜏𝑠,𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝜏𝑠,𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝜇𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝜇𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝜕𝑦 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝜕𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟
Since 𝜇𝑎𝑖𝑟 ≪ 𝜇𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ,

𝜕𝑢
=0 (9.44)
𝜕𝑦 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
When surface tension effects are negligible, the
surface is nearly flat where 𝑃𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑃 𝑎𝑖𝑟 (9.45)
65
9.6.3 Fully developed condition
When the velocity profiles of the flow doesn’t change with the
downstream region, the flow is said to be fully developed.
Examples
Couette flow
Pressure or shear
driven flow
Poiseuille flow
66
Example 9.3
Fully developed Couette flow

Flow between two parallel plates is considered. Calculate the velocity
field. Note that the upper plate is moving at speed 𝑉 and the lower plate
is stationary. Assume no applied pressure in the direction of the flow and
gravity acts in the negative 𝑧-direction (normal to the 𝑥𝑦-plane).
67
Example 9.3
Solution
Assumptions
1. The flow is steady. Time derivatives all vanish
2. The flow is a unidirectional laminar flow. 𝒗=𝒘=𝟎
3. Fluid is incompressible and Newtonian with constant properties. 𝝁 is constant
𝝏𝑷
4. No applied pressure gradient in the streamwise direction. =𝟎
𝝏𝒙
5. The flow is parallel in the 𝑧 direction. Derivatives of 𝒛 all vanish
6. Gravity acts in the 𝑧 direction. 𝒈𝒙 = 𝒈𝒚 = 𝟎
68
Example 9.3
Continuity equation
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑢
+ + =0 =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥
So, 𝑢 = 𝑢(𝑦ሻ
69
Example 9.3
𝒙-momentum equation
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑃 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢
𝜌 +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 =− + 𝜌𝑔𝑥 + 𝜇 + +
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
𝑑2𝑢
=0
𝑑𝑦 2
𝑑𝑢
=𝑎
𝑑𝑦
𝑢 = 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑏
Boundary condition
At 𝑦 = 0, 𝑢 = 0 0 = 𝑎(0ሻ + 𝑏 𝑏=0
𝑉
At 𝑦 = ℎ, 𝑢 = 𝑉 V = 𝑎(ℎሻ + 0 𝑎=
ℎ
𝑉
Velocity profile 𝑢= 𝑦
ℎ
70

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EMH 222 FLUID DYNAMICS

Differential analysis of fluid flow

9.4.3 Derivation Using Newton’s Second Law

Chapter 9 Differential Analysis of Fluid Flow

Control volume analysis Differential analysis

A moving system (hatched region) and

Conservation of mass: Mass can neither be created nor destroyed.

For conservation of mass for a CV, it can be expressed as

Divergence Theorem: න 𝛻 ∙ 𝐺Ԧ 𝑑𝒱 = ර 𝐺Ԧ ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 (9.4)

This theorem infers that

Volume integral of Surface integral of the

The integrand is identically zero, therefore

Now, consider an infinitesimal box-shaped

For infinitesimal CV, the rate of

Consider terms up to order 𝑑𝑥 and

The inflow or outflow of mass

Net mass flow rate into the CV

Divide (9.8) with 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧, (9.8) becomes

The continuity equation can be written based

* Coordinate 𝑧 is the same in

1 𝜕(𝑟ሻ 1 𝜕 𝜕 𝑉 = 𝑈𝑟 𝑒Ƹ𝑟 + 𝑈𝜃 𝑒Ƹ𝜃 + 𝑈𝑧 𝑒Ƹ𝑧 (9.11)

Substitute (9.10) and (9.11) into (9.5), thus becomes

Air is compressed in a duct as shown in the

Automatically satisfies the continuity equation!!

Why stream function is used instead of physical variable like 𝑢 and 𝑣?

Physical significance of stream function

• Curves with constant value of 𝜓 are streamlines

Comparing A and B, d𝜓 = 0 𝜓 is constant along the streamline

(a) Control volume

Illustration of the “left-

Consider a steady velocity field given by 𝑉 = 𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤 = 𝑖Ԧ + 2Ԧ𝑗 + 0𝑘 . Sketch

Newton’s second law is usually Conservation of momentum principle: The

Newton’s second law is also

Total force acting on control volume:

The total force acting on a control

Surface forces are not as simple to

The gravitational force acting on a differential

Total surface force acting

When coordinate axes are rotated

Newton’s second law can be stated as

9.4 Differential Linear Momentum Equation

Thus, (9.24) can be written as

9.4 Differential Linear Momentum Equation

9.4 Differential Linear Momentum Equation

Inflow and outflow of

The gravity vector is not

Sketch illustrating the surface

𝐷𝑢 𝜕𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜎𝑦𝑥 𝜕𝜎𝑧𝑥

𝐷𝑣 𝜕𝜎𝑥𝑦 𝜕𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜎𝑧𝑦

𝐷𝑤 𝜕𝜎𝑥𝑧 𝜕𝜎𝑦𝑧 𝜕𝜎𝑧𝑧

If the differential fluid

• There are 10 unknown variables: 6 independent

• In addition to 4 existing equations (continuity and

Hydrostatic pressure Viscous stress tensor

Newtonian fluid - viscosity is constant.

Examples for Newtonian and Non-Newtonian fluids

Shear thinning (Pseudoplastic) – Viscosity ↓ when more shear

The incompressible flow

Navier-Stokes Equation (NSE)

Continuity equation 𝛻∙𝑉 =0

Navier-Stokes Equation (NSE)

A piston moving at speed VP in a cylinder.

𝜏𝑠,𝐴 = 𝜏𝑠,𝐵 (9.42)